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A    TREATISE 


ON 


HYGIENE 


AND 


PIT  B  LI  C     HEALTH 


EDITED   BY 

ALBEET    n.   BUCK,   M.D. 

American  Editor  of  Ziemssen''s  Cyclopcedia  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine ; 

Instructor  in  Otology  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York; 
Aural  Surgeon  to  the  N.  T.  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary. 


Volume   I 


NEW   YORK 
WILLIAM    WOOD     &     COMPANY 

1879 


COPIBIGHT,    BT 

WILLIAM    WOOD   &    COMPANY, 

1879. 


Trow's 

Printing  and  Bookbinding  Co., 

205-213  Kast  i^th  Si., 

new   YORK. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUME  L 


A.  BRAYTON  BALL,  M.D.,  New  York  City. 

JOHN  S.  BILLINGS,  M.D.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Surgeon  United  States  Army. 

FRANCIS  H.  BROWN,  M.D.,  Boston,  Mass. 

WILLIAM  H.  FORD,  M.D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
President  of  the  Philadelphia  Board  of  Health. 

ABRAHAM  JiVCOBI,  M.D.,  New  York. 

Clinical  Professor  of  Diseases  of  Children  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, New  York. 

D.  F.  LINCOLN,  M.D.,  Boston,  Mass. 

PROFESSOR  WILLIAM  RIPLEY  NICHOLS,  Boston,  Mass. 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

JAMES  TYSON,  M.D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Professor  of  General  Pathology  and  ilorbid  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

ARTHUR  VAN  HiVRLINGEN,  M.D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Chief  of  the  Clinic  for  Diseases  of  the  Skin,  Hospital  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 


EDITOE'S  IsTOTE. 


In  the  preparation  of  the  scheme  announcing  a  translation  of 
Ziemssen's  Handbuch  der  sj>eciellen  Pathologie  und  TheTct^ne,  in  1874, 
it  was  thought  advisable  to  omit  the  first  volmne  of  the  series,  that 
which  relates  to  the  subject  of  public  health.  This  decision  was  based 
chiefly  upon  the  fact  that  the  book,  though  excellent  in  all  other 
respects,  ti-eats  the  subject  almost  enthely  fi-om  a  German  standpoint, 
and  takes  cognizance  of  a  state  of  things  very  materiallj^  different  from 
that  which  exists  m  this  country.  It  was  believed,  however,  that  a 
treatise  on  private  and  public  hygiene,  "s\^i'itten  with  special  reference 
to  the  different  climates,  conditions  of  soil,  habitations,  modes  of  life, 
and  laws  of  the  United  States,  would  meet  with  favor,  not  only  among 
the  subscribers  to  Ziemssen's  Cyclopedia,  and  physicians  generally,  but 


also  among  aU  educated  classes. 


A.  H.  B. 


CONTENTS. 


FAOB 

Introduction 3 

Including:  I.  Prefatory  remarks,  3  ;  II.  Causes  of  disease,  13;  III.  Juris- 
prudence of  hygiene,  34. 

^  PART  I. 

INDIVIDUAL   HYGIENE. 

Infant  hygiene 75 

The  newly-born — care  of  respiration  and  circulation,  75.  — The  umbilical  cord 
— anatomy  and  changes — treatment  of  the  normal  and  pathological  condi- 
tions. 77. — Examination  of  the  newly -born,  81. — The  nipples  of  the  newly- 
born,  84. — Skin,  bathing,  temperature,  85. — Infant  feeding,  89. — Breast- 
milk,  when  to  be  given — loss  of  weight,  90.- — Period  of  weanmg,  93. — 
Shall  a  baby  be  weaned  when  the  nursing  mother  becomes  pregnant  again, 
or  when  menstruation  is  re-established  ?  94. — Selection  of  the  wet-nurse, 
103. — Diet  of  the  nurse,  105. — Substitution  of  animals'  milk  for  the 
mother's  milk,  106. — Milk  from  one  cow,  107. — Condensed  milk,  107^^ 
Boiled  milk,  108. — Goat's  milk,  109. — Cow's  milk  and  woman's  milk 
compared,  109. — Chloride  of  sodium,  115. — Animal  substitutes  for  milk. 
117. — Vegetable  substitutes  for  breast-milk,  119, — Farinacea,  120, — Gum- 
arabic,  124. — Gelatine,  125. — Infant  foods  offered  for  sale,  126. — Intesti- 
nal digestion,  126. — Causes  of  constipation,  128. — Dietetic  cure  of  consti- 
pation, 129. — Mode  of  giving  the  food,  129,  -Care  of  the  teeth,  134. — 
Age  of  schooling,  138. 

Food  and  drink 145 

Classification  of  food,  146. — Direct  aliment :  nitrogenous  or  albuminous  princi- 
ples—proteids,  148  ;  oleaginous  principles  of  food — fats — hydrocarbons, 
157 ;  saccharine  and  amylaceous  principles — amyloids,  160  — Indirect 
aliment :  inorganic  food,  167 ;  organic  indirect  aliment,  169  ;  accessory 
foods,  170. — A  mixed  diet  necessary,  183. — Modifications  in  the  propor- 
tion of  different  alimentary  principles  demanded  by  differences  in  tem- 
perature and  climate,  188. — The  effects  of  cooking,  188. — The  proper 
daily  amount  of  food,  190. — Certain  conditions  and  diseases  resulting 
from  the  use  of  defective,  deficient,  excessive,  or  diseased  food,  196. 

Drinking-water  and  public  water  supplies 211 

Introduction,  211. — Quantity,  211. — Quality,  215. — The  question  of  cost,  222. 
— Sources  of  supply  :  Rain  water,  224  ;  rivers,  227 ;  ponds  and  lakes,  234 ; 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

ground -water,  238  ;  deep-seated  water,  853  ;  springs,  2G1. — Artificial  im- 
provement of  natural  water :  sedimentation  and  filtration,  264  ;  softening 
of  hard  water,  283  ;  chemical  treatment,  286 ;  effects  of  conduits  and  dis- 
tribution pipes  upon  potable  water,  287. — Impure  ice,  290. — Sanitarj' 
examination  of  water,  292. — Bibliography,  310. 

Physical  exercise 317 

Effects  of  exercise :  local  phenomena  of  muscular  action,  817  ;  general  effects 
of  exercise,  320  ;  source  of  muscular  power,  832 ;  growth  of  muscle,  335. 
— Results  of  overexertion.  335. — Gymnastic  and  athletic  exercises:  his- 
torical sketch,  342 ;  rowing,  352 ;  training,  856 ;  gymnastic  exercises, 
365. 

The  care  of  the  person 369 

Anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  skin,  869. — The  bath,  870. — Cosmetics,  371. 
General  bathing,  371.— The  Turkish  bath,  374. —Sea-bathing,  376.— Pub-' 
lie  baths,  378.— Clothing,  379.— Beds,  383.— The  feet,  385.— The  hands, 
387.— The  mouth,  888.— The  hair,  389. 


PABT  11. 

HABITATIONS. 
Soil  and  water 399 

Conditions  of  the  soil  affecting  health,  399. — Constituents  of  the  soil,  400. — 
Air  in  the  soil,  400. — Water  in  the  soil,  409. — Drainage  of  the  soil,  416. — 
Solid  constituents  of  the  soil,  425. — Mineral  matters,  426. — Organic  mat- 
ters, 427. — Examination  of  the  soil,  437.— Selection  of  site,  441. — Pollu- 
tion of  the  soil  by  excreta,  445. — Removal  of  excreta,  450. — The  amount 
and  products  of  excreta,  450. — Methods  of  removal  of  excreta  :  the  water 
system,  456  ;  the  dry  systems,  508  ;  other  systems,  516. — The  disposal  of 
sewage,  526. — Pollution  of  the  soil  by  interments,  538. — Pollution  of  the 
soil  by  coal-gas,  547. — Pollution  of  the  soil  by  surface  defilement,  549. — 
Diseases  connected  with  certain  conditions  of  the  soil,  575. 

The  atmosphere 601 

Composition  of  the  atmosphere  :  oxygen,  602  ;  ozone,  or  allotropic  oxygen, 
606  ;  nitrogen,  609  ;  carbonic  acid.  609.  — Miscellaneous  impurities  in  the 
air  :  solid  impurities,  626  ;  gaseous  impurities,  629 ;  animal  exhalations, 
631.— Effects  of  bad  air,  640.- Heat  and  moisture,  644. — Climatology, 
656. — Heating  and  ventilation  :  general  remarks,  671 ;  apparatus  for 
heating,  082  ;  stoves  and  furnaces,  691 ;  heating  by  steam,  698  ;  heating 
by  water,  701 ;  ventilation,  703. — Bibliography,  730. 

General  principles  of  hospital  construction 737 

Location,  738.— General  character  of  the  hospital,  740.— Material,  745.— Gen- 
eral arrangement,  749. — Arrangement  in  detail,  756. —Means  of  heating, 
767.— Ventilation,  770.— Water-supply,  780.— Drainage,  781.— Lighting, 
783.— Cottage  hospitals,  783. —Bibliography,  787. 


INTEODUCTIOK 

INCLUDING : 

I.  PREFATORY  REMARKS.— II.   CAUSES   OF  DISEASE. 
III.  JURISPRUDENCE   OF  HYGIEl^E. 


JOHN   S.   BILLINGS,   M.D., 

SOCGEON   U.    S.    ABHT. 


INTRODUCTION. 


^  I.  Prefatory  Remarks. 

In  an  introduction  to  such  a  subject  as  Hygiene^  it  is  impossible  to  be 
at  the  same  time  clear,  accurate,  and  concise,  without  confining  oneself 
mainly  to  platitudes,  since,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  this 
subject,  almost  every  general  proposition  in  relation  to  it  requires  qualifi- 
cation and  the  noting  of  exceptions,  and  the  words  "jDrobable,"  "pos- 
sible," "  perhaps,"  or  "  unproved,"  are  called  for  in  almost  every  sentence. 
In  this  particular  paper  clearness  and  accuracy  have  been  striven  for  ; 
but,  in  order  to  secure  a  reasonable  degree  of  conciseness,  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  omit  reference  to  a  number  of  topics  which  might 
properly  have  been  noticed  under  this  heading. 

The  fact  that  many  definitions  have  been  given  of  hygiene,  no  one  of 
which  has  proved  entirely  satisfactory — except,  perhaps,  to  its  author — 
shows  that  it  is  one  of  those  terms  in  the  definition  of  which  vague  and 
undefinable  words  must  be  used,  and  also  that  it  is  still  imperfect  and  in- 
complete, thus  necessitating  a  corresponding  incompleteness  in  its  de- 
scription. The  usual  definition  of  hygiene  as  being  "  the  art  of  preserv- 
ing health  "  is  defective,  since  it  is  more  than  an  art — it  aims  to  increase 
and  improve  as  well  as  to  preserve;  and  the  word  "  health  "  is  too  vague 
to  be  of  much  value  in  this  connection.  To  other  definitions  which  have 
been  proposed,  we  will  not  refer,  noting  only  that  the  word  is  often  erro- 
neously used  as  a  synonym  for  sanitary  condition,  as  when  it  is  said  that 
the  hygiene  of  a  place  is  good  or  bad.  In  its  broader  sense,  the  study  of 
hygiene  includes  the  examination  of  the  conditions  which  affect  the 
generation,  development,  growth  and  decay  of  individuals,  of  nations, 
and  of  races,  being  on  its  scientific  side  coextensive  with  biology  in  its 
broadest  sense,  including  sociology,  rather  than  with  physiology  merely, 
as  some  writers  state. 

Whatever  can  cause,  or  help  to  cause,  discomfort,  pain,  sickness, 
death,  vice,  or  crime — and  whatever  has  a  tendency  to  avert,  destroy,  or 
diminish  such  causes — are  matters  of  interest  to  the  sanitarian;  and  the 
powers  of  science  and  the  arts,  great  as  they  are,  are  taxed  to  the  utter- 
most to  afford  even  an  ajDproximate  solution  to  the  problems  with  which 


4  INTEODUCTION. 

lie  is  concerned.  Of  some  of  these  problems  indeed,  he  has  only  lately 
begun  to  suspect  the  existence,  but  in  doing  so  he  has  made  a  great  step 
in  advance,  and  when  they  become  clearly  defined  the}^  are  in  most  cases 
half  solved.  The  old  and  world-wide  belief  that  disease  is  due  to  special 
Providence,  or  to  the  vengeance  of  offended  Deity,  although  generally 
abandoned  as  regards  individual  cases  or  limited  localities,  still  lingers  in 
the  minds  of  many  with  regard  to  great  epidemics,  which  are  thought  to 
be  either  inevitable,  or  at  least  only  to  be  averted  by  prayer  and  fasting  ; 
but,  to  the  intelligent  student,  causes  and  effects  do  not  thus  seem  to- 
belong  to  totally  different  classes,  for,  although  he  will  admit  that  there 
is  a  close  relation  between  vice  and  disease,  yet  he  will  consider  their 
influence  as  reciprocal,  and  that  in  many  cases  they  are  only  different 
names  for  the  same  thing. 

The  hygiene  of  which  this  volume  is  to  treat  has  not  so  broad  a 
scope  as  that  just  hinted  at,  since  the  intention  has  been  to  produce  a 
practical  treatise  limited  to  a  consideration  of  the  most  usual  preventable 
causes  of  disease  in  civilized  countries,  and  more  especially  in  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  surest  and  most  economical  means  of  diminishing  or 
destroying  these  causes. 

To  what  extent  the  prevention  of  disease,  the  prolongation  of  life,  and 
the  improvement  of  the  physical  and  mental  powers  in  man  may  be  car- 
ried, we  do  not  know;  but  no  doubt  the  tendency  of  those  who  write  and 
speak  most  on  this  subject  is  to  exaggerate  the  possibilities  of  improve- 
ment; since  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  conditions  of  perfect  per- 
sonal and  public  health  are  attainable,  except  in  rare  and  isolated  cases,  and 
for  comparatively  short  periods  of  time  ;  yet,  "  that  the  average  length 
of  human  life  may  be  very  much  extended,  and  its  physical  power  greatly 
augmented;  that  in  every  year  within  this  commonwealth  thousands  of 
lives  are  lost  which  might  have  been  saved  ;  that  tens  of  thousands  of 
cases  of  sickness  occur  which  might  have  been  prevented  ;  that  a  vast 
arnount  of  unnecessarily  impaired  health  and  physical  debility  exists- 
among  those  not  confined  by  sickness  ;  that  these  preventable  evils  re- 
quire an  enormous  expenditure  and  loss  of  money,  and  impose  upon  the 
people  unnumbered  and  immeasurable  calamities,  pecuniary,  social,  physi- 
cal, mental,  and  moral,  which  might  be  avoided  ;  that  means  exist  within 
our  reach  for  their  mitigation  or  removal  ;  and  that  measures  for  preven- 
tion will  effect  more  than  remedies  for  the  cure  of  disease  "  ' — will  prob- 
ably be  admitted  by  every  one  who  has  carefully  studied  the  subject  and 
made  himself  familiar  with  vrhat  has  been  accomplished  in  certain  limited 
localities. 

Sanitary  science  does  not  at  present  possess  any  well-recognized  and 
satisfactory  standard,  or  norm,  by  which  the  condition  of  health  of  a 
given  community  can  be  measured,  since  the  death-rate,  which  is  that 
usually  employed,  is  a  very  imperfect  and  unreliable  test,  as  will  be  here- 


'  Report  of  a  General  Plan  for  the  Promotion  of  Public  and  Personal  Health,  etc.  ^ 
Boston,  1850,  8vo,  p.  10. 


INTKODUCTIOjST.  o 

after  explained  ;   but  even  mortality  ratios  may  serve  to  give  an  idea  of 
the  importance  of  the  subject. 

Mr.  Chadwick,  from  an  examination  of  the  mortality  in  several  insti- 
tutions for  the  care  of  orphan  children,  fixes  the  normal  rate  of  infantile 
mortality,  under  good  sanitary  conditions,  as  not  exceeding  three  deaths 
per  thousand  annually;  and  in  like  manner,  from  a  comparison  of  the  re- 
sults obtained  in  prisons,  he  fixes  the  norm  of  mortality  for  adults  of 
the  ages  of  the  prison  populations,  at  the  same  figure,  viz.,  3  per  1,000.' 
Elsewhere,  he  computes  the  number  of  deaths  from  causes  clearly  ascer- 
tained to  be  preventable,  as  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand annually  in  the  United  Kingdom,. and  estimates  that  the  serious  cases 
of  preventable  sickness  are  more  than  ten  times  that  number.^  Another, 
standard,  more  recently  proposed  by  Dr.  Bond,  is,  that  of  every  1,000  in- 
fants born,  there  should  be  alive  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  900  ;  at  the 
end  of  their  fifth  year,  8G0  ;  and  at  the  end  of  their  fifteenth  year,  830." 

Applying  these  standards  to  the  mortality  of  the  United  States  for 
the  year  ending  June  1,  1870,  as  shown  by  the  census  of  that  date,  we 
find  that  the  total  number  of  deaths  reported  was  492,263,  being  at  the 
rate  of  12.8  per  1,000,  or  a  little  over  four  times  Mr.  Chadwick's  norm. 
This  number  of  deaths  and  its  corresponding  ratio  is  known  to  be  too 
small  by  probably  at  least  20  per  cent.,  and  the  total  annual  loss  of  life 
in  this  country,  from  causes  well  known  to  be  preventable,  is  certainly 
over  100,000  annually;  while,  if  we  were  to  consider  theoretical  possibili- 
ties rather  than  actual  probabilities,  these  figures  might  be  doubled. 

In  addition  to  these  uimecessary  deaths,  there  are  probably  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  persons  constantly  sick  in  the  United  States  from 
causes  which  we  have  good  reason  to  think  are  preventable,  and  we  may 
accept,  as  a  basis  for  calculation,  that  the  productive  efficiency  of  the 
average  life  in  this  country  falls  short  of  the  normal  amount  by  at  least 
thirty  per  cent. 

It  is  an  usual  estimate  among  sanitarians,  that,  by  the  adoption  of 
proper  modes  of  life  on  the  part  of  both  individuals  and  communities, 
nearly  one-half  of  existing  diseases  might  be  abolished,  and  that  the  an- 
nual mortality  rate  should  not  exceed  15  per  1,000. 

As  regards  certain  localities,  and  for  a  limited  time,  this  is  no  doubt 
true;  but  it  is  worth  while  to  remember  one  or  two  facts  in  this  connec- 
tion. Supposing  the  birth-rate  to  remain  the  same,  and  the  annual  mor- 
tality to  diminish,  and  omitting  the  effects  of  migration,  it  is  clear  that 
this  process  cannot  go  on  indefinitely,  and  that  wnthin  a  century  the 
mortality  must  again  increase  until  it  corresponds  with  the  birth-rate. 

It  is  also  evident  that,  as  the  average  duration  of  life  is  increased,  the 
liability  to  disease  will  also  increase,  although  not  in  the  same  ratio. 
The  infants  who  are  now  swept  away  in  epidemics  of  measles  or  scarla- 


'  Trans.  Nat.  Assoc,  for  the  Promotion  of  Social  Science,  for  1877,  p.  76. 
'Address  before  the  International  Congress  of  Paris,  Aug.,  1878. 
"  Sanitary  Record,  Jan.  24,  1879,  p.  57. 


6  INTEODUCTIOJS^. 

tina  would,  if  we  could  stamp  out  these  diseases,  serve  to  swell  the  death- 
rates  from  other  affections,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  correct  to  say  that  vac- 
cination has  increased  the  number  of  deaths  from  diarrhoea  or  diphtheria, 
since  it  preserves  some  to  fall  victims  from  those  diseases,  who  otherwise 
would  have  died  of  small-pox. 

The  power  and  wealth  of  a  community  depend  on  the  capital  accumu- 
lated, and  upon  the  proportion  which  its  effective  or  productive  inhabitants 
bear  to  those  who  are  non-productive,  and  the  last  element  is  of  vastly  more 
importance  than  the  first.  In  the  United  States,  according  to  Dr.  Jarvis, 
about  one-half  are  sustainers  and  one-half  dependent;  but,  as  he  reckons  all 
persons  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  seventy  as  sustainers,  and  appar- 
ently makes  no  deductions  on  account  of  sex,  criminals,  sickness,  etc.,  his 
estimate  is  not  of  much  value  for  our  purpose.'  This  distinction  between 
producers  and  non-producers  is,  however,  an  important  one  to  remember  in 
attempting  to  estimate  the  loss  to  a  community  from  preventable  diseases. 
Such  estimates  are  based  on  the  pecuniary  value  of  lives  considered  as 
productive  or  money -earning  instruments,  or  as  capitalized  investments, 
and  this  value  varies  greatly.  Accepting  either  the  calculations  of  Dr. 
Jarvis  or  of  Dr.  Farr  on  this  jooint,  it  can  be  shown  that  the  direct  pecuniary 
loss  to  this  country  on  account  of  preventable  sickness  and  mortality  is 
certainly  over  1100,000,000  annually,  and  this  without  taking  into  account 
expenditures  incurred  on  account  of  sickness,  etc.,  or  the  unusual  losses 
due  to  great  epidemics,  both  from  waste  of  life  and  injury  to  commerce. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  hygiene  is  not  only  a  subject  of  scientific 
interest  to  the  student  or  to  medical  men,  but  that  to  the  political  econo- 
mist and  the  legislator  its  jDroblems  and  discoveries  ought  to  be  of  great 
practical  importance — greater,  in  fact,  than  many  of  the  subjects  with  which 
those  gentlemen  usually  occupy  themselves;  and,  at  first  sight,  it  may 
seem  strange  that  it  should  not  receive  more  attention  and  consideration 
from  politicians  and  legislative  bodies  than  we  actvially  find  to  be  the 
case.  A  Standing  Committee  on  Public  Health  would  be  about  the  last 
committee  that  either  Congress  or  a  State  legislature  would  think  of 
organizing. 

But  when  we  examine  the  amount  of  knowledge  as  to  the  causes  of 
disease  which  is  actually  possessed  by  the  immense  majority  of  fairly  well 
educated  and  intelligent  people,  and  see  how  much  of  it  is  mere  vague 
conjecture,  untested  theory  and  baseless  estimate,  and,  above  all,  how 
hopelessly  unconscious  they  are  of  their  own  ignorance,  and  how  promptly 
and  confidently  they  will  undertake  to  advise  as  to  what  should  or  should 
not  be  done  to  prevent  cholera  or  yellow  fever,  or  any  other  disease  what- 
ever, we  cannot  wonder  that  the  public  at  large  is  confused  by  the  contra- 
dictory assertions  made  to  it,  and  hesitates  as  to  what  should  or  what  can 
be  done  in  the  matter. 

There  is  a  German  proverb  to  the  effect  that  "  the  better  is  often  an 


'  Political  Economy  of  Health,  by  Edward  Jarvis,  M.D.  :  Fifth  Annual  Report, 
State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1874,  p.  336. 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

enemy  to  the  good,"  and  this  often  applies  to  the  action  taken  on  propo- 
sitions for  improving  the  ^jublic  health.  The  truly  scientific  sanitarian 
will  promptly  admit  that  his  knowledge  is  scanty  and  defective,  that  he 
cannot  assert  that  the  measures  he  proposes  are  the  best  possible  meas- 
ures, but  only  that  they  are  the  best  he  can  now  devise,  and  that,  in  the 
present  rapid  progress  in  science  and  its  application  for  the  benefit  of  man- 
kind, it  may  be  that  within  a  few  years  at  farthest  some  better  means 
may  be  found  to  produce  the  results  desired;  and  these  truthful  admis- 
sions will  often  be  used  as  arguments  against  his  propositions  and  in  favor 
of  those  of  persons  much  more  ignorant,  but,  by  reason  of  that  very  igno- 
rance, much  more  peremptory  and  assured  in  their  assertions. 

The  history  of  the  schemes  for  drainage  and  sewerage  for  almost  any 
of  our  large  cities  would  fully  illustrate  the  delay  and  inaction  whicli  re- 
sult from  this,  and  the  records  of  disease  and  death,  where  available,  will 
show  the  evil  results.' 

Sanitary  measures,  to  be  effective,  should  be  carried  out  at  those  times 
when  most  people  see  no  special  cause  for  anxiety,  and  often,  therefore, 
appear  to  involve  unnecessary  worry  and  expense. 

"When  such  measures  are  most  successful  their  value  may  be  least  ap- 
preciated. "  If  the  expected  disease  does  not  appear,  the  warnings  are 
considered  to  have  been  a  false  alarm,  and  the  precautions  taken  to  have 
been  excessive.  The  friends  of  the  typhoid  fever  patient,  who  will  not  fail 
to  remember  and  be  grateful  for  the  care  and  assiduity  with  which  a  phy- 
sican  may  have  treated  the  disease,  would  probably  have  thought  him  in- 
trusive and  troublesome  had  he  taken  one-half  the  same  trouble  to  see  that 
the  cause  of  the  fever  was  prevented." 

A  man  seeks  the  advice  of  a  physician  because  he  knows,  or  thinks,  that 
he  is  sick.  The  community  will  do  the  same  under  like  circumstances;  but, 
how  can  it  be  expected  to  seek  hygienic  advice  so  long  as  it  knows  nothing 
of  there  being  any  necessity  for  it  ?  This  knowledge  can  only  be  obtained 
by  the  collection  and  collation  of  positive  data  as  to  the  amount  and  char- 
acter of  disease  prevailing.  Mortality  statistics  are  lacking  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  United  States,  and  where  they  are  furnished,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  the  probabilities  of  error  are  so  great  as  to  render  them 
almost  valueless.  To  the  public,  such  statistics,  even  if  accurate,  give  little 
information,  since  the  fact  that  the  annual  mortality  of  a  city  is  30  per 
1,000  has  no  special  significance  to  the  majority  of  voters.  In  fact,  mor- 
tality statistics  must  be  taken  in  connection  with  birth-rates  and  move- 
ment of  population,  to  be  of  much  value.  In  the  absence  of  positive 
information,  the  tendency  is  that  each  man  who  does  pay  attention  to  the 
subject  feels  confident  of  the  truth  of  his  own  pet  theory,  and  advocates 
his  special  panacea  or  patent  with  assertions  instead  of  demonstrations, 
while,  as  one  after  the  other  of  the  schemes  is  tried  and  found  wanting, 
a  general  scepticism  is  developed  as  to  the  possibility  of  finding  a  remedy. 

^  See  also  the  account,  by  Dr.  Gottesheim,  of  the  results  of  deferring  the  good  in 
hope  of  the  better,  in  the  city  of  Basel,  in  Deutsche  Vrtljhrschr.  f.  Oeffentl.  Gesund- 
heitspflege,  1877,  IX.,  p.  470. 


8  INTKODUCTION. 

In  the  majority  of  popular  works  on  hygiene,  the  subject  is  treated 
as  if  it  were  a  very  simple  matter,  and  general  rules  are  laid  down  and 
sweeping  deductions  established  from  entirely  insufficient  data. 

Just  as  many  people  suppose  that  diseases  can  be  treated  by  their 
names,  and  that  the  study  of  medicine  consists  of  memorizing  certain  for- 
mulae for  the  cure  of  dyspepsia,  neuralgia,  pneumonia,  etc.,  so  it  is  thought 
that  if  a  man  can  talk  about  foul  and  poisonous  gases,  sewage-contami- 
nation, disinfection,  and  quarantine,  he  must  be  a  skilled  sanitarian. 

Imperfect  as  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  means  of  prevention  of 
disease  certainly  is,  it  is  still  far  in  advance  of  the  popular  practice,  because 
the  means  of  prevention  cannot  usually  be  had  for  nothing. 

The  mass  of  mankind  are  unwilling  to  sacrifice  present  comfort  or  en- 
joyment for  a  possible  future  good,  and  almost  all  the  dictates  of  sanitary 
science  call  for  labor  and  expense.  That  this  labor  often  soon  becomes  in 
itself  a  source  of  pleasure,  as  for  instance  in  the  preservation  of  personal 
cleanliness,  and  that  the  expense  incurred  is  in  most  cases  the  best  pos- 
sible investment  of  capital,  is  not  and  cannot  be  appreciated  by  the  masses. 

One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  the  extent  to  which  ignorance  and 
carelessness  nullify  the  utility  of  advances  in  knowledge  of  methods  for 
the  prevention  of  disease  is  found  in  the  fact  that  small-pox  still  appears 
as  a  local  epidemic,  and  sometimes  with  great  mortality.  If  anything  is 
known  in  preventive  medicine,  it  is  that  this  loathsome  disease  may  be 
easily  and  certainly  prevented  in  almost  every  case,  and  that  it  should 
never  appear  on  the  death  register;  yet,  to  obtain  such  an  universal  and 
satisfactory  vaccination  and  revaccination  of  each  individual  as  will  give 
this  security,  there  is  necessary  the  decided  and  persistent  interference  of 
government  to  an  extent  which  has  not  yet  been  provided  in  this  country, 
excejDt  in  a  few  limited  localities. 

The  possible  financial  results  of  this  carelessness  are  shown  by  Dr.  Lee 
in  a  comjDUtation  of  the  cost  of  the  small-pox  in  1871-'73  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  which  he  makes  to  be  121,848,977.99,  while  the  cost  of  pre- 
venting it  is  figured  at  less  than  $800,000.00.  It  is  true  that  in  his  calcu- 
lations indirect  damages  figure  to  an  undue  extent,  and  that  in  his  esti- 
mate of  cost  of  prevention  he  provides  for  but  eighteen  months;  but  if  we 
take  the  pecuniary  loss  at  $10,000,000  only,  the  annual  interest  on  which  at 
5  per  cent,  is  1500,000,  it  is  clear  that  an  annual  expenditure  of  1100,000 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  small-pox  only  would  have  been  a  very  good 
investment  for  Philadelphia.  The  question  of  cost  in  public  hygiene  is, 
however,  by  no  means  so  simple  a  matter  as  this  statement  would  seem  to 
make  it. 

The  burden  of  sanitary  improvements  rnixst  rest  upon  property,  ^.  e., 
"  the  owners  of  property  are  to  provide  dwellings  fit  for  human  habita- 
tion, upon  sufficient  superficial  space,  with  a  due  supply  of  wholesome 
water  and  with  all  necessary  structural  means  of  preserving  health,  under 
penalty  for  non-fulfilment  of  obligation;  and  no  sale  or  tenure  of  property 
should  be  permitted  which  ignores  or  violates  this  principle."  (Rumsey.) 
But,  to  carry  out  proper  sanitary  plans,  either  in  a  house  or  in  a  city, 


INTRODUCTIOi^.  9 

often  means  more  than  the  mere  expenditure  of  money — it  means  that 
something  must  be  g-iven  up,  some  luxury  or  comfort  dispensed  with. 
Had*  the  house  or  city  been  properly  constructed  at  the  commencement, 
this  might  not  have  been  the  case;  but  very  few  habitations,  and  no  cities, 
have  been  thus  planned.  With  regard  to  cities  it  is  almost  impossible 
that  they  should  be  so  planned,  since  to  effect  this  would  require  powers 
of  prediction  as  to  the  future  size,  commercial  and  manufacturing  relations, 
etc.,  of  the  municipality,  which  cannot  be  expected  in  the  founders. 

Many  of  the  cities  in  this  country  are  already  heavily  burdened  with 
debt,  for  they  are  less  likely  to  be  economical  than  individuals,  and  they 
have  spent  so  much  on  marble  facades  and  architectural  adornments,  on 
civic  display,  unnecessary  officials,  and  jobs  of  various  kinds,  that  when 
the  sanitarian  comes  with  his  recommendations  for  new  drainage  and 
sewefage  works,  for  a  better  water-supply,  or  for  a  properly  constituted 
and  sufficiently  paid  board  of  health,  he  is  told  that  it  cannot  be  done 
because  the  city  cannot  afford  it,  and  upon  examination  he  may  find  that 
this  is  really  the  case. 

Hence,  practical  sanitarians  should  keep  an  eye  not  only  on  their  own 
desiderata,  but  upon  all  the  objects  for  which  the  public  moneys  are  ex- 
pended, to  a  much  greater  extent  than  they  usually  do;  for  the  proper 
time  to  insist  that  the  city  needs  a  good  system  of  sewerage,  and  a  com- 
petent board  of  health,  mo:'e  than  it  does  a  new  city  hall,  is  before  the 
city  hall  is  authorized  and  ordered.  "There  is  that  scattereth  and  yet 
increaseth,  and  there  is  that  withholdeth  more  than  is  meet,  but  it  tendeth 
to  poverty." 

It  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  business  of  a  sanitarian  to  know 
what  his  proposed  plans  will  cost  if  carried  out,  both  for  establishment 
and  maintenance,  and  the  question  of  expense  should  have  a  prominent 
place  in  his  reports  and  recommendations:  he  must  show  that  he  is  a 
practical  business  man  as  well  as  a  scientist. 

Since  it  is  quite  proper  to  distribute  the  cost  of  permanent  improve- 
ments over  a  term  of  years,  and  since  sanitary  improvements,  which  are 
really  such,  soon  pay  for  theinselves,  not  only  in  money  saved,  but  in  labor 
spared  and  distress  avoided,  it  will  rarely  happen  that  the  plea  of  poverty 
and  indebtedness  can  be  admitted  as  a  sufficient  excuse  for  permitting 
well-recognized  unsanitary  conditions  to  remain;  yet  this  must  sometimes 
be  the  case,  and  then  appeal  must  be  made  to  the  State,  if  the  city  is  worth 
preserving.  There  are  some  cities  which  it  would  be  cheaper  to  either 
abandon,  or  burn  down  and  commence  afresh,  than  to  put  them  in  good 
hygienic  condition,  retaining  their  present  levels,  streets,  sewers,  and  so 
forth. 

The  relations  between  sociology  and  hygiene  are  extremely  intimate, 
a  fact  which  seems  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by  the  students  of  either 
subject. 

A  mode  of  life  whose  effects  shall  be  limited  to  the  individual  is  im- 
possible except  in  a  case  like  that  of  Robinson  Crusoe  before  his  man 
Friday  joined  him,  and  the  well-known  analogies  between  human  society 


10  INTRODTJCTIOIS". 

and  the  living  human  body  may  be  applied  here  in  many,  ways.  As  Dr. 
Geigel  points  out — communities  and  nations,  like  individuals,  have  their 
acute  and  chronic  diseases,  their  fevers  and  neuroses,  their  affections  of 
growth  and  of  decay,  of  infancy  and  of  manhood — and  so  each  race  or 
people,  State  or  city,  has  its  own  peculiarities,  its  constitutional  tenden- 
cies, which  must  be  taken  into  account  by  those  who  wish  to  preserve  or 
improve  it. 

The  cholera  belongs  to  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  yellow  fever 
to  the  tropics  of  the  New  World.  The  conditions  which  develop  pestilen- 
tial fevers  in  one  race  seem  to  produce  dysentery  in  another.  One  city 
is  a  stronghold  of  typhoid  fever,  and  another  of  erysipelas.^ 

In  the  United  States,  if  we  blindly  follow  the  formulae  which  have 
been  found  more  or  less  efficacious  in  England,  France,  or  Germany,  the 
results  will  probably  disappoint  us ;  nor  can  the  sanitary  legislation  of 
Massachusetts,  Illinois,  and  Louisiana  be  fashioned  in  the  same  mould 
with  good,  or,  at  all  events,  with  the  best  results. 

As  yet  a  large  part  of  the  foundation  for  a  scientific  study  of  the  pub- 
lic health  of  the  United  States  is  wanting,  since  we  do  not  know  what  is 
the  state  of  this  public  health,  except  in  a  few  localities,  and,  even  in  those, 
very  imperfectly.  At  the  present  time  the  most  urgent  need  of  sanitary 
science  in  this  country  is  an  uniform  system  of  registration  of  the  princi- 
pal diseases,  and  next  to  this — that  which  would  be  an  essential  part  of  it 
— a  similar  system  of  registration  of  births  and  deaths. 

Such  registration  is  required  for  two  very  different  purposes.  The 
first  is  to  obtain  prompt  information  of  the  beginning  of  the  operation  of 
causes  injuriously  affecting  the  public  health,  and  to  this  end  scientific  ac- 
curacy and  completeness  must  be  to  some  extent  sacrificed  in  order  to  gain 
time.  The  second  is  to  obtain  reliable  information  as  to  how  much  disease 
there  is,  what  are  its  causes,  and  what  is  the  value  of  various  methods  of 
destroying  those  causes.  This  second  purpose  is  largely  to  be  obtained 
by  careful  observation  of  the  imperfections  and  mistakes  which  will  occur 
in  trying  to  attain  the  first  purpose,  and  it  may  be  observed  that  if  all 
possible  causes  of  disease  could  be  promptly  discovered  and  removed, 
there  would  be  little  available  material  for  an  investigation  into  the 
nature  and  effects  of  those  causes. 

The  absence  of  the  information  which  such  registration  would  give  is 
one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  hygienic  progress,  for  it  is  due  to  this 
that  our  legislators  and  political  economists  do  not  take  the  hygiene  of 
the  people  into  consideration,  except  in  a  few  special  cases. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  who  profess  to  have  made  a  study  of  hygiene 
are  too  often  ignorant  and  careless  of  the  first  principles  of  legislation, 
and  hence  propose  absurd  or  inadequate  means  for  carrying  out  their 
schemes  of  reform  and  improvement,  which  not  only  brings  themselves 

'  "  There  is  no  social  phenomenon  which  is  not  more  or  less  influenced  by  every 
other  part  of  the  condition  of  the  same  society.  .  .  .  Ifc  follows  from  this  con- 
sensus that,  unless  two  societies  could  be  alike  in  all  the  circumstances  which  surround 
and  influence  them,  no  portion  of  their  phenomena  will  precisely  correspond."     (Mill). 


INTllODUCTION'.  11 

into  contempt,  but,  which  is  of  much  more  importance,  tends  to  discredit 
sanitary  science,  and  to  the  classification  of  all  its  votaries  as  impracti- 
cable, discontented  reformers,  or  as  loud-voiced,  imscrupulous  charlatans, 
who  wish  to  turn  the  social  edifice  upside  down,  because  their  own  natural 
place  is  so  near  the  bottom  of  it.  While  it  is  true  that  the  general  princi- 
ples of  hygiene  are  few  and  comparatively  simple,  it  by  no  means  follows 
that  the  subject  is  an  easy  one  to  comprehend,  or  that,  because  a  man 
knows  that  pure  air,  water,  and  food  are  desirable,  he  is  therefore  able  to 
point  out  the  best  means  of  obtaining  them.  The  rules  of  addition  and 
subtraction  might  as  well  be  said  to  include  the  calculus. 

Of  late  years  it  is  beginning  to  be  understood  that  the  knowledge 
which  should  be  possessed  by  the  man  who  is  to  act  as  the  guardian  of 
the  public  health,  and  as  the  official  adviser,  in  sanitary  matters,  to  the 
legislative  and  executive  powers  of  a  state  or  municipality,  cannot  be 
comprehended  in  a  few  fixed  rules  or  short  popular  sentences — that  every 
medical  man  is  not  necessarily  a  skilled  sanitarian,  and  that,  therefore, 
differences  of  ojDinion  among  physicians  as  to  the  value  of  sanitary  mea- 
sures do  not  prove  conclusively  that  we  have  no  positive  information  on 
the  subject.  It  is  not  well  to  be  over-sanguine,  but  we  have  reason  to 
hope  that  the  time  is  at  hand  when  the  candidate  for  the  position  of  a 
health  official  will  be  required  to  show  that  he  has  received  a  special  and 
sufficient  education  to  fit  him  for  the  office.  Even  now  the  few  who  have 
obtained  such  an  education  find  no  lack  of  demand  for  their  services, 
although  it  is  true  that  the  compensation  offered  is  not  usually  adequate 
to  the  time,  labor,  and  money,  which  must  be  expended  in  acquiring  such 
special  knowledge. 

xA.mong  architects,  engineers,  lawyers,  and  politicians,  a  feeling  is  very 
common  that  the  sanitarian  should  confine  himself  to  the  pointing  out  of 
the  evils  to  be  remedied;  that  he  should  be  a  sort  of  inspector  of  nuisances, 
with  sufficient  knowledge  of  medicine  to  give  a  name  to  the  evil  results 
observed,  and  that  he  should  leave  to  them,  with  their  special  and  superior 
knowledge,  the  task  of  remedying  these  evils.  This  plan  has  been  very 
thoroughly  tried,  and  the  results  are  not  satisfactory — in  fact,  the  prev- 
alence of  this  idea  has  been  one  of  the  causes  of  the  slow  progress  of 
hygiene. 

A  lawyer,  an  engineer  and  a  physician,  each  fairly  skilled  in  his  pro- 
fession, and  associated  as  a  sanitary"  board,  are  by  no  means  equivalent  to 
one  man  who  has  had  so  much  training  in  each  of  these  professions  as  to 
be  well  accjuainted  with  that  part  of  each  which  has  a  bearing  on  hygiene. 

As  regards  so-called  practical  hygiene,  i.  e.,  the  prevention  of  disease, 
it  is  evident  that  we  may  try  to  attain  this  in  two  very  different  ways, 
since  we  may  either  attempt  to  avoid  or  remove  the  causes  of  disease,  or 
to  make  the  body  less  susceptible  to  the  action  of  these  causes.  The 
latter  method  has  received  very  little  scientific  study  of  late  years,  and  its 
literature  is  mainly  popular  and  an  echo  of  precepts  which  will  be  found 
at  great  length  in  some  of  the  earliest  printed  works  on  medicine.  Con- 
sidering the  great  number  of  causes  of  disease,  and  the  impossibility  of 


12  IJSTTEODUCTIOJSr. 

shunning  them  all,  even  with  the  greatest  care — nay,  that  this  great  care, 
if  exercised,  becomes  itself  a  cause  of  disease,  as  is  expressed  by  the  old 
proverb,  ^'  Medici  vivere  est  misere  ■y/uere," — and,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
membering that  the  power  which  we  have  to  modify  plants  and  animals 
by  regimen  and  breeding  makes  it  probable  that  the  human  body  might 
in  like  manner  be  improved  by  a  sort  of  hygienic  organoplasty,  to  use  the 
phrase  of  Royer  Collard,'  it  might  at  first  sight  appear  strange  that  more 
attention  is  not  paid  to  this  branch  of  preventive  medicine. 

While,  however,  it  is  theoretically  possible  to  thus  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  the  individual,  it  could  not  be  done  without  an  amount  of  in- 
terference with  personal  freedom  which  would  probably  produce  evils  miich 
greater  than  those  sought  to  be  avoided,  since  to  be  effectual  it  Avould  be 
necessary  to  work  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  natural  selection,  and 
prevent  the  reproduction  of  weak  and  unhealthy  persons. 

The  little  that  can  be  done  in  this  direction  must  be  eifected  by 
parents  and  teachers  ;  by  guiding  the  children  under  their  charge  into 
proper  mental  and  physical  habits;  and  whet  these  habits  should  be  and 
how  this  guiding  can  be  best  effected,  is  one  of  the  most  important  prob- 
lems in  education — in  fact,  it  is  the  problem. 

It  is  perhaps  just  as  well  that  few  persons  appreciate  the  difficulties 
and  responsibilities  of  meddling  with  the  child's  mental,  physical  or  spir- 
itual nature  and  of  trying  to  mould  these  according  to  some  given  j)attern, 
for,  if  the  subject  were  fully  understood,  very  few  would  venture  to  do 
anything  at  all  lest  they  should  do  more  harm  than  good. 

With  this  brief  sketch  of  the  scope  and  utility  of  hygiene,  and  of  some 
of  the  obstacles  to  its  progress,  we  may  pass  to  the  consideration  and 
classification  of  its  subject-matter — namely,  the  causes  of  disease. 

II. — Causes  of  Disease. 

The  ancient  classification  of  diseases  was  either  by  symptoms,  or  by 
the  parts  of  the  body  affected.  Following  this,  and  still  very  generally 
prevalent,  came  the  classification  by  the  results  iDroduced,  ^.  e.,  according 
to  pathological  anatomy. 

Neither  of  these  systems,  nor  the  nosologies  or  nomenclatures  founded 
on  them,  are  of  any  special  interest  or  utility  to  the  sanitarian ;  what  he 
desires  is  a  classification  of  disease  by  causes,  and  although  it  is  not  yet 
possible  to  furnish  this  completely  or  accurately,  yet  enough  is  now  known 
of  the  etiology  of  disease  to  permit  of  a  division  of  its  causes  in  several 
different  ways,  each  presenting  special  advantages  and  disadvantages^ 

For  instance,  the  causes  of  disease  may  be  divided  into  avoidable  and 
unavoidable,  the  former  being  classed  according  to  the  channels  through 
which  they  enter  or  affect  the  body,  as  by  the  respiratory,  digestive,  cu- 
taneous, genito-urinary,  circulatory  and  nervous  systems,  corresponding 
roughly  to  the  subjects  of  air,  food,  water,  clothing,  etc. ;  while  the  latter 

'  Organoplastie hygienique,  ou  essai  d'hygiene  comparee,  Mem.  Acad.  Roy.  de  Med., 
1843,  X.,  p.  479. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

would  include  heredity,  age,  sex,  and,  practically,  climate  and  occupa- 
tion. 

A  second  useful  division  of  the  causes  of  disease  is  into  those  which 
affect  the  individual  chiefly,  and  which  are  to  be  avoided  or  removed,  if 
at  all,  mainly  by  individual  effort,  thus  pertaining  especially  to  what  is 
known  as  personal  or  private  hygiene; — and  those  which  affect  classes  or 
communities,  and  require  combined  effort  for  their  extinction,  or,  in  other 
words,  belong  to  public  hygiene. 

Still  another  convenient  classification  for  our  purposes  is  into,  1st, 
hereditary;  2d,  physical  and  chemical;  3d,  organized  or  vital;  4th,  mental 
or  emotional  causes. 

Of  these  the  first  class  belongs  largely  to  the  unavoidable  causes  of 
disease  and  to  personal  hygiene.  In  so  far  as  these  causes  affect,  or  are 
affected  by,  races,  sufficient  data  do  not  yet  exist  for  their  discussion;  but 
it  is  Avorthy  of  note  that  no  country  in  the  world  affords  so  promising  a 
field  for  the  study  of  ethnological  health  characteristics  as  the  United 
States,  and  the  little  now  known  on  this  subject,  e.  g.,  the  superior  average 
longevity  of  the  Jew,  or  the  comparative  immunity  of  the  Negro  and  the 
Chinese  from  yellow  fever,  is  of  sufficient  interest  to  warrant  careful  in- 
vestigations in  this  direction.  In  so  far  as  they  affect  individuals  they 
are  of  great  importance  to  the  legislator  and  jurist  in  relation  to  insanity, 
pauperism,  and  crime,  and  to  the  practitioner  of  medicine  a  knowledge 
of  them  is  essential  to  success  ;  but,  in  relation  to  practical  hygiene,  the 
little  we  have  to  say  about  them  will  be  in  connection  with  the  jurispru- 
dence of  hygiene — in  another  place. 

The  second  class,  i.  e.,  the  physical  and  chemical,  will  be  fully  dis- 
cussed in  the  special  sections  of  this  work. 

The  fourth  class,  including  the  mental  and  emotional  causes  of  disease, 
is  one  of  great  interest,  and  presents  some  of  the  most  difficult  problems 
with  which  either  the  physician,  the  sanitarian,  or  the  legislator  has  to 
deal;  but  in  this  connection  it  is  impossible  to  consider  them,  for  it  would 
require  a  discussion  of  the  whole  field  of  psychology  and  jDsychiatry. 

The  third  class  of  causes,  viz.,  those  which  are  known  or  supposed  to 
be  organized  or  vital  in  character,  is  the  most  important  of  all  in  public 
hygiene,  and  hence  we  shall  dwell  upon  it  a  little. 

Of  the  total  sickness  and  mortality  of  the  human  race,  a  very  large 
proportion  is  due  to  those  diseases  which  may  become  epidemic,  and  these 
are  of  peculiar  and  special  interest  to  the  sanitarian,  not  only  because  of 
their  frequency  and  the  magnitude  of  their  effects,  but  because  it  is 
believed  that  they  are  all  more  or  less  preventable,  and  because  such  pre- 
vention requires  sometliing  more  than  individual  action. 

With  regard  to  this  word  epidemic — as  well  as  to  nearly  all  the  terms 
used  in  attempts  to  classify  and  characterize  these  affections,  such  as  con- 
tagious, infective,  zymotic,  miasmatic,  etc. — there  is  more  or  less  confu- 
sion and  ambiguity,  and  each  new  writer  now  usually  thinks  it  necessary 
to  define  the  sense  in  which  he  proposes  to  use  them.  The  word  "epi- 
demic "  as  used  here,  means  general,  prevalent,  affecting  many  people  in 


14  INTEODUCTIOJSr. 

a  community,  and  as  applied  to  disease  it  simply  indicates  its  relative 
prevalence.  It  is  not  a  cause,  but  a  result ; '  it  is  not  an  essential  charac- 
teristic of  a  disease,  but  a  character  which  may  be  either  present  or 
absent.  An  epidemic  disease  may  or  may  not  be  zymotic,  endemic,  or 
specific.  There  is  no  recognized  standard  as  to  what  degree  of  prevalence 
constitutes  an  epidemic,  nor  could  the  same  standard  be  applied  to  differ- 
ent diseases,  the  only  attempts  to  fix  such  a  standard  known  to  the 
writer  being  those  of  Dr.  Buchanan,  who,  in  comparing  the  concurrent 
prevalence  of  seven  infective  diseases,  takes  for  each  an  annual  mortality 
of  1.2  or  more,  as  entitling  the  disease  to  be  called  epidemic; "  and  of  Dr. 
R.  F.  Michel,  who  states  that  boards  of  health  in  the  Southern  States, 
where  yellow  fever  is  prevalent,  are  accustomed  to  consider  this  disease 
epidemic  when  the  deaths  from  it  exceed  the  deaths  from  all  other  dis- 
eases; and  after  properly  objecting  to  this  rule  as  arbitrary  and  unscien- 
tific, proposes  "to  regard  a  disease  as  epidemic  which  has  become  so 
prevalent  in  a  population  that  we  meet  examples  of  it  more  frequently 
than  we  meet  with  cases  of  any  other  one  form  of  disease."^ 

The  remark  of  Laennec,  that  many  diseases  not  regarded  as  subject  to 
the  influence  of  the  "  constitution  medicale  "  are  much  more  frequent  at 
certain  times  than  at  others,  will  probably  be  confirmed  by  the  experience 
of  almost  every  physician,  as,  for  instance,  in  relation  to  cases  of  organic 
disease  of  the  brain,  heart,  kidney,  or  liver,  of  malignant  growths,  and 
even  of  special  forms  of  dislocations  or  fractures;  but  how  far  this  may  be 
due  to  chance,  or  to  the  reputation  of  the  practitioner,  we  have  no  data 
to  determine.  The  appearance  in  epidemic  form  of  such  diseases  as  lead- 
colic,  scurvy,  etc.,  is  now  rare,  but  the  sanitarian  should  not  forget  the 
possibility  of  their  occurrence  ;  for  like  causes,  under  like  circumstances, 
will  produce  like  effects.  It  is  usual  for  lecturers  on  sanitary  science  to 
claim  that  the  disappearance,  not  only  of  these  diseases,  but  of  such  aifec- 
tions  as  the  plague,  the  sweating  sickness,  and  leprosy,  is  due  to  the 
su^Derior  knowledge  and  hygienic  conditions  of  modern  times;  but  the 
simple  truth  is  that  we  do  not  know  why  these  last  diseases  have  disap- 
peared or  become  rare  in  Europe,  nor  have  we  any  scientific  grounds  for 
thinking  that  they  may  not  agq,in  prevail  in  an  epidemic  form  in  civilized 
countries — at  least,  unless  we  shall  succeed  in  obtaining  much  more  accu- 
rate knowledge  than  we  now  possess  as  to  the  conditions  which  led  to 
their  disappearance. 

The  most  important  forms  of  epidemic  diseases  in  this  connection  are 
those  which  are  supposed  to  be  due  to  specific  causes,  usually  spoken  of 
as  poisons,  and  which  are  classed  by  German  writers  as  the  infective  (not 
infectious)  diseases.  In  many  of  these  diseases  the  cause  can  reproduce 
itself  without  limit,  presenting  thus  one  of  the  characteristics  of  a  living- 
thing  or  organism;   and  in  a  fevp  of  them  this  living  organism  is  known, 

J  Levy:   Traite  d'Hygiene,  5th  ed.,  Paris,  1869,  Vol.  II.,  p.  364. 
2  Trans.  Epidem.  Soc,  Lond.,  Vol.  III.,  Part  II.,  1873,  p.  405. 
-Epidemic  of  yellow  fever  in  Montgomery,  Ala.,  Trans.  Med.  Ass'n  State  of  Ala- 
loama,  Twenty-seventh  Session,  1874,  p.  111. 


OTKODUCTIOX,  15 

forming  the   class   of    parasitic   diseases.      Following  the  usual   modern 
classification,  we  may  divide  the  infective  diseases  into: 

A.  Parasitic  diseases. 

B.  Contagium  diseases. 

C.  Miasmatico-contagium  diseases. 

D.  Miasmatic  diseases. 

That  the  cause  of  each  of  the  three  first  classes  is  specific  is  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  the  disease  transmitted  is  always  the  same  disease. 
Trichina3  never  produce  hydatids;  the  bacillus  anthracis  communicates 
only  splenic  fev^er;  small-pox  never  changes  into  measles,  nor  cholera  into 
yellow  fever.  There  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  any  of  these  causes 
ever  arise  spontaneously;  in  every  case  the  pre-existence  of  the  specific 
poison  or  organism  is  necessary. 

In  the  majority  of  parasitic  diseases  we  can  recognize  the  causal  organ- 
ism apart  from  the  disease  which  it  produces,  but  this  is  not  the  case 
with  the  other  classes;  in  fact,  as  soon  as  we  learn  clearly  the  nature  and 
life-habits  of  an  organism  causing  disease  and  its  mode  of  proj)agation, 
whether  within  or  without  the  body,  we  consider  that  disease  as  a  parasitic 
disease.  Very  probably  some  of  the  diseases  now  known  only  as  conta- 
gium or  miasmatico-contagium  will  in  future  be  transferred  to  the  parasitic 
class,  and  this  probability  is  expressed  by  what  is  known  as  the  germ 
theory. 

To  understand  the  controversies  which  have  arisen  on  this  point,  cor- 
rect views  of  which  are  not  only  of  theoretical  interest,  but  of  very  great 
practical  importance  to  the  sanitarian,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something 
of  the  noiTienclature  of  the  subject,  which  has  become  very  confused  and 
unsatisfactory,  since  the  words  bacteria,  microzymes,  germs,  contagium, 
etc.,  are  used  by  different  authors,  and  by  the  same  author,  at  different 
times,  in  different  senses,  and  to  this  is  due  much  of  the  disagreement 
which  exists. 

That  some  diseases  are  due  to  the  entrance  of  living  organisms  into 
the  body  is  a  very  old  theory,  first  set  forth  with  some  attempt  at  precision 
after  the  discoveries  of  Leeuwenhoeck  were  pubHshed.  The  history  of  the 
various  speculations  based  on  this  theory,  and  on  that  of  fermentations,  is 
a  curious  and  interesting  one,  but  would  be  out  of  place  here;  and  it  need 
only  be  said  that  the  views  now  held  by  the  majority  of  physicians 
date  only  from  the  cholera  epidemics  of  1832  and  1849,  and  that  they  had 
no  scientific  precision  prior  to  the  well-known  researches  of  Pasteur  into 
the  processes  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction  and  the  minute  organisms 
connected  with  them. 

In  almost  all  fresh  water,  in  dead  and  decomposing  organic  matter  under 
ordinary  conditions,  and  throughout  the  lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere, 
we  find,  upon  examination  with  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope,  my- 
riads of  minute  bodies  which  have  the  power  of  self-propagation  when 
supplied  with  a  suitable  nutritive  material,  and  some  of  which  exhibit  mo- 
tions in  certain  stages  of  development,  in  such  a  manner  that  we  must  class 


16  INTEODUCTION. 

them  as  living  things.  For  these,  as  a  class,  we  have  no  good  comprehen- 
sive term,  since  neither  animalculse,  infusoria,  microzymes,  microphytes,  nor 
microzoa  are  sufficiently  comprehensive,  and  it  is  necessary  to  coin  some 
such  word  as  microdemes — little  living  bodies — to  express  what  is  meant. 
The  term  bacteria  is  sometimes,  though  by  no  means  always,  used  in  this 
sense,  and  the  term  microzyme,  as  used  by  Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson,  is  al- 
most exactly  equivalent  to  microdemes,  but,  as  used  by  its  originator, 
Bechamp,  it  has  a  much  more  specialized  meaning. 

Even  if  the  word  bacteria  be  used,  in  its  broadest  sense,  as  equivalent 
to  the  French  phrase  "  les  bacteries,"  it  will  not  be  sufficient  to  express 
what  we  desire.  As  defined  by  modern  French  botanists,  the  bacteria  are 
cells  not  containing  chloroj^hyll,  which  may  be  globular,  ovoid,  cylindrical 
or  spiral  in  form,  reproducing  by  fission,  isolated  or  in  groups.  This  in- 
cludes the  forms  formerly  supposed  to  be  distinct  genera  known  as  bac- 
terium, vibrio,  and  spirillum,  but  it  cannot,  without  a  violent  assumption, 
be  made  to  include  the  contagium  particles  of  vaccine,  or  many  other 
minute  forms  which  are  liable  to  appear.  The  word  microdeme  will,  there- 
fore, be  employed  here  in  the  sense  of  a  minute  living  particle  or  organism, 
whether  it  be  animal  or  vegetable,  and  whether  it  be  capable  of  indepen- 
dent growth  and  reproduction  or  not. 

Mingled  with  the  microdemes,  and  sometimes  only  to  be  distinguished 
from  them  with  great  difficulty,  will  often  be  found  other  particles,  either 
inorganic  or  fragments  of  dead  and  disintegrating  organic  matter.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  these  particles  are  often  so  minute  as  to  be  only  just 
within  the  limits  of  visibility  of  the  most  powerful  microscope,  and  that 
some  forms  are  probably  invisible  with  the  highest  powers,  the  difficulty 
alluded  to  will  be  better  appreciated.  Morphologically,  in  fact,  we  have 
only  the  three  criteria  mentioned  by  Naegeli  as  characterizing  his  group 
of  the  Spaltjyilze,  namely: 

I.  The  uniform  size  and  minuteness  of  the  granules. 

II.  Their  independent  motion,  in  estimating  which  great  care  must  be 
taken  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Brownian  movement  or  from  that  pro- 
duced by  currents;  and 

III.  Signs  of  growth  and  reproductive  division  of  the  granules,  as 
shown  by  their  being  found  in  pairs,  forming  dumb-bells  or  figures  of 
eight,  etc. 

The  minutest  spherical  forms  of  these  microdemes  are  sometimes 
called  micrococcus,  while  the  rod-like  forms  are  what  English  and  Ameri- 
can observers  usually  call  bacteria — a  word  which  it  is  better  to  avoid, 
since  it  probably  is  applied  properly  only  to  one  stage  of  development  of 
certain  microdemes,  which  stage  may  be  described  as  bacteroid.  All  of 
the  microdemes  which  belong,  according  to  the  usual  classifications,  to 
the  vegetable  kingdom — the  microphytes  properly  so-called — are  classed 
between  the  algfB  and  the  fungi,  forming  the  "  schizomycetes "  of  De 
Bary,  the  "Spaltpilze"  of  Naegeli.  Billroth,  from  his  researches  upon 
the  ordinary  forms,  concludes  that  they  all  belong  to  one  species — the 
Coccobacteria  septica — and  he  classes  them  roughly  by  size  and  form  into 


INTRO  DUCTIOIf.  17 

Micrococcus  and  Microbacteria,  Mesococcus  and  Mesobacteria,  and  Meo-a- 
coccus  and  Megabacteria,  which  is  essentially  the  plan  of  Hoffmann. 

The  work  of  Naegeli,  "  Die  niederen  Pilze  in  ihren  Beziehungen  zu  den 
Infectionskrankheiten  und  der  Gesundheitspflege,"  Miiuchen,  1877,  8vo, 
is  perhaps  the  most  recent  systematic  work  upon  this  class  of  organisms 
considered  as  causes  of  disease  ;  but  the  reader  is  advised  to  preserve  a 
healthy  scepticism  with  regard  to  many  of  its  statements,  and  some  of 
the  reasons  for  this  will  perhaps  appear  from  the  references  which  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  make  to  it. 

The  microdemes  are  spoken  of  by  many  as  organisms  or  germs,  but 
these  terms  are  usually  understood  to  imply  entirely  independent  life, 
and  as  being  inapplicable  to  such  living  things  as  a  blood-corpuscle  or  an 
epithelial  cell. 

There  is,  at  present,  no  evidence  worthy  of  consideration  that  these 
microdemes  are  ever  spontaneously  generated,  or  arise  from  any  source 
other  than  living  organisms,  which,  however,  may  assume  other  forms, 
and  be  of  very  diverse  characters.  The  spores  of  some  of  the  ascigerous 
fungi,  as,  for  instance,  of  several  of  the  valsse,  and  also  the  spores  or 
spermatia  of  many  of  the  coniomycetous  forms,  the  moving  granules  set 
free  in  certain  stages  of  reproduction  in  many  of  the  algae,  and  in  some 
mosses  and  lichens,  and  certain  stages  of  development  of  some  of  the 
microzoa  or  ciliated  infusoria,  all  come  under  the  head  of  microdemes,  and 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished,  except  by  a  knowledge  of  their  origin  or 
by  tracing  their  development. 

Some  of  them  may  develop  into  larger  and  more  complex  forms,  but 
of  many  we  have  no  good  evidence  as  to  any  special  change  beyond  that 
of  simple  multiplication  and  self-division  into  similar  bodies. 

In  particular,  there  is  no  satisfactory  proof  that  those  forms  connected 
with  the  process  of  putrefaction  ever  develop  into  higher  forms  of  fungi, 
although  this  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered  as  a  settled  question;  and 
there  are  some  good  authorities  who  believe  that  at  all  events  the  reverse 
of  this  process  may  occur — that  is,  that  certain  hyphomycetous  forms, 
such  as  aspergillus  or  penicillium,  may,  under  certain  circumstances,  de- 
velop schizomycetous  forms  of  ferments. 

Neither  aspergillus  nor  penicillium,  however,  have  any  generic  value; 
they  are  simply  transition  forms  of  certain  ascigerous  or  other  more 
highly  differentiated  fungi,  and,  as  yet,  we  must  be  very  slow  to  accept 
any  statements  either  affirming  or  denying  their  transformations. 

Not  only  are  some  microdemes  found  in  decomposing  organic  matter, 
but  they  usually  take  an  active  part  in  producing  or  promoting  the  de- 
composition; and  since  organic  substances  vary  greatly  in  composition, 
while  the  products  of  their  decomposition  likewise  vary,  it  is  a  question 
whether  this  difference  in  result  depends  upon  the  original  composition  of 
the  matter,  or  upon  a  difference  in  the  microdemes,  producing  a  different 
mode  of  action.  Naegeli,  speaking  of  the  schizomycetes  only,  thinks, 
with  Billroth,  that  there  is  but  one  species,  and  that  the  difference  in 
product  depends  on  the  composition  and  peculiarities  of  the  matter  to  be 
2 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

decomposed,  Cohn,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks  that  there  are  many 
genera  and  species  of  these  schizomycetes,  each  with  peculiar  powers  ;" 
but,  even  if  this  be  admitted,  it  is  uncertain  whether  a  given  species  de- 
veloping in  two  very  different  substances  would  or  would  not  give  very 
different  results. 

The  weight  of  opinion  at  present  is  to  the  effect  that  there  are  many 
different  kinds  of  schizomycetes,  that  each  can  propagate  only  its  own 
kind  within  a  limited  period  of  time  (excluding  thus  possible  changes  by 
evolution  and  natural  selection),  and  produce  only  certain  results. 

This,  however,  is  merely  an  opinion,  and  only  those  who  have  studied 
the  minute  fungi  sufficiently  to  gain  a  moderate  knowledge  of  the  diffi- 
culties which  their  many  transformations  involve  can  appreciate  the 
nature  of  the  evidence  which  would  be  required  to  prove  its  truth  or 
falsity.^ 

In  the  last  few  sentences  we  have  been  speaking  of  the  microdemes 
as  if  they  were  all  minute  fungi  or  schizomycetes.  This  is  the  usual  as- 
sumption of  writers  on  this  subject  with  regard  to  such  forms,  but  it  is 
not  only  unproved,  but  very  improbable.  Whether  the  bacteroidal  forms 
should  be  classed  with  animals,  as  Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson  ,thinks,  or  with 
the  fungi,  as  Cohn,  Naegeli,  De  Bary,  and  other  botanists  propose,  is  a 
question  of  nomenclature  of  small  importance  in  the  present  connection  ; 
but,  to  assume  that  ail  microdemes  are  minute  fungi,  as  is  done  by  many 
of  those  who  call  them  germs  or  organisms,  is  a  serious  error. 

The  remarks  made  above  as  to  the  use  of  the  word  "  organism  "  apply 
equally  to  the  word  germ.  The  so-called  germ  theory  of  disease  is  "that 
many  diseases  are  due  to  the  j^resence  and  propagation  in  the  system  of 
minute  organisms  having  no  part  or  share  in  its  normal  economy." 

Here  the  words  germ  and  organism  are  used  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and 
if  the  word  "  some  "  be  substituted  for  "  many  "  in  the  above  definition, 
there  are  probably  few  who  would  not  admit  the  truth  of  the  proposition. 

But  by  many  writers  on  the  germ  theory  all  microdemes  are  considered 
as  germs,  and  all  germs  as  belonging  to  the  minute  fungi,  neither  of  which 
propositions  can  be  admitted. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  a  germ  which  originates  external 
to  the  body  and  a  germ  which  is  simph^  a  particle  or  cell  forming  or  having 
formed  a  part  of  the  body  itself,  and  this  distinction  should  be  marked 
in  language  as  it  is  in  fact.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  we  will  consider 
briefly  the  phenomena  of  two  diseases  in  which  the  probability  of  their 
causation  by  germs  or  organisms  is  so  great  as  to  demand  the  careful, 
attention  and  full  comprehension  of  those  who  are  interested  in  their  pre- 


'  Consult  in  this  connection  Les  Bacteries  :  These  du  Concoura  par  A.  Magnin, 
Paris,  1878,  8vo.  In  this  will  be  found  a  very  clear  and  compendious  description  of 
the  various  systems  of  classification  which  have  been  proposed,  and  at  the  end  is  a 
good  bibliography.  See,  also,  "  Ueber  die  morphologische  Einheit  der  Spaltpilze  und 
iiber  Naegeli's  Anfassungstheorie,"  von  Prof.  F.  Cohn,  in  Deutsche  med.  Wchnschr. . 
Feb.  15,  1879,  in  which  the  results  of  many  experiments  are  summed  up  as  being  com- 
pletely adverse  to  the  statements  of  Naegeli. 


INTIIODUCTIOJNr.  19 

veution,  and  wliicli  therefore  should,  provisionally  at  least,  l)e  classed 
among  the  parasitic  diseases.  The  first  of  these  is  splenic  fever,  the  Milz- 
brand  of  the  German,  the  charbori  of  the  French,  better  known  in  this 
country  by  the  name  of  one  of  its  special  symptoms,  viz.,  malig-nant  pus- 
tule. 

In  the  blood  and  fluids  of  animals  and  men  affected  with  this  disease 
are  found  peculiar  bacteroid  microdemes,  named  bacteridia  by  Davaine, 
the  presence  of  which  was  known  over  twenty  years  ago,  but  which  did 
not  seem  to  explain  the  peculiarities  of  origin  of  the  disease,  since  the 
contagious  properties  of  the  blood  soon  disapjDeared,  although  the  cause 
of  the  disease  seetned  to  cling  with  great  tenacity  to  certain  limited  locali- 
ties, as,  for  instance,  to  a  particular  stable,  where  it  would  reappear  after 
intervals  of  several  years. 

The  explanation  of  this  was  at  last  given  by  Koch,  and  his  experi- 
mental demonstration  is  a  model  for  investigations  of  this  kind.  He  culti- 
vated the  suspected  organisms  in  fluids  apart  from  the  animal  body, 
observed  their  growth  and  development  into  threads,  and 'the  formation 
of  certain  peculiar  bodies  or  spores  in  their  threads,  and  from  the  spores 
thus  developed  and  from  forms  obtained  from  them  he  produced  the 
specific  disease  anew  in  a  living  animal.  It  was  found  that  the  bacteroidal 
forms  observed  in  the  blood  usually  died  in  a  few  days,  but  that  the 
spores  retain  their  vitality  for  at  least  four  years,  which  explained  the 
peculiar  localized  persistence  of  the  contagium  above  referred  to.  It  is 
especially  noteworthy  that  the  bacillus  anthraois,  as  it  was  named  by 
Koch,  could  only  be  distinguished,  as  far  as  mere  inspection  goes,  from 
another  species,  bacillus  suhtilis,  by  the  fact  that  the  first  is  motionless, 
while  the  latter  moves.  Dr.  Ewart  finds  that  B.  anthracis  is  at  times, 
though  rarely,  a  moving  organism,  the  mobile  stage  appearing  at  irregu- 
lar intervals  and  under  circumstances  not  well  understood.'  But  bacillus 
subtilis  is  a  very  common,  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  harmless  form,  and  the 
question  as  to  the  possible  or  probable  connection  between  the  two  is  one 
of  great  interest  from  several  points  of  view.  It  is  very  difficult  to  ex- 
plain the  peculiarity  of  sudden  outbreaks  of  charbon  in  cattle  over-fed, 
but  this  difficulty  would  be  greatly  lessened  if  it  could  be  shown  that  the 
harmless,  active  bacillus  subtilis  might,  under  certain  circumstances  chang- 
ing the  composition  of  the  fluids  in  which  it  entered,  become  the  motion- 
less, deadly  B.  anthracis. 

Closely  analogous  to  the  cause  of  charbon  apj^ears  to  be  that  of  an 
infectious  disease  of  hogs,  known  as  the  hog-plague,  typhoid  fever  of  the 
pig,  mal  rouge,  etc.  This  discovery  is  due  to  Dr.  E.  Klein,  who  names  the 
disease  "  infectious  pneumo-enteritis." "     Following  the  methods  of  Koch, 

'  See  Quar.  Jour.  Mic.  Soo.,  April,  1878,  p.  161 ;  also  Proc.  Eoy.  Soc,  1878,  No. 
188,  p.  464. 

'^  Experimental  Contribution  to  the  Etiology  of  Infectious  Diseases,  Proc.  Roy. 
Soc,  1878,  No.  185,  p.  101,  and  Report  on  Infectious  Pneumo-Enteritis  of  the  Pig-, 
liept.  Med.  Officer  Local  Govt.  Board  for  1877,  Lond. ,  1878,  8vo,  p.  169.  The  methods 
used  in  this  investigation  should  be  carefully  studied. 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

Dr.  Klein  succeeded  in  cultivating  in  fluids  outside  the  living  animal,  and 
in  observing  the  various  stages  of  development  of  the  microphyte  w^hich 
has  the  power  of  causing  this  disease.  From  his  researches  it  seems  that 
this  microphyte  is  also  a  bacillus,  more  delicate  than  B.  anthracis,  but 
which  has  a  moving  stage  like  B.  subtilis,  and  produces  spores  and  fila- 
ments like  the  other  species. 

Like  charbon,  the  disease  can  be  transmitted  to  mice  or  rabbits,  but 
with  more  difficulty.  There  are  marked  differences  between  the  twa 
diseases  as  regards  period  of  incubation  and  the  pathological  anatomy, 
the  most  prominent  being  that  "  in  anthrax  or  splenic  fever  the  blood  of 
any  organ,  and  especially  the  spleen,  is  crowded  with  the  bacillus  an- 
thracis; in  pneumo-enteritis  we  have  been  unable  to  find  anything  analo- 
gous." As  yet  we  do  not  know  that  the  disease  can  be  communicated  to 
man.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  the  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cat- 
tle, and  the  so-called  Spanish  or  Texas  cattle  fever,  should  be  investigated 
in  the  same  way;  and  there  are  special  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  latter 
disease  may  be  due  to  a  microphyte  of  a  similar  character. 

In  relapsing  fever,  the  history  of  the  peculiar  organisms  found  in  the 
blood  has  been  carefully  worked  out  by  Dr.  Heydenreich  and  others,  and 
although  the  demonstration  is  by  no  means  as  conclusive  as  in  the  case 
of  splenic  fever,  since  the  spores  were  not  traced,  yet  the  fact  that  the 
cause  of  the  disease  either  actually  is,  or  is  closely  associated  with,  the  or- 
ganism Spiroclujete  Obermeieri  of  Cohn,  seems  to  have  been  clearly  made 
out. 

The  spirilla  are  found  only  in  the  blood,  and  the  blood  only  is  infec- 
tive; they  disappear  in  the  stage  of  remission  and  reappear  before  the 
paroxysm,  which  may  thus  be  predicted;  and  the  blood  seems  to  be  in- 
fective during  the  paroxysm  only.  If  the  disease  is  due  to  the  spiroclirete, 
it  evidently  has  a  stage  of  development  which  has  not  yet  been  traced.* 
In  both  splenic  and  relapsing  fever  the  microphyte  seems  to  have  specific 
properties,  but  the  most  expert  microscopist  cannot  distinguish  it  morpho- 
logically from  similar,  but  harmless  organisms,  and  it  is  only  by  the  test 
of  inoculation  and  the  production  of  the  specific  disease  that  they  are 
identified  and  given  specific  names. 

Yet  the  relations  of  the  one  disease  to  plethora  and  of  the  other  to 
famine  are  such  that  we  must  hesitate  to  declare  their  parasites  true 
species,  even  in  the  Darwinian  sense;  and  the  facts  with  regard  to  septi- 
cfemia,  presently  to  be  referred  to,  point  still  more  strongly  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  a  microphyte,  harmless  under  ordinary  circumstances,  may  under 
others  become  either  the  producer  or  carrier  of  a  deadly  poison. 

With  this  class  of  diseases  some  observers,  such  as  Oertel,  Klebs,  and 
others,  would  rank  diphtheria.  The  most  precise  statements  on  this  point 
are  to  be  found  in  the  abstract  of  a  paper  by  J.  C.  Ewart  and  G.  A.  M. 
Simpson,  presented  to  the  British  Medical  Association  in  August,  1873.* 

'  Consult  Notes  on  the  Spirillum  Fever  of  Bombay,  1877,  by  H.  V.  Carter,  Med. 
Chir.  Tranp.,  1878,  LXI.,  p.  273. 

-  Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  Sepb,  7,  1878,  p.  337. 


liSTTRODUCTION.  21 

These  observers  claim  that  the  microphyte  of  diphtheria  exists  in  the  form 
of  exceedino-ly  minute  sjoores,  wliich  in  a  suitable  medium  will  germinate 
into  long,  exceedingly  fine  rods  or  bacilli,  the  life  history  being  much  the 
same  as  that  of  bacillus  anthracis  ;  and  it  is  claimed  that  when  the  spores 
are  applied  to  a  raw  surface  they  rapidly  lead  to  the  formation  of  a  diph- 
theritic membrane. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  researches  of  Drs.  E.  Curtis  and  T,  E.  Sat- 
terthwaite,  of  New  York,'  led  them  to  conclude  that  inoculation  of  diph- 
theritic membranes  on  rabbits  produce  no  effects  that  are  not  also  ob- 
tained by  inoculation  of  scrapings  from  the  human  tongue,  or  putrescent 
fluids. 

At  present  the  question  of  the  etiology  of  diphtheria  must  be  con- 
sidered as  subjucUce,  with  enough  probability  in  favor  of  the  germ  theory 
to  warrant,  on  the  part  of  the  practical  sanitarian,  such  measures  of  pre- 
vention as  would  probably  be  most  efficacious  if  this  theory  were  cor- 
rect. 

With  the  phenomena  presented  by  the  diseases  which  are  accompanied, 
and  may  be  caused,  by  the  presence  of  microphytes  in  the  blood,  let  us 
■compare  those  presented  by  the  variolous  group,  which  may  be  taken  as 
a  type  of  the  contagium  diseases.  It  is  now  believed  that  the  means  by 
which  these  are  propagated — their  "  contagium  " — consists  of  extremely 
minute  transparent  particles,  neither  soluble  in  water  nor  in  watery 
liquids,  and  not  capable,  without  losing  its  properties,  of  assuming  the 
form  of  vapor.^  In  vaccine  virus  the  power  to  transmit  the  specific  dis- 
ease is  lost  after  exposure  to  a  heat  of  about  140°  F.,  but  it  is  not  injured 
by  intense  cold.  The  minute  particles  constituting  the  contagium  come 
under  our  definition  of  microdemes,  but  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  that 
they  can  multiply  or  in  any  way  reproduce  themselves  outside  the  living 
body,  or  that  they  can  be  classed  with  the  schizomycetes  or  other  forms 
of  microphytes.  The  development  of  bacteroid  forms  in  the  fluids  con- 
taining these  particles  is  coincident  with  a  diminution  or  destruction  of 
their  special  contagious  qualities. 

In  scarlatina  and  measles  the  contagium  has  not  been  isolated  as  in 
•small-pox,  but  it  is  believed  to  be  also  particulate  and  incapable  of  repro- 
duction outside  the  body,  and  this  constitutes  the  characteristic  of  the 
■contagium  group  of  diseases.  To  this  group  is  especially  applicable  the 
bioplast  or  graft  theory,  which  is  as  follows: 

"  Growth  is  a  molecular  change — a  particle  of  animal  matter  growing 
or  capable  of  growth  (bioplasm)  may  be  separated  from  its  connections 
and  continue  to  grow  elsewhere;  it  will  grow  normally  if  it  be  normal, 
abnormally  if  abnormal;  hence,  particles  of  diseased  bodies  may  carry  on, 
in  new  bodies  to  which  they  are  introduced,  the  diseased  processes  which 


1  Report  o£  Investi^^ations  into  the  Pathogeny  of  Diphtheria,  made  to  the  Board  of 
Health  of  New  York,  N.  Y.,  1878,  8vo. 

-  Braidwood  and  Vacher  :  Second  Contribution  to  the  Life  History  of  Contagium, 
London,  1871,  p.  1. 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

they  had  taken  part  in  previously."     (Brit,  and  For.  M.-Chir.  Rev.,  1873, 
LIL,  298.)' 

Another  mode  of  vievs^ing  contagium  is  that  of  Dr.  Dougall,  who  does- 
not  regard  contagious  units  as  vitalized  entities,  but  simply  as  fragments 
of  dead  organic  matter  w^hose  elementary  particles  are  in  some  occult  state 
of  chemical  union  and  capable  of  imparting  their  condition  to  other  bodies 
susceptible  of  the  same  change,'^  which,  however,  seems  to  be  merely  a 
verbal  distinction.  At  all  events,  as  Mr.  Hutchinson  remarks,  there  is  a 
strong  distinction  between  a  germ  which  can  be  got  only  without  the  body 
and  a  germ  in  the  sense  of  a  cell — a  j)art  of  the  person's  organism;  and 
if  the  word  germ  is  to  be  applied  to  the  cause  of  splenic  fever,  some  other 
term  should  be  used  for  that  of  small-pox.  A  jDeculiarity  of  the  specific 
contagium  fevers  is  that  they  usually  affect  the  same  person  but  once,  and 
in  case  of  vaccine  there  is  evidence  to  show  that  this  is  connected  with 
the  presence  of  the  vaccine  cicatrix — since  in  cases  where  the  limb  con- 
taining the  cicatrix  has  been  removed  the  person  has  again  become  sus- 
ceptible.^ 


1  ' '  The  quantity  of  matter  in  which  any  molecular  change  or  group  of  changes  is 
taking  place  may  diminish  to  a  very  small  amount  without  the  continuity  of  action 
being  broken.  A  conflagration  may  diminish  to  a  spark,  and  yet  spread  again  to  as 
great  an  extent  as  before.  A  species  might  diminish  to  one  or  two  individuals  with- 
out becoming  extinct ;  and,  at  the  point  at  which  new  individuals  commence,  the 
molecular  actions  are  often  confined  to  a  minute  quantity  of  substance 

"  The  material  cause  of  every  communicable  disease  resembles  a  species  of  living- 
being  in  this,  that  both  one  and  the  other  depend  on,  and  in  fact  consist  of,  a  series 
of  continuous  molecular  changes  occurring  in  suitable  materials.  The  organized  mat- 
ter, as  we  must  presume  it  to  be,  which  induces  the  symptoms  of  a  communicated 
disease,  except  in  the  case  of  the  entozoa,  can  hardly  ever  be  separately  distinguished, 
like  the  individuals  of  a  species  of  plant  or  animal ;  but  we  know  that  this  organized 
matter  possesses  one  great  characteristic  of  plants  and  animals — that  of  increasing  and 
multiplying  its  own  kind.  *  In  the  instances  of  syphilis,  small-pox,  and  vaccinia,  we 
have  physical  proof  of  this  increase,  and  in  other  diseases  the  evidence  is  not  less  con- 
clusive. 

"  The  molecular  changes  taking  place  in  the  materies  morbi  of  some  diseases  resem- 
ble the  changes  in  many  living  beings  in  another  respect  also  ;  they  permit  of  being- 
suspended  under  certain  circumstances,  and  recommence  at  the  point  at  which  they 
ceased.  Thus,  the  matter  of  variola  and  of  vaccinia  can  be  carried,  in  the  dry  state,. 
to  distant  parts  of  the  world  without  injury,  like  the  seeds  of  a  plant." 

{From  Continuous  Molecular  Changes,  etc. ,  by  John  Snow,  etc. ,  London,  1853,. 
pp.  9  and  14.) 

2  Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  April  24,  1875,  p.  558. 

^  The  following  case  is  reported  to  me  by  Dr.  Robert  Fletcher,  late  surgeon  U.  S. 
Vols.,  who  personally  observed  the  facts,  and  whose  statement  is  absolutely  to  be 
relied  on. 

"  During  the  late  war,  a  soldier  was  admitted  into  one  of  the  hospitals  in  Nashville, 
for  a  gimshot  wound  of  the  tibia.  The  vaccine  cicatrix  was  very  noticeable  above 
the  ankle,  where,  more  Germanorum,  the  operation  had  been  performed.  The  leg  was- 
amputated,  and  while  convalescent  the  man  was  attacked  with  small-pox  and  sent  t» 
the  hospital,  where  the  disease  manifested  itself  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  patient, 
died." 


*  See  a  paper  by  Mr.  Grove,  of  Wanclsworth,  Med.  Times,  Vol.  XXIV.,  p.  G40. 


INTKODUCTION.  23 

The  ancient  belief  that  neither  contagion,  filth,  nor  meteorological  con- 
ditions, whether  taken  singly  or  together,  will  account  for  the  great  dif- 
ferences observed  in  the  origin  and  progress  of  epidemic  diseases,  and  that 
some  unknown  cause,  such  as  indicated  by  the  phrase  "Epidemic  Constitu- 
tion," must  be  assumed  in  order  to  account  for  all  the  phenomena,  is  still 
held  by  some  writers.  Thus  Dr.  Ransome,  from  a  study  of  the  statistics 
of  disease  in  four  large  towns  in  England,  concludes  that  such  an  epidemic 
influence  is  the  only  means  of  accounting  for  the  correspondence  observed 
between  the  curves  of  different  epidemics  at  these  points,'  and  Dr.  Lawson 
has  more  recently  reaffirmed  the  same  opinion,'''  which  corresponds  to  his 
theory  of  pandemic  waves  connected  with  variations  in  the  earth's  magnet- 
ism. For  instance,  in  the  epidemic  of  small-pox  of  1869-'73,  which  spread 
over  the  world,  there  was  a  special  malignancy,  as  shown  by  its  spread  in 
places  'where  usually  it  is  confined  to  a  few,  and  by  the  unusual  number 
of  heemorrhagic  and  fatal  cases,  which  seems  very  difficult  to  account  for 
by  a  simple  contagion. 

But,  on  taking  into  account  the  accumulation  of  susceptible  or  epinosic 
individuals  in  the  intervals  of  epidemics,  and  the  rapid  increase  of  the 
probability  of  epidemic  invasion  with  increase  of  the  epinosic  element,  the 
ratio  being  p-=2x,  where  p  is  the  probability  and  x  the  number  of  epinosic 
individuals,^  it  is  evident  that  the  wave  phenomena  of  such  diseases  may 
be  to  a  great  extent  thus  accounted  for,  while  the  study  of  the  special 
epidemic  just  referred  to,  made  by  Dr.  Leon  Colin,  makes  it  probable  that 
the  special  virulence  was  acquired  in  Brittany  in  1869,  much  in  the  same 
way  as  septic  poison  may  be  developed,  as  will  be  presently  explained,  so 


'  Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  1862,  H.,  386. 

5  Ibid.,  1874,  I.,  482. 

^  De  Chaumont  :  Lectures  on  State  Medicine,  London,  1875,  p.  173.     The  mode  of 

calculation  employed  by  Dr.  Farr  in  determining  the  state  of  epidemic  progression  is 

thus  described  by  Dr.  Evans .  ' '  Take  nine  weeks  of  the  early  course  of  the  epidemic 

in  three  groups  of  three  weeks  each  ;  find  the  average  deaths  per  week  in  each  group ; 

find  the  number  by  which  you  must  multiply  the  first  average  to  obtain  the  second, 

and  the  numbers  by  which  you  must  multiply  the  second  average  to  obtain  the  third; 

or,  as  a  simpler  process,  take  the  difference  between  the  logarithms  of  the  first  and 

second  averages,  and  between  the  logarithms  of  the  second  and  third.     The  first  of 

these  differences  may  be  called  S',  and  the  difference  between  these  two  differences, 

which  should,  to  bear  out  this  theory,  be  a  negative  quantity,  may  be  called  SI     We 

have  now  the  data  for  constructing  the  series.     The  average  of  the  first  three  weeks  is 

the  star  sing-point  and  represents  the  centre  week  of  those  three.      The  next  number 

in  the  series  is  obtained  by  adding  to  the  logarithm  of  our  first  number,  a  number 

S"     S- 
composed  of  -;^  —  ^  remembering  that  S'^  is  a  negative  quantity ;  we  continue  to  add 

to  the  logarithm  for  each  place  in  the  series  a  number  gradually  diminished  by  the 

S- 
addition  in  each  place  of  — ;   after  a  time  the  number  to  be  added  becomes  a  negative, 

and  the  series  gradually  diminishes. 

This  method  of  calculation  can  only  produce  a  satisfactory  result  when  an  epi- 
demic is  increasing  with  a  gradually  decreasing  ratio  of  increase.  Practitioner,  VoL 
XIV.,  London,  1875,  pp.  308-9. 


24  INTKODUCTION. 

that  there  is  no  necessity  of  assuming  an  "  Epidemic  Constitution"  to  ex- 
plain such  phenomena.  In  those  diseases  to  which  the  germ  theory  is 
more  properly  applicable,  such  as  cholera  or  yellow  fever,  it  is  possible 
that  the  polymorphism  of  the  germ  may  explain  some  of  the  diilerences 
observed  in  the  epidemicity  of  such  affections. 

From  the  parasitic  blood  diseases  as  typified  by  splenic  fever,  and  the 
contagium  diseases  as  typified  by  scarlatina,  we  may  pass  to  an  inter- 
mediate group  in  which  the  disease  seems  due  to  a  poison  produced  by 
microphytes,  but  in  which  the  production  does  not  occur,  or  at  least  does 
not  usually  occur,  within  the  body.  Of  these  there  are  two  forms.  The 
first  is  of  great  importance,  in  part  because  it  occurs  everywhere  and  at 
all  times,  constituting  an  ever-present  danger,  especially  in  surgical  and 
puerperal  cases;  in  part  because  we  now  have  good  reason  to  believe 
that  it  can  be  prevented  in  the  great  majority  of  instances.  This  is 
septicgemia.  The  use  of  the  terms  septic  poison,  septic  bacteria,  septic 
infusoria,  etc.,  is  somewhat  confusing  as  found  in  modern  literature. 
Septic  by  many  writers  is  used  to  mean  belonging  to,  or  connected  with, 
putrefaction,  and  by  septic  bacteria  are  meant  those  microdemes  which 
are  found  in  putrefying  fluids.  Such  microdemes  may  or  may  not  be 
capable  of  causing  the  fever  and  embolic  phenomena  characteristic  of 
septicaemia.'  It  cannot  be  too  clearly  understood  that  there  arc  many 
kinds  of  microdemes,  that  a  bacterium  is  simply  one  form  of  many  micro- 
demes, and  that  to  assert  that  a  disease  is  due  to  bacteria  is  to  assert  only 
that  the  disease  is  due  to  some  kind  of  microdeme  at  that  stage  of  its 
development  when  it  is  a  rod.  The  words  bacterium  and  bacteria  should 
be  abandoned  to  popular  literature.  As  rapidly  as  we  are  able  to  find 
distinguishing  characteristics  for  classes  in  these  minute  bodies,  let  them 
be  labelled  with  distinctive  names,  but  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  the 
name  of  bacteria  implies  any  identification  or  classification.  For  instance, 
if  one  says  that  bacteria  are  the  sole  causes  of  putrefaction,  I  must 
deny  it,  for  I  have  seen  putrefaction  in  the  absence  of  bacteria,  but 
I  have  never  seen  it  in  the  absence  of  microdemes.  Septicremia,  as  de- 
fined by  Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson,  is  "  a  constitutional  disorder  of  limited 
duration,  produced  by  the  entrance  into  the  blood-stream  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  septic  material."  This  septic  poison  may  be  separated  from 
putref^dng  material  by  chemical  processes,  and  obtained  in  the  form  of  a 
transparent  fluid.  This  fluid  contains  no  germs  in  the  sense  that  a  germ 
is  that  which  produces  an  organism,  but  it  does  contain  a  specific,  virulent 
something  which  can  be  separated  from  it  by  a  porcelain  filter,  and  which 
does  not  multiply  and  reproduce  itself.  The  sepsin  is  not  then  the  cause, 
but  the  result,  of  putrefaction,  and  when  introduced  into  the  living  body 


'  By  some  writers,  as,  for  instance,  Dr.  Southey  (lecture  on  Hygiene,  Lancet,  Nov. 
33,  1870),  the  term  zymotic  is  limited  to  those  diseases  which,  ns  a  rule,  aifect  the 
same  person  but  once,  while  those  which  do  not  confer  such  immunity  are  termed 
septic.  This,  however,  would  make  cholera  and  ague  septic  diseases,  which  is  not  in 
accordance  with  the  usual  use  of  that  word. 


INTRODUCTIOAT.  25 

its  effects  are  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  introduced,  like  those  of  a 
chemical  poison. 

To  produce  this  peculiar  poison  within  the  organism  itself — to  ensure, 
that  there  shall  be  constant  additions  of  it  to  the  blood-stream — it  seems 
liighly  probable  that  the  action  of  microphytes  is  always  necessary,  and 
hence  septicaemia  may  be  in  one  sense  said  to  be  always  due  to  micro- 
phytes, which  last  may  produce  the  specific  poison  either  within  or  with- 
out the  body. 

It  is  not,  however,  true,  that  all  the  microphytes  which  seem  to  have 
the  power  of  producing  putrefaction  can  do  so  in  the  living  body,  or 
rather  in  contact  with  living  tissues  ;  nor  does  it  follow  by  any  means 
that  when  a  portion  of  the  living  body  dies  and  putrefies  septic  products 
alwaj^s  pass  into  the  blood-stream.  In  the  intestinal  canal,  and  in  the  air- 
passages,  there  are  at  all  times  multitudes  of  microdemes,  some  of  which 
have  the  power  of  causing  putrefaction  under  favorable  circumstances, 
but  which  do  not  do  so  in  us  in  health.  In  order  that  the  microdeme 
may  become  the  starting-point  of  the  septic  or  py?emic  process  in  the 
living  organism,  it  seems  necessary  that  it  shall  have  been  derived  from, 
or  come  in  contact  with,  some  specific  source  of  contagion,  or  else — but 
such  cases  are  certainly  the  minority — that  the  condition  of  some  part  of 
the  living  body  shall  have  been  so  far  changed  from  its  normal  vitality 
that  the  microdeme  can  flourish  in  it  as  in  dead  organic  matter.  In  either 
case,  in  addition  to  the  growth  of  microjDhytes  and  the  production  of  their 
specific  products,  it  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  the  septic  phenomena 
that  the  condition  of  the  tissues  and  vessels  shall  be  such  as  to  permit  the 
entrance  of  the  septic  poison  into  the  blood. 

Hence,  two  methods  of  prevention  of  blood-poisoning  after  surgical 
operations  have  given  good  results,  the  first  being  the  well-known  method 
of  Lister,  with  its  many  modifications,  which  aims  at  totally  preventing 
the  contact  of  living  microphytes  with  the  injured  surface;  the  second, 
being  the  air-dressing,  which  aims  at  the  freest  possible  exposure,  in  order 
that  the  dead  and  septic  matters  may  easily  and  rapidly  escape.  So  long 
as  only  the  ordinary  microdemes  of  all  air  and  water  are  present,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  results  obtained  by  these  apparently  opposite  methods 
is  not  great;  but  so  soon  as  the  element  of  specific  contagium  comes  in, 
the  only  hope  of  safety  lies  in  the  absolute  exclusion.  Dr.  Sanderson  has 
also  shown  that  while  the  property  of  producing  the  septic  poison  is  not 
possessed  by  the  ordinary  bacteroid  forms,  or  at  least  not  to  a  marked  de- 
gree, it  may  easily  be  developed  in  great  potency  by  the  injection  of  fluids 
containing  these  forms  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  the  guinea-pig,  rein- 
jecting the  effused  fluids  thus  produced  into  a  second  animal,  and  so  on, 
each  successive  production  of  fluid  increasing  in  its  power  of  producing 
rapid  septic  poisoning.  The  analogy  between  this  and  the  development 
of  special  malignancy  in  the  contagium  diseases  has  been  already  alluded 
to,  and  it  is  possible  that  a  similar  relation  may  exist  between  bacillus 
subtilis  and  b.  anthracis. 

We  have  next  briefly  to  refer  to  those  forms  of  disease  classed  as  mias- 


26  ixtroductio:n". 

matic,  in  which  the  poison  is  developed  outside  the  body.  Taking  the 
malarial  fevers  as  a  t^q^e,  it  may  be  said  that  the  prevailing  opinion  is  that 
they  are  due  to  a  specific  poison  usually  produced  in  decaying  vegetable 
matters.  The  latest  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  the  microphyte 
causing  this  disease  is  made  by  A.  F,  Eklund,  Surgeon  of  the  Royal 
Swedish  Marine,  who  claims  to  have  discovered  in  the  blood  and  urine  of 
those  thus  affected  a  peculiar  organism  known  as  the  Lymnophysalis  hya- 
lina.'  This  requires  confirmation  very  m^^ch.  The  most  important  fact  to 
the  practical  sanitarian,  in  regard  to  this  class  of  diseases,  is  their  usual, 
though  not  invariable,  connection  with  soil  moisture,  and  the  fact  that 
thorough  drainage  is  a  powerful  means  of  preventing  them. 

The  last  class  of  diseases  is  that  called  the  miasmatic  contagious,  in 
which  it  is  supposed  that  the  specific  cause  of  the  disease  does  not  mul- 
tiply as  such  in  the  body,  but  comes  from  without,  having  been  developed 
in  a  peculiar  way.  Of  this  class  cholera  and  yellow  fever  may  be  taken  as 
types. 

Naegeli,  assuming  that  such  diseases  are  due  to  microphytes,  indi- 
cates two  possible  explanations:  1.  The  microphyte  from  the  sick  person 
must,  before  it  can  produce  the  disease,  pass  a  special  stage  of  develop- 
ment in  an  abnormal  substratum.  This  he  calls  the  raonoblastic  theory. 
2.  The  abnormal  substratum  produces  a  miasm,  without  which  the  micro- 
phyte produces  no  specific  effects,  which  is  the  diblastic  theory.  As  he 
considers  all  contagion  to  be  due  to  schizomycetes  or  Spaltpilze,  and  does 
not  admit  that  there  are  many  kinds  of  these  organisms,  he  is  forced  to 
accept  the  diblastic  theory,  and  supposes  that  the  contagium  of  small-pox 
is  a  compound  of  a  microphyte  with  peculiar  products  of  decomposition 
{KranJcheitsstoff),  which  simply  removes  the  difficulty  one  step.  This 
corresponds  to  Pettenkoffer's  formula,  that  if  x  =  the  germ,  y  =  the  sub- 
stratum, and  z  =  the  specific  poison,  then  x  -}-  y  =  z;  but  Pettenkoffer  does 
not  affirm  that  there  is  but  one  kind  of  germ.  With  regard  to  the  mono- 
blastic  theory,  there  seems  no  necessity  for  assuming  that  the  external 
substratum  of  development  must  be  abnormal  or  peculiar.  If  the  para- 
site has  two  or  more  stages  of  development,  analogous  to  the  metamor- 
phosis of  a  mosquito  or  of  the  filaria  sanguinis — if  in  stage  x  it  only 
flourishes  in  the  living  body,  and  in  stage  y  only  in  dead  organic  matter — 
and  if  it  is  only  in  stage  y  that  it  is  reproductive  or  communicable,  there 
seems  nothing  impossible  in  the  theory.  The  analogy  to  the  known  para- 
sitic diseases  is  close; — since  these  also,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Manson,  may 
be  divided  into  those  which  are  directly  contagious,  such  as  scabies,  and 
those  indirectly  contagious,  such  as  hydatids  or  filaria;  and  the  phenomena 
of  the  indirectly  contagious  diseases  are  that  they  are  endemic  in  certain  lo- 
calities, they  may  be  imported  into  other  localities,  they  disappear  with  the 
medium  of  development,  are  not  infectious,  inoculable,  nor  hereditary,  but 
are  found  to  prevail  in  certain  families.^     Whatever  explanation,  if  any, 

'  Arch,   de   med.    navale,  July,  1878. 

^  P.  Manson  on  Filaria  Disease  :  China  Customs  Med.  Reports,  Sept.  30,  1878,  p.  15. 


INTKODUCTIOIS'.  27 

be  acceptable,  tlie  question  as  to  whether  an  external  substratum  of  de- 
composing organic  matter  is  necessary  to  the  spread  of  a  disease,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  interest  and  importance  to  the  sanitarian.  Where  no  such 
substratum  is  necessary,  as  for  instance,  in  scarlatina,  the  only  resource  in 
his  power  to  check  the  spread  of  the  disease  is  the  isolation  of  those 
affected  by  it  and  the  disinfection  of  their  persons,  clothing,  bedding,  etc. 
His  object  is  to  destroy  or  prevent  the  reproduction  of  the  specific  micro- 
demes  or  their  specific  products,  and,  in  the  present  state  of  therapeutical 
knowledge,  this  can  only  be  done  at  the  time  when  they  are  external  to 
the  living  body,  that  is  to  say,  at  the  very  time  when  he  has  no  means  of 
I'ecognizing  their  presence.  • 

But  if  they  must  pass  a  stage  of  development  in  some  external  sub- 
stratum, then,  if  he  can  either  secure  the  absence  of  that  substratum  or 
make  it  unfit  to  j)romote  the  development  of  the  luicrodemes,  he  can  check 
the  spread  of  the  disease. 

The  nature  of  the  most  usual  substratum  is  indicated  in  the  conclusion 
of  Dr.  Curtis,  that  "  localized  filth  accompanied  tcith  7noisture  constitutes 
the  great  source  of  excessive  disease  and  death.^''  ^  The  italics  are  in  the 
original.  The  same  fact  was  strongly  insisted  on  by  Mr.  Simon  in  his  re- 
port on  "  Filth  Diseases  and  their  Prevention,"  presented  to  the  Local 
Government  Board  in  1874,  in  which  he  so  clearly  and  concisely  sums  up 
the  existing  knowledge  on  this  subject,  that,  although  the  following  extract 
is  rather  long,  no  apology  seems  necessary  for  inserting  it. 

"  7.  An  important  suggestion  of  modern  science  with  regard  to  the 
nature  of  the  operations  by  which  filth,  attacking  the  human  body,  is  able 
to  disorder  or  destroy  it,  is:  that  the  chief  morbific  agencies  in  filth 
are  other  than  those  chemically  identified  stinking  gaseous  products  of 
organic  decomposition  which  force  themselves  on  popular  attention.  Ex- 
posure to  the  sufficiently  concentrated  fumes  of  organic  decomposition 
(as,  for  instance,  in  an  unventilated  old  cesspool  or  long-blocked  sewer) 
may,  no  doubt,  prove  immediately  fatal  by  reason  of  some  large  quantity 
of  sulphide  of  ammonium,  or  other  like  poisonous  and  foetid  gas,  which 
the  sufferer  suddenly  inhales;  and  far  smaller  doses  of  these  foetid  gases^ 
as  breathed  with  extreme  dilution  in  ordinary  stinking  atmospheres,  both 
give  immediate  headache  and  general  discomfort  to  sensitive  persons 
temporarily  exposed  to  them,  and  also  appear  to  keep  in  a  somewhat 
vaguely  depressed  state  of  health  many  who  habitually  breathe  them;  but 
here,  so  far  as  we  yet  know,  is  the  end  of  the  potency  of  those  stinking- 
gases.  While,  however,  thus  far  there  is  only  the  familiar  case  of  the 
so-called  common  chemiccd  poison,  which  hurts  by  instant  action,  and  in 
direct  proportion  to  its  palpable  and  ponderable  dose,  the  other  and  far 
wider  possibilities  of  mischief  which  we  recognize  in  filth  are  such  as 
apparently  must  be  attributed  to  morbific  ferments  or  contagia ,'  matters 
which  not  only  are  not  gaseous,  but,  on  the  contrary,  so  far  as  we  know 
them,  seem  to  have  their  essence,  or  an  inseparable  part  of  it,  in  certain 

'  Report  on  the  Census  of  Boston,  by  Josiah  Curtis,  M.D. ,  Boston,  1876,  8vo,  p.  83, 


28  inteoductiojn". 

solid  elements  which  the  microscope  discovers  in  them;  in  living  organ- 
isms, namely,  which  in  their  largest  sizes  are  but  very  minute  microscopi- 
cal objects,  and  at  their  least  sizes  are  probably  unseen  even  with  the 
microscope;  organisms  which,  in  virtue  of  their  vitality,  are  indefinitely 
self-multiplying  within  their  respective  spheres  of  operation,  and  which, 
therefore,  as  in  contrast  with  common  poisons,  can  develop  indefinitely 
large  ulterior  effects  from  first  doses  Avhich  are  indefinitely  small.  Of 
ferments  thus  characterized,  the  apparently  essential  factors  of  specific 
chemical  processes,  at  least  one  sort — the  ordinary  septic  ferment  ' — seems 
always  to  be  present  where  putrefactive  changes  are  in  progress,  as  of 
course  in  all  decaying  animal  refuse;  while  others,  though  certainly  not 
essential  to  all  such  putridity,  are  in  different  degrees  apt,  and  some  of 
them  little  less  than  certain,  to  be  frequent  incidents  of  our  ordinary 
refuse. 

"It  must  be  remembered  that  gases  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  particu- 
late ferments  on  the  other,  stand  in  widely  different  relations  to  air  and 
water  as  their  respective  media  of  diffusion.  The  ferments,  so  far  as  we 
know  them,  show  no  power  of  active  diffusion  in  dry  air;  diffusing  in  it 
only  as  they  are  passively  wafted,  and  then  probably,  if  the  air  be  freely 
open,  not  carrying  their  vitality  far;  but,  as  moisture  is  their  normal 
medium,  currents  of  humid  air  (as  from  sewers  and  drains)  can  doubtless 
lift  them  in  their  full  effectiveness,  and  if  into  houses  or  confined  exterior 
spaces,  then  with  their  chief  chances  of  remaining  effective;  and  ill-ven- 
tilated low-lying  localities,  if  unclean  as  regards  the  removal  of  their 
refuse,  may  especially  be  expected  to  have  these  ferments  present  in  their 
common  atmosphere,  as  well  as  of  course  teeming  in  their  soil  and  ground- 
water." 

"  8.  Populations  under  the  influence  of  filth  are  in  many  cases  suffering 
not  only  from  that  influence,  but  also  from  other  removable  causes  of  dis- 
ease; and  in  any  endeavor  to  estimate  at  all  exactly,  as  for  administrative 
judgment,  the  injury  which  is  derived  from  filth,  evidently  those  addi- 
tional influences,  should  as  far  as  practicable  be  made  matter  of  separate 
account.  In  one  case  a  filthy  neighborhood  may  be  so  poor  that  mere 
privation  is  an  appreciable  cause  of  disease  in  it.  In  another  case  the 
population  may  be  so  badly  housed,  in  respects  which  by  themselves  would 
not  be  classed  as  filth — may  be  so  overcrowded  in  their  dwellings,  or  be  in- 
habiting such  close  or  ill-built  quarters,  that  this  has  to  be  counted  as 
causing  disease.  In  a  third  case,  some  particular  collective  occupation, 
injurious  to  the  adults  and  adolescents  who  follow  it,  may  be  creating 
disease  additional  to  that  which  the  filth  produces.  In  a  fourth  case, 
swarms  of  infants  and  young  children,  whose  mothers  are  engaged  away 

'  For  convenience  I  use  the  singular  number,  but  have  no  intention  of  implying 
that  ordinary  putrefactive  changes  have  only  one  ferment  which  can  be  considered 
habitual  to  them. 


i]srTRODUCTio:N'.  29 

from  home  in  some  local  industry,  may  be  suffering  disease  from  neglect 
and  mismanagement,  and  so  forth.  And  evidently,  if  one  would  see  what 
harm  filth  can  do  in  its  own  ways,  one  must  discriminate  it  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  such  concomitants  as  the  above. 

"In  filthy  urban  districts,  where  the  foul  air,  comparatively  incarcer- 
ated in  courts  and  alleys  and  narrow  streets,  can  act  with  most  force  in 
reo-ard  to  masses  of  population,  the  population  always  shows  an  increased 
mortality  under  several  titles  of  disease.  Such  miscellaneous  increase  of 
mortality  affects,  probably,  all  ages,  more  or  less,  but  a  distinctively  large 
proportion  of  it  attaches  to  the  children.  Apparently  the  mere  influence 
of  the  filth  (apart  from  other  influences)  in  such  a  district  will  be  causing 
the  infants  and  young  children  to  die  at  twice,  or  thrice,  or  four  times 
their  fair  standard  rate  of  mortality;  and  this  disproportion,  which  be- 
comes even  more  striking  when  the  chief  epidemics  of  ordinary  childhood 
(measles,  and  whooping-cough,  and  scarlatina)  are  left  out  of  the  com- 
parison, seems  to  mark  the  young  lives  as  finer  tests  of  foul  air  than  are 
the  elder  and  perhaps  acclimatized  population. 

"In  trying  to  analyze  the  death  statistics  of  filthy  districts,  we  soon 
find  that,  with  regard  to  many  of  the  separate  elements  in  the  miscellane- 
ous mortality,  we  cannot  argue  in  exact  scientific  terms,  partly  because 
very  large  quantities  are  registered  under  names  which  have  no  definite 
nosological  meaning — e.  g.,  "  convulsions,"  "  teething,"  "  atrophy,"  "  con- 
sumption ;  "  partly,  also,  because  some  kinds  which  we  can  fairly  identify  by 
name  (e.  (/.,  pneumonia)  are  such  as  we  do  not  always  etiologically  under- 
stand ;  and  sometimes  we  may  be  only  able  to  establish  the  broad  fact 
that,  within  the  area  of  filth,  the  deaths,  in  total  amount,  are  greatly  more 
numerous  than  they  ought  to  be,  and  that  the  excess  (or,  in  mixed  cases,  a 
certain  share  of  the  excess)  can  only  be  accounted  for  as  the  effect  of 
the  filth." ' 

Great  as  is  the  importance  of  filth  as  one  of  the  causes  of  disease,  it  is 
necessary  not  to  overestimate  it,  and  to  beware  of  the  popular  notion  that 
filth  is  almost  the  only  thing  which  requires  the  attention  of  the  sanita- 
rian. It  is  well  known  that  filth  does  not  always,  nor  even  usually,  pro- 
duce disease,  as  clearly  appears  from  the  researches  of  Dr.  Guy  on  the 
health  of  nightmen,  scavengers,  etc.;"  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
filth  diseases,  and  especially  typhoid  fever,  sometimes  occur  under  circum- 
stances where  the  ordinary  recognizable  forms  of  filth  would  seem  to  have 
little  to  do  with  the  matter.'  The  conclusion  of  Dr.  Cabell,  from  the  facts 
collected  by  him,  appears  perfectly  legitimate,  viz.:  that  it  appears  that 
at  various  times  a  fever,  having  the  clinical  characteristics  of  the  typhoid- 

'  (See  Reports  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council  and  Local  Government 
Board,  N.  S.,  No.  1,  London,  1874.  Filth  Diseases  and  their  Prevention,  pp.  8-9,  10, 
and  11-12.) 

*  Compare  also  Noble  on  certain  popular  fallacies  concerning-  tho  production  of  epi- 
demic diseases,  Manche.ster,  IG.'iO,  8vo. 

^  See  The  Etiology  of  Enteric  Fever,  by  J.  L.  Cabell,  2I.D.,  Trans.  Am.  Med.  Asso- 
ciation, 1877.  p.  411. 


30  INTKODUCTIOX. 

enteric  fever,  has  prevailed  in  large  areas  of  country  in  \'irginia,  generally 
succeeding  a  like  prevalence  of  periodic  fever,  which  in  a  very  great 
degree  subsides  on  the  appearance  of  the  typhoid  affection,  and  he  con- 
cludes that  this  disease  cannot  be  prevented  in  these  districts  by  exclusive 
attention  to  the  removal  of  the  products  of  either  animal  or  vegetable 
decomposition. ' 

What  is  ordinarily  known  as  cleanliness  will  not  only  have  no  effect 
upon  the  spreading  of  the  true  contagium  diseases,  such  as  scarlatina,  but 
may  seem  to  be  of  no  avail  in  preventing  the  class  of  diseases  referred  to 
by  Mr.  Simon. 

Yet  the  evidence  that  filth  is  a  constant  source  of  danger  is  so  strong, 
and  the  good  effects  of  preventing  its  accumulation  have  been,  upon  the 
whole,  so  evident,  that  it  is  not  strange  that  it  should  seem  to  those  sani- 
tarians who  have  more  zeal  than  knowledge,  and  who  are  not  accustomed 
to  the  modes  of  thinking  of  the  scientific  investigator,  as  if  discussions 
upon  other  possible  causes  or  refinements  in  diagnosis  were  unnecessary, 
as  if,  to  use  the  words  of  Mr.  Chadwick,  "  the  medical  controversy  as  to 
the  causes  of  fever,  as  to  whether  it  is  caused  by  filth  and  vitiated  atmos- 
phere, .  .  .  does  not  appear  to  be  one  that  for  practical  purposes 
need  be  considered,  except  that  its  effect  is  prejudicial  in  diverting  atten- 
tion from  the  practical  means  of  prevention."  This  is  the  phraseology  of 
the  so-called  jDractical  man  who  thinks  that  "  he  knows  enough,"  but  the 
idea  which  it  embodies  is  entirely  erroneous.  As  stated  by  Dr.  Netten 
Radcliffe,  "  the  fundamental  principle  of  sanitary  practice  is  the  discrim- 
ination of  conditions  under  which  disease  prevails.  As  a  corollary,  a 
knowledge  of  these  conditions  is  necessary  to  an  intelligent  adaptation  of 
remedial  measures.  .  .  .  The  cleanliness  at  which  hygienic  measures 
aim,  if  it  is  to  be  other  than  a  delusion,  must  be  founded  on  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  that  aim,  and  such  appreciation  involves  a  knowledge  of 
the  conditions  under  which  the  diseases  to  be  affected  by- the  measures 
exist.  To  relegate  sanitary  matters  to  '  common  (notions  of)  cleanliness ' 
and  to  '  common  sense,'  is  to  relegate  them  to  general  ignorance  and  to 
general  slovenliness."  '^ 

Mr.  Chadwick,  however,  takes  a  wiser  view  in  his  address  at  the 
International  Congress  of  Hygiene  at  Paris,  in  which  he  remarks  that 
"  routine  statistical  returns  of  the  fact  of  death,  and  even  of  the  classes 
of  diseases  of  which  the  patient  died,  without  reference  to  the  preventable 
causes,  are  positively  pernicious,  as  tending  to  extend  a  fatalist  impression 
that  such  deaths  and  diseases  are  the  results  of  inscrutable  causes,  that 
the  best  that  can  be  done  has  been  done.  .  .  .  It  is  customary  in 
these  reports  to  give  solely  the  mean  of  the  death-rate  of  an  entire  city, 
which  comprises  the  mean  of  populations  in  extremely  oi^jjosite  civic  con- 


'  Confsult  also  W.   H.   Bramblett  :  The  Etiology  of  Typhoid  Fever,  Virginia  Med. 
Monthly,  Oct.,  1878,  p.  517. 

^  J.  N.  Radcliffe :  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Sanitary  Method,  Practitioner, 
London,  Sept.,  1878.  p.  325. 


INTKODUCTION.  31 

ditions.  A  mean  between  the  conditions  of  Dives  and  Lazarus  tends  to 
make  it  apparent  that  after  all  Lazarus  has  not  so  much  to  complain 
of." 

It  is  not  only  impossible  to  practically  carry  out  sanitary  measures  to 
the  best  advantage  without  a  comprehension  of  the  scientific  principles  on 
which  they  are  based,  but  the  duty  of  a  sanitarian  is  by  no  means  com- 
pleted when  he  has  mastered  the  existing-  formulas  of  hygiene  and  their 
practical  application. 

It  is  his  business  to  increase  knowledge,  and  in  no  field  of  scientific 
inquiry  at  the  present  time  are  there  greater  opportunities  for  so  doing. 

To  this  end  it  is  desirable  that  he  should  be  familiar  with  the  disputed 
points — the  border-lands  of  sanitary  science — in  order  that  no  opportunity 
may  be  lost  of  rescuing  some  portion,  be  it  ever  so  small,  from  the  marshes 
of  theory  and  empiricism  which  surround  them.  Every  epidemic,  great 
or  small,  even  if  there  be  but  three  cases  showing  a  community  of  origin, 
is  an  experiment  performed  for  him,  an  experiment  which  he  neither  can 
nor  dare  perform  for  himself,  and  which  will  never  be  repeated  in  all  its 
details.  Hence,  the  immense  importance  to  the  sanitarian  as  well  as  to 
the  medical  man  of  knowing  how  to  observe,  which  in  most  cases  includes 
the  knowing  what  to  observe  and  lohat  to  omit. 

The  method  of  investigation  of  epidemics  formulated  by  the  French 
Academy  of  Medicine  in  1828  laid  great  stress  on  the  topography  and 
meteorology  of  affected  places,  for  obtaining  wjiich  detailed  instructions 
are  given,  somewhat  less  stress  on  the  history  and  pathological  anatomy 
of  the  disease  itself,  and  dismisses  other  points  with  a  few  words. 

Many  investigations  have  been  made  upon  this  plan,  but  without  ob- 
taining very  decided  results,  and  it  has  gradually  become  apparent  that 
continuous  morbility  and  mortality  statistics  not  only  of  localities  affected, 
but  of  those  not  affected,  are  necessary  to  make  the  meteorological  and 
topographical  data  of  any  special  value. 

It  is  much  easier  to  obtain  really  useful  statistics  in  questions  of 
etiology  than  in  questions  of  therapeutics,  although  their  results  are  more 
frequently  underrated  in  the  former  and  overrated  in  the  latter,'  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  statistics  but  rarely  originate  knowledge — they 
are  simply  the  balance  in  which  the  observations  are  weighed — and  as  the 
great  majority  of  observers  see  only  that  which  they  are  looking  for,  the 
most  useful  statistics  are  those  collected  to  answer  certain  definite  ques- 
tions. 

Difficult  as  it  is  to  obtain  statistics,  it  is  equally  difficult  to  use  them 
rightly  when  obtained,  "  Testimonia  ponderanda  sunt  antequam  nume- 
randa,"  but  even  when  this  has  been  done  much  remains. 

When  the  figures  have  been  obtained,  arranged  in  tables,  and  sum- 
med up,  most  people  suppose  the  work  is  done,  whereas  the  skilled 
statistician  knows  that  it  is  only  fairly  begun.  He  has  still  to  answer 
three  questions,  viz.:  1st,  what  is  the  amount  of  probable  error  in  the 

'  See  Brit,  and  For.  M.-C.  Rev. ,  1854,  XII.,  6. 


82  INTRODUCTION. 

results  ;  2d,  what  is  proven  or  rendered  probable  by  them  ;  and  3d,  whar 
is  the  degree  of  this  probability. 

It  will  surprise  those  who  have  given  little  attention  to  the  mathe- 
matics of  probabilities  to  see  how  the  results  of  medical  and  sanitary  sta- 
tistics shrink  and  dwindle  on  the  application  of  Poisson's  formula.' 

Even  when  we  find  from  the  figures  that  a  certain  result  is  probable, 
we  want  this  probability  expressed  in  a  known  standard. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  "  negative  evidence  means  evidence  to 
'the  contrary,  not  the  absence  of  all  evidence;  probable  extends  from 
even  chances  to  positive  affirmation,  improbable  from  even  chances  to 
positive  denial."  For  instance,  it  is  jirobable  that  typhoid  fever  is  due  to 
a  specific  microzyme.  It  is  probable  that  in  some  cases  typhoid  fever 
has  appeared  in  a  community  without  the  importation  of  this  specific 
microzyme.  It  is  improbable  that  this  specific  microzyme  should  be 
spontaneously  generated.  Try  to  express  in  figures  these  probabilities 
and  improbabilities,  and  to  deduce  from  the  results  in  mathematical 
terms  the  relative  probabilities  of,  1st,  errors  in  observation  ;  2d,  spon- 
taneous generation  of  the  microzyme  ;  3d,  its  being  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance by  aerial  currents.  The  statistics  which  previously  appeared  so 
plain  and  satisfactory  will  probably  have  a  very  different  asjDect  before 
the  answer  is  obtained. 

A  question  of  great  interest  in  etiology,  and  which  can  only  be  set- 
tled by  statistics,  relates  to  the  concurrence  of  diseases  and  the  sequence 
in  which  they  follow  each  other.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the 
researches  of  Dr.  Buchanan  on  this  subject  (page  14),  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  such  concurrence  is  found  in  certain  cases. 

Whether  these  coincidences  are  merely  accidental,  or  whether  they 
show  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  or  a  common  cause,  such  as  the  pan- 
demic waves  of  Dr.  Lawson,  is  as  yet  uncertain,  and  the  determining  this 
point  may  prove  very  valuable  as  to  prognosis  and  prevention. 

Of  late  years  the  greatest  advances  in  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  of 
disease  have  been  made,  not  by  statistics,  but  by  experiment  and  by  in- 
vestigations in  comparative  pathology.  The  utility  of  this  method  is 
limited  by  the  fact  that  specific  diseases  seem  usually  specific  to  certain 
animals,  and  that  many  of  the  diseases  of  man  cannot  be  communicated 
to  the  lower  animals  ;  but  as  yet  our  knowledge  on  this  subject  is  ex- 
tremely imperfect,  and  the  relations  of  the  diseases  of  animals  to  those 
of  man,  of  epizootics  to  epidemics,  etc.,  belongs  especially  to  sanitary 
science. 

Evidently,  if  we  are  to  investigate  to  good  purpose  the  nature  of  a 
poison,  we  must  have  some  satisfactory  test  of  the  presence  of  the  poison. 
The  reason  why  we  have  been  able  to  make  some  advance  in  our  knowl- 
edge of  splenic  fever,  and  little  or  none  for  many  years  in  our  knowledge 
of  yellow  fever,  is  because  we  can  produce  the  first-named  disease  in  ani- 

*  Probable  error  =  —  +  v  8p(q  —  P)  where  q  =:  total  number  of  events 

q  q^  p  =  number  of  events  in  one  direction. 


INTEODUCTION.  33 

mals,  thus  having  at  our  command  a  physiological  test  whereby  we  may 
know  whether  we  actually  have  the  poison  before  us,  while  little  has  been 
effected,  or  even  attempted,  to  obtain  such  a  test  for  the  yellow  fever 
poison. 

Attempts  have  been  made,  it  is  true,  to  inoculate  this  poison  on  man, 
and  it  has  been  observed  that  calves  and  unacclimated  northern  cattle 
will  become  affected  during  an  epidemic  with  peculiar  symptoms,  such  as 
yellowness  of  the  conjunctiva,  haematuria,  etc,  but  these  are  simply  in- 
dications for  the  work  which  is  yet  to  be  done.  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson 
asserts  that  by  the  giving  of  large  doses  of  alkalies  to  animals,  he  has  de- 
veloped symptoms  similar  to  those  of  typhus,  and  concludes  "that  by 
experiment  it  might  be  ascertained: 

"1.  In  what  excreta  the  poisons  of  certain  epidemic  diseases  are  lo- 
cated. 

"  2.  By  what  surfaces  of  the  body  such  poisons  may  be  absorbed,  so 
as  to  produce  their  specific  effects. 

"3.  Whether  the  virus  of  a  disease,  in  reproducing  its  disease  in  a 
healthy  body,  acts  in  the  development  of  the  phenomena  by  which  the 
disease  is  typified,  primarily  or  secondarily,  i.  e.,  by  its  own  reproduction 
and  presence,  or  by  the  evolution  of  another  and  different  principle  or 
product. 

"4.  Whether  climate,  season,  and  other  external  influences,  modify 
the  course  of  epidemics,  by  producing  modifications  of  the  epidemic 
poisons,  or  modifications  in  the  system  of  persons  exposed  to  the  poi- 
sons." ' 

It  is  quite  possible  that,  as  civilization  progresses,  new  sources  of  dis- 
ease may  be  developed;  as,  for  example,  yellow  fever  is  believed  by  many 
historians  to  have  been  developed  by  the  colonization  of  the  AVest  Indies 
from  Europe;  that  "the  opening  of  new  territories  will  have  its  dan- 
gers," and  that  "  indigenous  germs  of  disease  may  exist  in  unexplored 
Africa  and  in  other  secluded  parts  of  the  globe,  which  are  in  time  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  marts  of  commerce,  and  thence  to  be  still  more  widely 
diffused  ;  " "  but  if  this  shall  occur,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  success  in 
discriminating  these  diseases  and  in  fixing  on  their  causes  will  be  in  pre- 
cise proportion  to  the  knowledge  of  diseases  now  existing  which  may  be 
possessed  by  those  who  first  meet  with  the  new  disease  ;  for,  as  it  is  the 
first  cases  in  an  epidemic  which  are  the  most  important,  and  which  are 
most  frequently  mistaken,  still  more  would  this  be  the  case  with  an  en- 
tirely new  disease. 

In  so  far  as  the  origin  and  spread  of  epidemic  diseases  depend  upon 
atmospheric  changes,  we  can  do  little  or  nothing  to  modify  their  course, 
and  hence  the  study  of  meteorological  conditions  in  connection  with  the 
etiology  of  disease  is,  to  the  sanitarian,  at  present,  of  no  great  practical 

'Erit.  Med.  Jour.,  London,  1855,  pp.  213-14. 

-  G-.  M.  Smith :  Epidemics  of  the  Century,  Trans.  X.  Y.  Acad,  of  Med. ,  1876,  p. 
363. 

3 


34  INTRODUCTIOJ^. 

value,  except  to  give  him  the  power  of  prediction  to  a  limited  extent. 
During  the  last  hundred  years  a  vast  amount  of  labor  has  been  expended 
by  medical  men  in  obtaining  and  recording  meteorological  data,  in  the  hope 
of  establishing  some  connection  between  these  and  the  variations  in  dis- 
ease; but,  as  a  rule,  it  has  been  labor  wasted  so  far  as  this  object  is  con- 
cerned, for  the  simple  reason  that  the  variations  in  disease  have  not  also 
been  recorded,  but  merely  estimated  and  guessed  at. 

No  substantial  addition  in  this  respect  has  been  made  to  the  knowledge 
possessed  by  Hippocrates,  as  set  forth  in  his  book  on  airs,  waters,  and 
places,  namely,  that  cold  and  damp  weather  produces  diseases  of  the 
respiratory  organs;  hot  weather,  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs;  spring 
and  autumn,  malarial  troubles,  etc' 

Our  hope  of  substantial  scientific  progress  in  knowledge  of  the  causes 
of  disease  rests  mainly  on  two  methods  as  yet  little  used,  namely,  on  the 
registration  of  disease  and  on  comj)arative  experimental  pathology. 

III. JUEISPKUDEXCE    OP    HyGIEXE. 

Whatever  may  be  the  nature  or  the  precise  causes  of  an  epidemic, 
endemic,  or  prevalent  disease,  it  is  evident  that  the  great  majority  of  in- 
dividuals in  a  community  can  have  but  little  power  as  individuals  to  avoid, 
prevent,  or  destroy  these  causes.  They  do  not,  in  fact,  know  what  these 
causes  are,  or  how  to  recognize  them.  Their  hereditary  organization, 
education,  habits,  and  occupation,  the  climate  in  which  they  live,  and 
even  the  quality  of  the  air,  food,  and  water  which  they  use,  are  all  estab- 
lished for  them,  rather  than  by  them,  so  that  if  anything  approximating  a 
perfect  system  of  hygiene  depended  on  individual  effort,  we  might  con- 
clude that  the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  such  a  system  is  "  one  of  those 
dreams  which  breathe  a  blind  hope  into  us,  a  hope  born  only  of  our  long- 
ings and  destined  to  die  of  our  experience,"  and  that  "  in  the  scheme  of 
Providence  it  may  not  be  meant  that  man  shall  be  healthy."  '^ 

But  when  from  the  indi\ndual  we  turn  to  the  community,  and  consider 
it  not  as  a  mere  collection  of  isolated  and  independent  persons,  but  as  a 
distinct  organism  possessing  its  own  individuality,  and  having  powers  and 
responsibilities  of  its  own,  the  case  is  very  different. 

It  is  true  that  the  State,  like  the  individual,  is  limited  by  its  descent 
and  surroundings,  and  that  the  city  as  well  as  the  citizen  must  follow  the 
thread  of  the  Fates;  but  "one  blade  of  the  fatal  shears  is  usually  forged 
by  the  city  itself,"  and  thus,  to  a  great  extent,  can  it  control  the  destiny 
of  its  children  as  regards  health  and  longe\'ity. 

This  control  is  to  be  obtained  by  knowledge — special  and  highly  de- 

^  For  views  in  opposition  to  this,  see  Sixth  Report  State  Board  of  Health  of  Michi- 
gan for  1878,  p.  300.  In  this  and  other  reports  of  Dr.  Baker  the  best  possible  has  been 
done  with  the  materials  at  his  command  to  show  the  connection  between  meteorology 
and  morbility,  and  the  scientific  interest  and  value  of  such  work  is  not  denied. 

-  Parkes  E.  A. :  Manual  of  Hygiene,  5th  Ed. ,  1878.     Introduction,  p.  ssi. 


INTliODUCTIO:^.  35 

veloped  knowledge  on  the  part  of  a  few — and  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
utility  of  following  the  advice  of  these  few  on  the  part  of  the  many,  which 
last  is  much  more  frequently  present  than  the  equally  essential  knowledge 
as  to  who  are  the  men  who  are  actually  capable  of  rightly  directing  the 
people,  instead  of  those  who  merely  claim  such  ability/ 

In  the  days  when  such  science  as  existed  was  the  prerogative  of  a 
comparatively  small  class,  this  last  problem  was  not  so  difficult,  for  if  the 
Egyptian  priest,  the  Chaldean  magus,  or  the  Indian  brahmin  did  not 
possess  the  desired  knowledge,  it  was  useless  to  seek  elsewhere  for  it;  and 
the  motive  of  the  multitude  for  following  their  orders  was  strong  and 
direct,  since  it  was  supposed  that  disobedience  would  result  not  only  in 
punishment  in  this  world,  but  also  in  the  next. 

"Whether  Moses  summed  up  the  esoteric  knowledge  of  the  Egyptian 
priests  in  his  hygienic  precepts  to  the  children  of  Israel,  or  obtained  them 
by  special  Divine  inspiration,  does  not  matter  in  this  connection.  These 
precepts  became  a  part  of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  their  results  are  per- 
haps yet  apparent  in  the  vital  statistics  of  the  race,  while  the  declaration 
of  Mohammed  that  "the  practice  of  religion  is  founded  on  cleanliness, 
which  is  one-half  the  faith  and  the  key  of  prayer,"  had  a  much  greater 
practical  sanitary  value  than  any  similar  utterance  could  have  to-day. 

In  this  generation  it  is  necessary  to  establish  jDublic  hygiene  upon 
another  foundation  to  ensure  the  general  acceptance  of  its  commands, 
namely,  on  utilitarianism — i.  e.,  to  show  that  it  contributes  to  the  pleasure 
or  profit  of  the  community  enough  to  warrant  the  sacrifice  of  a  small  part 
of  the  pleasure  or  profit  of  the  individual.  The  remark  of  Dr.  Parkes, 
that  this  will  dictate  a  course  in  harmony  with  one  of  the  foremost  rules 
of  religion,  viz.,  that  we  should  do  for  our  neighbors  as  for  ourselves,  is 
certainly  correct;  but  the  sanitary  iaw-makers  of  the  nineteenth  century 
usually  seek  first  what  is  expedient  and  pecuniarily  profitable,  and  devote 
their  spare  time  afterward  to  proving  that  it  is  also  in  harmony  with  the 
creed. 

The  broad  general  principle  upon  w^hich  all  modern  sanitary  legisla- 
tion rests  is  that  every  member  of  the  community  is  entitled  to  protection 
in  regard  to  his  health,  just  as  he  is  in  regard  to  his  liberty  and  property, 
and  that  on  the  other  hand  his  liberty  and  his  control  of  his  property  are 
only  guaranteed  to  him  on  the  condition  that  they  shall  be  so  exercised  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the  similar  rights  of  others,  nor  be  injurious  to  the 
health  of  the  community  at  large.  Health  in  this  connection  is  not  merely 
analogous  to  capital  or  property,  but  it  is  capital,  the  value  of  which  may 
be  to  a  certain  extent  expressed  in  coin,  and  its  protection  may  be  based 
upon  the  legal  principles  which  relate  to  the  protection  of  rights  of  prop- 
erty, although  it  rests  also  on  other  principles  of  State  polity  which  con- 
cern the  jural  and  moral  relations  of  human  life. 

Those  who  believe  that  certain  rights  of  man  do  not  depend  upon 
expediency  or  utility  as  measured  by  human  standards,  but  upon  a  certain 
moral  order  arranged  by  the  creator,  and  expressed  either  in  a  special 
revelation  or  in  certain  universal  human  instincts,  do  not  usually  include 


86  TNTEODFCTION. 

sanitary  rights  among  such.  Thus,  Professor  Woolsey  says:  "Sanitary 
regulations  tend  to  preserve  health  and  life,  but  only  in  an  indirect  way, 
and  so  they  are  not  a  necessary  part  of  State  action.  It  is  not  evident 
tliat  a  swamp  ought  to  be  drained  by  the  State,  or  under  its  direction  by 
the  district,  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  malaria,  because  the  right  to 
life  requires  it,  any  more  than  physicians  and  medicine  ought  to  be  sup- 
jDlied  by  the  State  because  the  right  to  life  requires  it.  The  right  to  life  is 
of  another  sort;  and  it  does  not  say  to  the  State  '  Thou  shalt  keep  this  or 
that  man  from  sickness  such  as  the  soil  or  climate  may  bring  upon  him,' 
any  more  than  the  rights  of  property  say  '  Thou  shalt  keep  this  or  that 
man  from  poverty  occasioned  by  his  neighbor's  superior  skill.' "  ^ 

The  author's  illustrations  are  not  good,  since  they  involve  the  fallacy 
that  there  is  but  one  kind  or  degree  of  ex^Dediency,  whereas  the  difference 
in  this  resjDect  in  the  instances  given  by  him  is  very  great;  but  the  point 
made  that  sanitary  matters  are  things  in  which  the  State  rna^,  but  not 
must,  interfere  is  correct,  nor  does  he  by  any  means  deny  the  expediency 
or  iDropriety  of  such  interference. 

But,  putting  aside  altogether  considerations  of  moral  right  or  divine 
commands,  the  sanitary  rights  of  the  people  depend  to  a  great  extent 
upon  that  part  of  law  which  Hobbes  describes  as  "  that  law  which  men  are 
bound  to  observe  because  they  are  members,  not  of  this  or  that  com- 
munity, but  of  a  community,"  and  these  rights,  and  the  obligations  con- 
nected with  them,  can  be  defined  with  reasonable  clearness  and  precision, 
whence  it  follows  that  they  are  proper  subjects  for  legislation  whenever 
such  definition  becomes  expedient. 

On  the  other  hand,  justice  compels  no  man  to  perform  any  act  fo-r 
which  a  moving  consideration  or  advantage  to  him  has  not  existed,  or 
will  not  exist  in  the  future  ;  or,  as  Ordronaux  states  it:  "  The  foundation 
of  mutuality  of  obligation  subsisting  between  men  in  civil  society  rests 
upon  the  doctrine  that  each  member  has  rights  of  which  he  cannot  with 
propriety  be  divested  ;  and  that  in  the  exercise  of  these  rights,  and  in 
the  ordinary  transactions  of  every-day  life,  he  is  entitled  to  a  qicid  iwo 
quo  for  every  advantage,  privilege,  or  favor  granted  to  another." 

As  I  have  elsewhere  remarked:  "  When  the  State  says  to  the  individ- 
ual citizen,  '  You  shall  not,  as  heretofore,  allow  the  waste  from  your  fac- 
tory to  contaminate  the  stream  upon  which  it  is  placed  ;  you  shall  not 
slaughter  cattle  in  the  buildings  which  you  have  erected  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  you  shall  not  build  a  house  on  a  certain  lot  of  yours,  unless  you 
make  the  walls  of  a  certain  thickness  and  arrange  the  timbers  in  a  certain 
way  :  '  when  she  says  to  the  physician,  '  You  shall  keep  certain  records 
and  make  certain  rejDorts,  in  order  that  we  may  know  the  rates  and  causes 
of  disease  ; '  or  to  the  householder,  '  You  shall  ventilate  your  sewer-con- 
nections in  a  certain  way,  and  you  must  put  in  a  particular  form  of 
trap  ;  ' — it  may  seem  at  first  sight  that  these  persons  should  be  compen- 


1  T.  D.  Woolsey:  Political  Science,  K  Y.,  1878,  Vol.  I,  p.  330. 


INTRODUCTION.  37 

sated  by  the  community  for  this  abridgment  of  their  liberty,  or  for  the 
service  which  they  are  compelled  to  perform."  ' 

A  little  consideration,  however,  will  show  that  these  and  similar  com- 
mands derive  their  authority  from  different  sources. 

The  first  of  these  sources  is  what  is  called  the  "  right  of  eminent  do- 
main," i.  e.,  the  right  of  a  government  to  take  private  property  for  pub- 
lic use,  whenever  it  is  necessary  for  the  public  good,  or  to  demand  the 
services  of  individual  citizens  for  the  same  reason  ;  but  in  this  case  it  is 
always  the  duty  of  the  State  to  furnish  a  reasonable  compensation  for  the 
property  or  labor  thus  appropriated.  The  compelling  physicians  to  fur- 
nish statistics  falls  under  this  head. 

The  second  source  of  authority  is  what  is  called  the  "  police  power," 
and  with  regard  to  this  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  from  the  opinion 
of  Chief  Justice  Shaw,  in  the  case  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  v. 
Alger. 

Speaking  of  the  police  power,  he  says:  "It  is  the  power  vested  in  the 
Legislature  by  the  Constitution  to  make,  ordain,  and  establish  all  man- 
ner of  wholesome  and  reasonable  laws,  statutes,  and  ordinances,  either 
with  penalties  or  without,  not  repugnant  to  the  Constitution,  as  they 
shall  judge  to  be  for  the  good  and  welfare  of  the  commonwealth,  and  of 
the  subjects  to  the  same. 

"  It  is  much  easier  to  perceive  and  realize  the  existence  and  sources  of 
this  power  than  to  mark  its  boundaries  or  prescribe  limits  to  its  exercise. 
There  are  many  cases  in  which  such  a  power  is  exercised  by  aU  well-or- 
dered governments,  and  where  its  fitness  is  so  obvious  that  all  well-regu- 
lated minds  will  regard  it  as  reasonable.  Such  are  the  laws  to  prohibit 
the  use  of  warehouses  for  the  storage  of  gunpowder  near  habitations  or 
highways  ;  to  restrain  the  height  to  which  wooden  buildings  may  be 
erected  in  populous  neighborhoods,  and  require  them  to  be  covered  with 
slate  or  other  incombustible  material  :  to  prohibit  buildin2:s  from  beinc 
used  for  hospitals  for  contagious  diseases,  or  for  the  carrying  on  of  nox- 
ious or  offensive  trades  ;  to  prohibit  the  raising  of  a  dam,  and  causing 
stagnant  water  to  spread  over  meadows  near  inhabited  villages,  thereby 
raising  noxious  exhalations  injurious  to  health  and  dangerous  to  life. 

"  Nor  does  the  prohibition  of  such  noxious  use  of  property — a  prohibi- 
tion imposed  because  such  use  would  be  injurious  to  the  public — although 
it  may  diminish  the  profits  of  the  owner,  make  it  an  appropriation  to  a 
public  use,  so  as  to  entitle  the  owner  to  compensation.  If  the  owner  of  a 
vacant  lot  in  the  midst  of  a  city  could  erect  thereon  a  great  wooden 
building,  and  cover  it  with  shingles,  he  might  obtain  a  larger  profit  of  his 
land  than  if  obliged  to  build  of  stone  or  brick,  with  a  slated  roof.  If  the 
owner  of  a  warehouse  in  a  cluster  of  other  buildings  could  store  quanti- 
ties of  gunpowder  in  it  for  himself  and  others,  he  might  be  saved  the 


^  Public  Health  Reports  and  Papers  :  Am.  Pub.  Health  Assn.,  Vol.  III.,  K  Y.,  1877, 
p.  49.  Consult  also,  Die  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege  und  das  Recht  des  Einzehren, 
von  Dr.  Gottisheim,  Deutsche  Vrtljhrschr.  f.  offentl.  Gsndhtspflege,  1877,  IX.,  p.  467. 


38  INTEODUCTIOJSr^ 

great  expense  of  transportation.  If  a  landlord  could  let  his  building-  for 
a  small-pox  hospital  or  a  slaughter-house,  he  might  obtain  an  increased 
rent.  But  he  is  restrained  :  not  because  the  jDublic  have  occasion  to 
make  the  like  use,  or  to  make  any  use  of  the  property,  or  to  take  any 
benefit  or  profit  to  themselves  from  it  ;  but  because  it  would  be  a  noxious 
use,  contrary  to  the  maxim  sic  iitere  tuo,  tit  alienum  non  Icedas.  It  is 
not  an  appropriation  of  the  property  to  a  public  use,  but  the  restraint  of 
an  injurious  private  use  by  the  owner,  and  is  therefore  not  within  the 
princi]Dle  of  property  taken  under  the  right  of  eminent  domain."  ' 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  police  powers  of  the  State  are  for  the 
most  part  exercised  to  secure  non-interference — that  is,  for  negative 
rather  than  positive  results.  The  majority  of  the  commands  issued  under 
it  are  in  the  formula  "  Thou  shalt  not."  Legally,  a  man  is  not  to  be  his 
brother's  keeper  ;  he  is  simply  compelled  to  refrain  from  injuring  his 
neighbor.  By  some  writers,  as  William  von  Humboldt  and  John  Stuart 
Mill,  it  is  denied  that  the  State  should  directly  attempt  to  imjDrove  the 
physical  welfare  of  its  citizens,  on  the  ground  that  such  interference  will 
probably  do  more  harm  than  good.  But  all  admit  that  the  State  should 
extend  special  protection  to  those  who  are  incapable  of  judging  of  their 
own  best  interests,  or  of  taking  care  of  themselves,  such  as  the  insane, 
persons  of  feeble  intellect,  or  children;  and  we  have  seen  that  in  sanitary 
matters  the  public  at  large  are  thus  incompetent. 

The  only  practical  test  as  to  what  a  State  should,  or  should  not,  attempt 
in  this  matter  is  expediency;  whence  it  follows  that,  since  this  test  must 
vary  according  to  place,  race,  and  degree  of  civilization,  no  general  and 
absolute  rules  can  be  laid  down.  However  great  the  importance  which 
may  be  attached  to  decentralization  and  the  distribution  of  administrative 
powers,  and  to  the  inexpediency  of  concentrating  in  bureaux  all  the  skill 
and  experience  in  organization  existing  in  the  community,  there  can  be 
no  objection  to  the  State's  collecting  information,  giving  advice,  and  stimu- 
lating and  aiding  the  work  of  local  organizations.  The  power  which 
may  be  exercised  in  this  way  is  none  the  less  real,  because  it  does  not 
appear  in  direct  commands. 

In  a  large  part  of  the  United  States,  public  hygiene  is  a  matter  of 
common  law  only,  and  may  be  summed  up  in  the  regulations  relating  to 
nuisances.  As  it  is  highly  important  that  the  sanitary  official  should  un- 
derstand the  relations  of  the  law  of  nuisance,  a  few  words  will  be  given 
to  that  subject. 

In  this  country  we  are  said  to  have  constitutional  law,  statute  law, 
and  customary  or  common  law.  This  last  is  made  ujd  of  a  body  of  cus- 
toms, traditions,  and  usages,  derived  in  the  main  from  England  j)rior  to 
the  American  revolution,  but  since  added  to  in  the  several  States. 

There  is  no  common  law  of  the  Union,  nor  have  the  federal  courts 
jurisdiction  of  common  law  offences,  and  what  is  common  law  in  one  State 

'  Reports  of  Cases  Argued  and  Determined  in  the  Supreme  Judicial  Court  of  Mass., 
by  Luther  S.  Gushing,  Vol.  VII.,  Boston,  1853,  pp.  84-86. 


INTKODUCTION.  39 

may  not  be  and  frequently  is  not  so  considered  in  another.'  These  cus- 
toms are  transformed  into  legal  rules  by  judges,  whose  decisions  are  the 
main  sources  of  information  as  to  what  is  and  what  is  not  common  law; 
and  with  regard  to  what  is  and  what  is  not  a  nuisance,  these  decisions  are 
summed  up  as  follows: 

The  use  of  one's  own  property  in  such  a  way  as  to  injure  the  rights  of 
another  and  to  inflict  damage  is  the  essence  of  nuisance.  There  must 
cither  be  a  definite  tangible  injury  to  person  or  property,  or  the  enjoy- 
ment of  property  must  be  rendered  essentially  uncomfortable,  and  there 
must  also  be  an  injury  to  the  rights  of  another.  If  a  man  digs  a  cellar 
on  his  ground,  no  matter  how  deep,  and  the  foundations  of  his  neighbor's 
house  are  thereby  endangered,  he  does  not  commit  a  nuisance,  because, 
although  he  may  inflict  great  damage,  he  injures  no  rights.  If  he  collects 
on  his  own  premises,  for  his  own  pleasure  or  profit,  any  material  such  as 
water,  or  filth  of  any  kind,  he  is  bound  to  let  none  of  it  escape  in  such  a 
way  as  to  do  damage. 

It  has  been  decided  that  this  applies  also  to  gases,  vapors,  and  odors, 
and  the  decision  of  Mansfield  in  the  case  of  Rex  v.  White  is  often  quoted 
approvingly  by  jurists,  viz.:  "It  is  not  necessary  that  the  smell  be  un- 
wholesome; it  is  enough  if  it  renders  the  enjoyment  of  life  uncomfortable  " 
(1  Burr,  337). 

Under  such  conditions  as  these  it  might  seem  as  if  written  statute 
laws  for  the  protection  of  the  public  health  were  not  essential ; — as  if  the 
views  held  by  some  (though  not  many)  lawyers,  that  the  powers  of  the 
common  law  are  ample  to  deal  with  such  matters,  were  correct.  But,  in 
the  first  place,  there  is  no  agreement  as  to  the  amount  of  discomfort 
necessary  to  constitute  a  nuisance,  and,  as  Wood  remarks,  the  importance 
and  utility  of  a  business  have  great  weight  in  deciding  the  question, 
especially  where  manufacturing  interests  are  strong,  as  in  Pennsylvania. 
Theoretically,  when  a  judge  makes  a  legal  rule  it  is  considered  as  estab- 
lished by  the  sovereign  power,  the  authority  to  make  such  rules  having 
been  given  either  expressly,  or  by  implication  and  acquiescence,  since 
power  is  given  to  enforce  them;  but  practically  the  rule  is  only  good  for 
the  particular  case,  and  in  that  case  must  always  be  more  or  less  of  the 
nature  of  an  ex  post  facto  law.  Since  judges  differ,  there  is  much  diffi- 
culty in  ascertaining  whether  a  judicial  rule  will  be  considered  valid  by 
other  courts.  "  We  never  can  be  absolutely  certain  (so  far  as  I  know) 
that  any  judiciary  rule  is  good  or  valid  law,  and  will  certainly  be  followed 
by  future  judges  in  cases  resembling  the  case  by  which  it  has  been  intro- 
duced ; "  ^  and  certainly  in  sanitary  matters  the  common  law  is  a  very 
uncertain  and  unsatisfactory  reliance. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  it  never  can  be  done  away 
with,  and  must  be  continually  appealed  to  to  supplement  the  statute  law, 
which  takes  the  place  of  only  a  certain  portion  of  it;  hence,  the  precise 


Sedgwick  on  Statutory  and  Constitutional  Law,  N.  Y. ,  1857,  p.  17. 
'Lectures  on  Jurisprudence,  by  John  Austin,  Load.,  I860,  Vol.  II.,  p.  3G6. 


40  INTRODUCTION. 

scope  and  wording  of  the  statute  becomes  a  matter  of  very  great  impor- 
tance, which  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  by  those  acquainted  with  the 
common  law. 

So  far  as  it  relates  to  the  jDublic  health,  the  princijDles  of  the  common 
law  may  be  summed  up  in  the  maxim,  sic  ittere  tuo  ut  aliemim  non 
Icedas  y'  but  the  remedy  which  it  jjrovides  usually  comes  too  late,  since 
the  injury  has  been  inflicted,  and  pecuniary  damages  cannot  compensate 
for  ruined  health  and  lost  lives. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that,  unless  a  statute  takes  away 
the  power  of  obtaining  a  remedy  at  common  law,  the  party  injured  or 
aggrieved  may  select  either  mode  of  obtaining  redress. 

If  a  board  of  health  assigns  a  place  in  which  an  offensive  or  dangerous 
business  may  be  carried  on,  the  person  carrying  on  that  business  at  that 
place  is  liable  to  no  process  therefor  other  than  those  prescribed  by 
statute;  but,  if  the  health  authorities  take  no  action,  the  common  law 
remedies,  either  public  or  private,  will  lie.'  A  nuisance  may  be  jDublic, 
private,  or  both ;  but,  in  any  case,  from  the  legal  point  of  view,  they  arise 
from  the  violation  of  the  common  law,  and  not  from  the  violation  of  rights 
created  by  statute.^ 

A  public  nuisance  must  be  to  the  common  annoyance  of  the  jDublic,  ^.  e., 
that  it  cannot  be  said  that  its  consequences  are  confined  to  a  few  persons,* 
and  it  includes  anything  that  is  indecent  or  offensive  to  morals,  such  as 
the  indecent  exposure  of  the  person  in  a  public  place. 

It  is  a  public  nuisance  for  a  jierson  afflicted  with  an  infectious  or  con- 
tagious disease  to  expose  himself  in  a  public  place;  but  a  person  sick  in 
his  own  house  or  in  a  room  in  a  hotel  is  not  a  nuisance.* 

Private  nuisances  are  such  as  damage  or  discomfort  but  a  few  persons: 
for  instance,  a  shop,  the  noise  from  which  annoys  but  three  or  four  tene- 
ments,^ While  the  distinction  may  seem  nominal  rather  than  real,  when- 
ever the  annoyance  affects  more  than  one  person,  yet  there  is  a  difference 
of  procedure  in  seeking  a  legal  remedy  for  a  public  as  distinguished  from 
a  private  nuisance.  The  public  wrong  is  to  be  remedied  by  indictment, 
and  not  by  a  suit  for  damages,  since  the  individual,  in  order  to  recover 
damages  for  injury  inflicted  by  a  public  nuisance,  must  be  able  to  make 
out  a  clear  case  of  special  damages  to  himself  apart  from  the  rest  of  the 
public,  and  of  a  different  character,  so  that  they  cannot  fairly  be  said  to 
be  a  part  of  the  common  injury  resulting  therefrom.  It  is  not  enough 
that  he  has  sustained  more  damage  than  another;  it  must  be  of  a  different 
character,  special,  and  apart  from  that  which  the  public  in  general  sustain.® 

Yet  the  nuisance  may  be,  and  often  is,  mixed,  that  is,  both  public  and 
private,  in  which  case  the  rule  as  defined  by  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  New 

'  Commonwealth  «.  Eumford  Chemical  Works,  16  Gray,  1860. 

''Wood  on  the  Law  of  Nuisances,  p.  19. 

2  Rex  ®.  White,  1  Burr,  333. 

"  Wood,  p.  72. 

5  Rex.  V.  Lloyd,  4  Esp.,  200. 

^  Wood,  p.  6.j6. 


INTRODUCTION.  41 

York  is,  "that  one  erecting  or  maintaining  a  common  nuisance  is  not 
liable  to  an  action  at  the  suit  of  one  who  has  sustained  no  damage  there- 
from, except  such  as  is  common  to  the  entire  community;  yet  he  is  liable 
to  one  who  has  sustained  damage  peculiar  to  himself.  No  matter  how 
numerous  the  persons  may  be  who  have  sustained  this  peculiar  damage, 
each  is  entitled  to  compensation  for  his  injury.  When  the  injury  is  com- 
mon to  the  public,  and  special  to  none,  redress  must  be  sought  by  a 
criminal  prosecution  in  behalf  of  all."  ' 

With  regard  to  the  subject  of  nuisances  and  the  rulings  of  the  com- 
mon law  with  regard  to  them,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  in  sanitary 
legislation  the  definitions  of  nuisances  and  the  descriptions  of  modes  of 
procedure  against  them  should  be  as  clear  and  precise  as  possible,  whether 
these  definitions  are  given  in  the  statute  creating  the  sanitary  authority, 
or  by  the  sanitary  authority  itself  in  virtue  of  power  given  to  it  to  do  so, 
for  failure  in  this  respect  can  only  result  in  an  application  of  the  common 
law  rulings  to  the  matter,  which  will  be  found  to  be  a  special  and  peculiar 
nuisance  to  the  public  health  in  itself. 

While  it  is  clear  that  the  duty  and  right  of  the  State  to  make  and  en- 
force sanitary  regulations  depends  mainly  on  the  police  power,  yet  the 
right  of  eminent  domain  may  also  be  employed  in  emergencies  or  to  com- 
pel the  services  of  professional  experts,  and  the  distinction  between  these 
powers  should  not  be  lost  sight  of. 

Admitting  that  under  the  police  power  the  State  should  see  that  each 
individual  has  the  power  to  obtain  pure  air,  water,  and  food,  and  that  no 
one  shall  wilfully  or  for  his  own  advantage  damage  another  man's  supply 
of  these  essentials  to  health,  it  has  still  been  a  question  how  far  the  State 
under  this  power  can  interfere  with  ancient  privileges  established  by 
custom.  In  the  United  States  it  has  been  decided  that  it  can  so  inter- 
fere, upon  the  principle  enunciated  by  Chief  Justice  Taney  in  the  well- 
known  decision  in  the  case  of  the  Charles  River  Bridge  v.  the  Warren 
Bridge,  viz.,  that  States  must  be  permitted  to  avail  themselves  of  the  light 
of  modern  science  and  of  the  improvements  brought  about  by  it — that,  for 
instance,  a  turnpike  cannot  claim  damages  because  a  railroad  puts  its 
profits  in  jeopardy;  but  there  is  still  some  uncertainty  as  to  what  might 
be  the  decision  in  a  particular  case.  In  Massachusetts  it  has  been  de- 
cided that  carrying  on  an  offensive  trade  for  twenty  years,  in  a  place  re- 
mote from  buildings  and  public  roads,  does  not  entitle  the  owner  to  con- 
tinue it  in  the  same  place  after  houses  have  been  built  and  roads  laid  out 
in  the  neighborhood,  to  the  occupants  of  and  travellers  upon  which  it  is  a 
nuisance. - 

Another  question  may  be  conveniently  considered  here,  viz.,  the  right 
of  the  State  to  interfere  with  the  liberty  of  the  individual  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  health  to  the  next  generation.  Why  should  we  not  by  united 
effort,  and  as  a  body  politic,  endeavor  to  prevent  the  suffering,  disease, 

'  Francis  «.  Schoelkoppf,  53  N.  Y.,  162,  and  Wood,  p.  077. 
^  Commonwealth  v.  Upton,  6  Gray,  473. 


42  INTRODUCTIOJS^. 

and  vice,  with  which  hereditary  infltiences  from  the  insane,  tlie  syphilitic, 
or  the  drunkard,  will  afflict  our  children's  children  ?  "  To  what  end  do 
we  apply  all  the  resources  of  modern  science  and  art  to  preserve  the  lives 
of  the  thousands  of  men  and  women  in  our  public  asylums,  hospitals  and 
prisons,  of  many  of  whom  it  may  properly  be  said  that  it  were  better  they 
were  dead  than  alive?  We  employ  our  best  physicians  and  engineers  to 
make  sure  that  the  air,  water,  and  food  of  these  persons  shall  contain 
nothing  detrimental,  and,  after  keeping  them  awhile  and  getting  them 
into  the  best  possible  condition,  we  send  them  out  into  the  community, 
living  and  moving  sewers,  to  propagate  and  produce  mental  and  physical 
deformity  and  disease  without  limit." ' 

The  reply  to  this  is,  that  the  good  effected  by  keeping  criminals  in 
good  sanitary  condition  exceeds  upon  the  whole  the  evil  produced,  and 
that  the  interference  of  the  State  to  prevent  reproduction  of  hereditary 
diseases  would,  in  the  present  conditions  of  society,  certainly  cause  more 
evil  than  good.  As  stated  by  Dr.  \yilks,^  "  it  is  no  doubt  fearful  to  think 
of  a  man  or  woman  marrying  with  a  strong  taint  of  insanity,  and  bringing 
into  the  world  a  family  of  lunatics;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  an  infusion 
of  the  insane  blood  may  not  be  desirable.  I  think  that  it  might  easily 
be  shown  that  such  infusion  has  given  genius  to  a  whole  family — it  has 
leavened  the  whole  mass." 

The  question  of  the  prevention  of  hereditary  diseases  by  State  inter- 
ference must  be  settled  for  those  who  adopt  utilitarian  principles,  by  the 
maxim  of  Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen:  "  If  the  object  aimed  at  is  good, 
if  the  compulsion  employed  is  such  as  to  attain  it,  and  if  the  good  obtained 
overbalances  the  inconvenience  of  the  compulsion  itself,  then  the  com- 
pulsion is  good."  Those  who  do  not  accept  this  principle  must  decide  in 
accordance  with  the  fact  that  the  prevention  of  propagation  of  hereditary 
disease  means  also  the  prevention  of  life,  and  that  between  this,  the  pre- 
vention of  conception  at  the  will  of  the  parents,  and  induced  abortion, 
there  can  be  no  sharp  dividing  lines.  The  question  is,  at  present,,  of  practi- 
cal interest  to  the  legislator,  mainly  in  regard  to  the  management  of  the 
criminal  classes  and  of  paupers,  and  although  closely  connected  with 
public  hygiene,  is,  nevertheless,  so  distinct  that  it  cannot  be  considered 
here. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  consider  some  of  the  means  by  which  the 
State  may,  or  ought  to,  endeavor  to  j^revent  or  destroy  those  causes  of 
disease  which  affect  communities,  rather  than  isolated  individuals,  and 
which  are  for  the  most  part  beyond  the  reach  of  individual  effort. 

To  effect  this,  skilled  labor  is  necessary,  and  also  some  central  authority 
to  secure  uniform  and  harmonious  action,  and  to  both  projDerly  j)rotect 
and  restrict  the  liberty  of  individuals. 

The  fact  that  a  community  possesses  political  liberty  by  no  means  im- 
plies the  possession  of  proper  regulations  for  the  care  of  the  public  health, 

■  Public  Health  Reports  and  Papers:  Am.  Pub.  Health  Ass'n,  Vol.  III.,  N.  Y., 
1877,  p.  50. 

-  Journal  of  Mental  Science,  Lond.,  Jan.,  1875,  p.  514. 


INTEODUCTION".  43 

or  that  such  regulations  would  be  enforced  if  made,  the  tendency  appear- 
ing to  be  rather  in  the  opposite  direction;  and  the  difference  between 
communities  in  this  respect  is  so  great  that  no  uniform  system  as  to  de- 
tails is  practicable.  "  A  perfectly  uniform  system  of  legislation  supposes 
equality  of  intelligence  or  injustice  in  the  law." 

In  a  newly-settled  countrj^,  over  which  the  population  is  thinly  scat- 
tered, the  necessity  for  protection  of  the  public  health  is  unfelt;  but  as 
wealth  and  population  increase,  the  gathering  of  the  people  in  masses  in 
cities  and  villages  both  gives  rise  to  special  dangers  to  health  and  life, 
and  makes  the  ordinary  dangers  more  conspicuous.  The  danger  cannot 
be  estimated  from  the  relative  density  of  population  over  large  areas;  for 
instance,  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square  kilometre  is  estimated  as 
follows:  France,  68.3;  Great  Britain,  101;  Belgium,  181;  Austria,  67.9; 
German  Empire,  75.9;  China,  100.6;  Japan,  83.1;  United  States,  5;'  but 
it  would  be  a  grave  error  to  conclude  that  the  necessity  for  sanitary 
measures  is  correspondingly  small  in  the  United  States,  seeing  that  at  the 
last  census  over  one-fifth  of  the  entire  population  was  contained  in  fifty 
cities,  and  that  since  that  time  the  increase  has  been  markedly  greater 
in  municipalities  than  in  rural  districts.  The  causes  of  this  aggregation 
are  manifold,  are  still  acting,  and  will  probably  continue  to  act  for  some  time 
to  come,  and  the  results  are  of  great  importance  to  our  sanitarians.  In 
the  cities  are  found  the  extremes  of  poverty,  ignorance,  and  vice;  the 
dangers  of  contagion  and  the  infective  diseases  are  there  at  their  maxi- 
mum; there  will  always  be  certain  localities  in  which  the  children  cannot 
be  healthy,  intelligent,  and  virtuous,  and  those  who  survive  in  spite  of  the 
filth  which  they  eat,  drink,  breathe,  and  live  in,  form  the  dangerous  classes, 
an  ever-present  menace  to  society;  while  on  the  other  hand,  there  also 
are  wealth  and  power,  and  the  greatest  jDossibilities  of  effective  super- 
vision and  control. 

As  physicians  have  their  attention  more  frequently  and  forcibly  called 
to  the  evil  results  of  a  bad  sanitary  condition  of  the  people,  they  are 
usually  the  first  to  urge  legislation  on  the  subject.  But,  as  Mr.  Eaton  re- 
marks: "  The  moment  we  attempt  to  exercise  political  power  for  sanitary 
purposes,  that  is,  to  use  the  government  for  compelling  citizens  to  observe 
the  general  conditions  of  public  health,  and  to  pay  the  penalty  of  the  in- 
fringement and  the  cost  of  redress,  we  must  not  seek  our  official  force 
wholly  from  any  one  profession." 

No  single  profession  has  either  the  knowledge  or  the  power  to  ac- 
complish such  work,  and  although  it  may  be  hoped  that,  in  the  good  time 
coming,  the  health  official  will  combine  in  one  person  the  special  knowl- 
edge of  the  physician,  the  lawyer,  the  engineer,  and  the  chemist,  yet, 
for  the  present,  members  of  each  of  these  professions  must  unite  to  secure 
good  work. 

If  it  be  agreed  that  "  a  requirement  of  good  sanitary  administration  is 
universality,  through   constant   supervision  by  public  health   officers   in 

'  Proust :  Traite  d'hygiene,  Paris,  1877,  8vo,  p.  3^. 


44  INTEODUCTION. 

every  part  of  the  country," '  one  of  the  first  things  to  decide  with  regard 
to  the  proposed  network  of  sanitary  officials  is  the  size  of  the  meshes,  or, 
in  other  words,  what  should  be  the  unit  of  area  for  administration.  Upon 
this  point  the  best  authorities  in  this  country  are  generally  agreed  that 
the  most  j)ractical  units  are  the  city  and  the  county. 

That  each  city  should  have  its  own  sanitary  authority  is  clear,  since  it 
has  its  own  special  causes  of  disease,  and  its  limits  are  iisually  well  de- 
fined, geographically  as  well  as  politically. 

The  county  lines  are  usually  not  natural  boundaries,  and  have  no  rela- 
tion to  the  causes  of  disease  ;  but  at  first,  at  all  events,  it  will  be  difficult 
to  provide  sanitary  authorities  having  no  relations  to  existing  legal  or 
political  organizations,  and  hence  these  last  must  be  carefully  considered. 

Three  other  points  should  receive  attention  in  regard  to  the  unit  of 
area.  The  first  is,  that  the  areas  should  be  identical  with  those  for  the 
registration  of  vital  statistics.  If  either  overlaps  the  other,  loss  of  utility 
and  power  will  certainly  result.  The  second  is,  that  for  purposes  of  super- 
vision, there  are  great  advantages  in  having  the  areas  as  nearly  as  possible 
conterminous  with  drainage  areas — in  other  words,  the  boundaries  should 
not  be  streams,  but  ridges,  and  this  remark  applies  to  all  units  of  area  for 
vital  statistics.  The  third  is,  that  as  far  as  possible  the  area  should  be 
large  enough  to  occupy  all  the  time  of  the  inspecting  and  executive  sani- 
tary forces.  The  larger  the  area  the  greater  the  ability  to  pay  for  the 
services  of  suitable  men  ;  and  trained  intellect,  combined  with  high  char- 
acter, is  an  expensive  article  to  provide,  although  it  is  in  this  case  certainly 
true  economy  to  do  so.  Moreover,  the  larger  part  of  the  work  can  only 
be  properly  done  by  men  having  a  medical  education,  and  these  men 
should  not  be  practitioners,  for  reasons  well  summed  up  by  the  English 
Board  of  Health,  as  follows: 

"  But,  where  possible,  it  will  be  well  to  debar  him  from  the 
private  practice  of  his  profession  : — first,  because  the  claims  of  such  prac- 
tice would  be  constantly  adverse  to  those  of  his  public  appointment,  the 
duties  of  which  (especially  at  times  of  epidemic  disease,  when  his  official 
activity  would  be  most  needed)  private  practice  could  scarcely  fail  to  in- 
terrupt and  embarrass;  secondly,  because  the  personal  relations  of  jjrivate 
practice  might  render  it  difficult  for  him  to  fulfil  with  impartiality  his 
frequent  functions  of  complainant ;  and,  thirdly,  because,  with  a  view  to 
the  cordial  good-will  and  co-operation  of  his  medical  brethren,  it  is  of 
paramount  importance  that  the  officer  of  health  should  not  be  their  rival 
in  practice,  and  that  his  opportunities  of  admonitory  intercourse  with  sick 
families  should  not  even  be  liable  to  abuse  for  the  purposes  of  professional 
competition."^ 

Attempts  to  combine  the  functions  of  a  health  officer  with  those  of  a 
physician  for  the  poor  have  been  often  made,  but  the  result  is  unsatisfac- 
tory.    It  is  undesirable  that  the  practice  of  a  physician  should  be  exclu- 

'  Second  Report  of  the  Sanitary  Commission,  Vol.  II.,  Lond.,  1871,  p.  351. 
-  General  Board  of  Health  :  Instructional  Minute  relative  to  the  Duties  and  Quali- 
fications of  Officers  of  Health,  in  Districts  under  the  Public  Health  Act,  1848,  p.  5. 


INTEODUCTIOlf.  45 

sively  among  the  poor,  because  it  deprives  both  the  poor  and  the  rich  of 
the  benefit  of  wide  and  varied  experience,  a  loss  which  is  especially  appar- 
ent during  the  prevalence  of  epidemics,  and  the  area  which  can  properly  be 
assio-ned  to  a  medical  officer  for  the  poor  is  much  smaller  than  that  which 
can  be  given  to  a  properly  qualified  health  officer.  Such  a  health  officer 
can  properly  superintend  an  urban  population  of  from  125,000  to  200,000.' 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  city  and  country  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  information  which  may  be  obtained  as  to  causes  of  disease.  In 
the  city  we  obtain  the  best  statistics,  but  the  country  affords  special 
facilities  for  obtaining  the  history  of  individual  cases  as  to  their  etiology. 

The  areas  being  defined,  the  next  question  to  be  considered  is  the  or- 
ganization, powers,  and  duties  of  the  Sanitary  Board.  Should  the  specially 
skilled  hygienist  be  employed  merely  to  give  advice,  as  in  France,  or  be 
made  an  integral  part  of  the  executive  organization '? 

The  public  health  institutions  of  France  have  been  much  praised,  and, 
on  paper,  the  plan  of  a  council  of  experts  for  each  district  looks  well;  but, 
practically,  the  councils  of  health  of  the  smaller  areas  really  do  nothing, 
and  the  advice  of  the  others  is  often  not  attended  to." 

It  is  now  a  well-recognized  fact  that  the  sanitary  organization  of  a  city, 
to  secure  efficiency,  should  have  certain  legislative,  judicial,  and  adminis- 
trative powers,  and  its  responsibility  being  great,  it  should  be  neither  too 
much  concentrated  nor  too  much  diluted.  The  execution  of  a  health  law 
cannot  be  a  matter  of  mere  routine;  it  requires  special  knowledge  and 
experience.  The  health  officials  are  not  simply  directed  to  do  a  specific 
thing;  they  are  to  discover  causes  as  yet  unknown,  to  devise  remedies, 
and  to  see  that  these  remedies  are  applied.  The  organization  for  this  pur- 
pose usually  preferred  is  a  board  of  health,  the  most  convenient  number 
for  which  is  five,  and  it  should  be  composed  of  men  of  different  professions, 
including  medicine,  law,  and  engineering,  although  the  principal  executive 
officer  should  combine  in  himself  much  of  the  knowledge  of  the  three. 

How  are  the  best  men  for  this  purpose  to  be  selected  ?  Neither  elec- 
tion by  the  people  nor  appointment  by  municipal  authorities  has  been 
found  to  give  uniformly  good  results.  What  the  results  may  be  are 
shown  in  the  case  of  New  York  City.  "  Men  elected  by  party  caucuses 
were  treated  as  competent  to  administer  the  science  of  health  and  to  solve 
the  problems  of  sanitary  precaution.  Health  wardens  and  other  officers 
w^ere  allowed  to  be  selected  and  salaried  without  limit  by  the  city  alder- 
men and  councilmen.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  exercise  of  sanitary 
authority  soon  became  a  greater  peril  than  miasma  and  contagion;  that 
political  doctors  became  the  agents  of  partisan  and  mercenary  city  offi- 
cials; that  mayors  of  New  York,  by  no  means  scrupulous  or  timid,  did  not 
dare,  for  a  whole  term,  to  even  call  a  meeting  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Health;  that  of  the  forty-eight  health  wardens  and  assistants,  more  than 

1  See  Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  Nov.  11,  1871,  p.  569. 

-  See  Amaaingand  :  De  nos  institutions  d'hygiene  publique,  Paris,  1873,  8";  and  Re- 
cueil  des  travaux  du  comite  consultatif  d'hygiene  publique  de  France,  Tome  VII. ,  1858, 
p.  58  et  seq. 


4:6  INTRODUCTION. 

one-half  were  keepers  of  corner  groggeries,  and  the  other  half  were  parti- 
san repeaters  and  bullies;  that  nearly  the  whole  sanitary  force  of  the  city 
was,  for  utility,  worse  than  a  sham,  and  was,  in  reality,  a  scandal  and  a 
peril  to  a  civilized  community."  ' 

In  no  other  city  have  the  results  been  so  bad  as  this;  but  the  rule  is 
that  appointments  are  made  with  reference  to  political  influence,  and  that 
professional  qualifications  have  been  a  secondary  consideration.  To  ap- 
preciate the  causes  of  this  it  is  necessary  to  refer  briefly  to  a  subject  much 
wider  than  and  including  public  hygiene  in  the  special  technical  sense  in 
which  we  are  using  that  phrase,  namely,  State  medicine,  which  includes 
also  medical  education  and  medical  jurisprudence.  Since  a  large  part 
of  the  information  required  by  the  sanitarian  can  only  be  obtained  from 
medical  men,  whose  intelligent  co-operation  is  absolutely  essential  to  his 
success,  it  is  evident  that  the  relations  of  the  jDhysician  to  the  State  must 
strongly  influence  the  possibilities  of  public  health  organization. 

When  the  State  undertakes  to  obtain  and  secure  properly  educated  phy- 
sicians for  its  citizens,  by  fixing  directly  or  indirectly  a  minimum  standard 
of  qualification,  and  by  imposing  penalties  or  disabilities  upon  those  who 
do  not  come  up  to  this  standard,  it  can  properly  call  ujDon  these  physicians 
for  assistance  in  preserving  the  public  health  to  an  extent  which  would 
be  not  only  unjust,  but  impossible,  in  a  community  where  the  ignorant 
pretender  is  on  the  same  footing  as  the  accomplished  physician.  This  is 
not  merely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  physician,  like  other  members  of 
society,  has  the  right  to  demand  compensation  for  information  furnished 
or  for  services  rendered,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  the  ignorant  practitioner 
cannot  perform  the  duties  required  by  the  sanitary  authorities. 

Since,  in  the  majority  of  the  States  in  this  country,  there  are  no  legal 
restrictions  upon  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  the  properly  qualified  prac- 
titioner receives  no  special  recognition  or  encouragement  from  the  State, 
the  only  way  in  which  the  State  can  justly  obtain  information  or  aid  from 
him  is  by  paying  for  such  service. 

It  is,  however,  extremely  difficult  to  arrange  for  making  such  pay- 
ments in  money,  nor  would  that  method  be  satisfactory  to  the  physicians; 
and  as  it  is  very  important  that  their  assistance  should  be  willingly  fur- 
nished, it  is  much  better  that  the  compensation  should  be  indirect,  in  the 
shape  of  certain  privileges.  For  many  reasons  one  of  the  most  desirable 
of  these  privileges  is  that  the  physicians  interested  shall  have  a  voice  in  the 
selection  of  the  health  official  or  officials  with  whom  they  are  to  co-operate, 
and  shall  have  some  permanent  and  recognized  means  of  representation 
in  the  councils  of  the  sanitary  authority. 

Through  local  medical  societies  it  is  usually  not  difficult  to  effect  this, 
so  far  as  the  physicians  are  concerned;  hence  the  responsibility  of  effect- 
ing it  must  rest  almost  entirely  upon  the  appointing  powers  and  with  the 
health  officials  themselves.  As  yet  it  is  difficult  to  find  men  propeily 
qualified  to  jDerform  the  duties  of  health  officers,  but  there  is  no  doubt 

^From  Sanitary  Legislation  in  England  and  ]^ew  York,  by  D.  B.  Eaton,  1873,  p.  01. 


IJSrTRODUCTlON.  47 

that  the  demand  will  create  the  supj)ly,  and  even  now  a  suitable  man  can 
be  obtained  for  an  adequate  compensation,  which  last  at  present  is  seldom 
or  never  offered. 

The  public  at  large  in  this  country,  as  in  England,  "  underrate  the 
knowledge  and  qualities  requisite  for  giving  trustworthy  advice  in  this 
direction,"  nor  is  the  importance  of  having  at  hand  an  authoritative  means 
of  seeing  that  health  interests  are  consulted  in  all  public  buildings  or 
works  by  any  means  appreciated. 

The  public  find  no  special  difficulty  in  securing,  by  election  or  appoint- 
ment, men  capable  of  serving  them  as  legislators  or  administrators,  and 
do  not  see  why  a  different  mode  of  selection  should  be  applied  to  sanitary 
officials.  But,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Leconte,  "  the  men  of  science,  who 
carry  on  unceasing  war  against  the  children  of  the  four  great  bogies — 
self-will/ignorance,  fear,  and  dirt — are  not  educated  by  the  processes  of 
the  common  school,  nor  are  they  elevated  to  position  by  the  votes  of 
their  fellow-citizens;  rarely,  indeed,  are  they  by  the  choice  of  the  popular 
rule  placed  in  position  commensurate  with  the  usefulness  they  are  capable 
of  exercising."  Dr.  Leconte  advises  as  a  remedy  for  this  "  that  the  offi- 
cers in  whom  the  power  of  appointment  resides  should  act  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  those  societies  or  organizations  which  have  been  formed  to 
promote  the  particular  branches  of  science  or  technical  knowledge  upon 
which  the  duties  to  be  performed  depend." 

The  question  is  complicated  by  the  existence  of  certain  schools  of 
medicine  which  claim  to  practise  in  certain  peculiar  ways,  and  that  these 
ways  only  are  correct.  The  homoeopathic  school,  for  instance,  although 
divided  in  opinions,  may  be  said  to  teach  that  the  methods  of  practice  of 
the  great  majority  of  physicians  of  the  civilized  world  are  erroneous. 

Now,  while  it  may  be  admitted  that  under  the  police  power  each  State 
may  prescribe  the  qualifications  which  shall  be  possessed  by  practition- 
ers of  medicine  within  her  borders,  yet  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  inexpe- 
dient that  it  should  prescribe  what  form  of  medication  shall  or  shall  not  be 
employed.  A  standard  of  education  is  a  very  different  thing  from  a  stand- 
ard of  action. 

The  combined  action  of  homoeopathic  physicians  in  preventing  the 
formation  of  State  boards  of  health,  or  in  causing  the  insertion  of  pro- 
visos for  the  appointment  of  homoeopathic  physicians  as  members  of  State 
boards  of  health,  has  been  several  times  exerted  successfully,  which  fact 
is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  numbers  and  influence  of  this  school. 

Now,  while  there  is  a  special  exclusive  homoeopathic  therapeutics,  no 
special  homoeopathic  hygiene  has  as  yet  been  developed.  Some  Hahne- 
mannian  homoeopaths  may  have  very  peculiar  ideas  as  to  the  causation  of 
disease,  but  even  they  do  not  deny  the  influence  of  filth,  contagion,  etc., 
and  hence  there  is  no  special  reason  on  their  part  for  not  uniting  in  the 
destruction  of  these  causes. 

There  are,  it  is  true,  good  reasons  why  skilled  sanitarians  prefer  to 
have  the  least  possible  association  with  practitioners  of  exclusive  views, 
with  men  who  publicly  proclaim  that  they  know  more  than  any  of  the 


48  INTEODUCTION. 

physiologists,  pathologists,  or  other  well-recognized  scientific  investigators 
and  proinoters  of  medical  knowledge;  but  they  must  deal  with  such  men 
until  the  Millennium  comes,  and  must  do  the  best  they  can  with  their 
statistics. 

To  what  extent  centralization  of  governmental  interference  to  secure 
the  public  health  is  desirable  or  expedient,  is  a  serious  and  very  difficult 
question,  the  answer  to  which,  as  pointed  out  above,  cannot  and  should 
not  be  the  same  in  different  countries.  Some  would  have  the  central 
government  assume  entire  control  of  sanitary  matters,  registration,  quar- 
antine, building  regulations,  etc.,  holding,  in  fact,  views  analogous  to 
those  held  by  the  advocates  of  government  supervision  of  railroads,  tele- 
graphs, hours  of  labor,  and  wages.  A  curious  illustration  of  the  extent 
to  which  this  idea  may  be  carried  will  be  found  in  Bentham's  scheme  of 
the  duties  and  powers  of  a  health  minister,  forming  a  ]3art  of  his  "  Con- 
stitutional Code."'  Bentham's  health  minister  is  to  carry  out  all  laws 
for  the  preservation  of  the  public  health;  to  appoint  and  control  all  med- 
ical officers  of  the  army,  navy,  public  charities,  etc. ;  to  supervise  medical 
education,  pharmacy,  etc. ;  to  have  charge  of  the  inspection  of  all  prisons, 
asylums,  school-houses,  and  other  public  buildings;  and  of  vital  statistics, 
weather  registration,  government  medical  museums,  systems  of  water- 
supply,  drainage,  etc.,  etc.  One  clause  is  so  curious  that  I  transcribe  it 
literally : 

"  Art.  21,  VII.  Professional  confederacy -checJcing  function. — To 
the  health  minister,  under  the  direction  of  the  prime  minister  and  the 
legislature, —  ...  it  will  especially  belong  to  be  upon  the  watch 
against  all  injury  to  the  health  of  the  community,  by  the  operation  of 
particular  interests  in  the  breasts  of  medical  practitioners,  at  the  expense 
of  public  interest:  for  example,  by  associations  among  themselves  for  the 
formation  of  regulations  and  arrangements,  express  or  tacit,  concerning- 
divison  of  labor,  rate  of  payment,  terms  or  mode  of  attendance,  or  other- 
wise." 

Evidently  our  code  of  ethics  and  medical  fee  bills  would  give  such  a 
minister  abundant  employment. 

When  public  health  becomes  a  matter  of  real  interest  to  a  nation,  the 
influence  which  attempts  to  control  it  may  exert  toward  centralizing  gov- 
ernment, even  in  other  departments,  is  important,  and  should  not  be  over- 
looked. The  desire  for  local  self-government  seems  to  many  a  great 
obstacle  to  sanitary  progress,  and  no  doubt  this  is  often  the  case  ;  but 
an  attempt  should  be  made  to  secure  both,  rather  than  to  sacrifice  either 
for  the  sake  of  the  other.  In  the  first  place,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Jenkins, 
there  is  a  difference  between  central  supervision  and  central  administra- 
tion. The  first  is  seeing  that  others  do  their  duty;  the  second  is  doing- 
duty  by  means  of  others.  In  the  one  case  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
independence,  in  the  other  there  is  none.- 

1  The  Works  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  Edinburgh,  1843,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  443. 
"^  The  Medical  and  Legal  Aspects  of  Sanitary  Reform,  by  A.  P.  Stewart  and  E. 
Jenkias,  London,  1867,  8vo,  p.  82. 


INTRODUCTION.  49 

In  the  second  place,  responsibility  and  accountability  should  be  con- 
nected with  power  wherever  that  may  be.  In  the  United  States,  at  pres- 
ent, and  probably  for  some  time  to  come,  only  local  sanitary  authorities 
have  power  to  deal  with  local  causes  of  disease,  and  they  should  be  held 
responsible  for  any  evil  results  which  follow  either  their  failure  to  use 
that  power  or  their  improper  use  of  it,  just  as  the  individual  householder 
has  power  to  abate  a  nuisance  on  his  premises  in  his  own  way,  but  is  held 
responsible  if  his  method  does  not  prove  efficacious. 

In  order  that  this  responsibility  may  exist,  there  must  be  some  means 
of  enforcing  it;  some  authority  which  shall  decide  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
householder  or  the  municipality  has  fulfilled  his  or  its  duty  to  the  com- 
munity, and  shall  enforce  penalties  or  damages  in  cases  of  neglect  or 
failure.  As  the  subject  of  causation  of  disease  is  a  technical  and  special 
one,  some  organization  of  experts  is  necessary  to  obtain  and  furnish  in- 
formation with  regard  to  it,  and  to  decide  what  are  the  duties  of  individ- 
uals, corporations,  or  communities  in  this  respect. 

Such  organizations  in  this  country  are  known  as  boards  of  health. 
The  municipal  and  local  boards  of  health  are  chiefly  occupied  in  fixing 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  individuals.  The  State  boards  of  health 
should  deal  rather  with  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  communities 
and  of  the  local  boards  just  referred  to. 

In  the  preparation  of  a  law  establishing  such  health  boards  some  very 
troublesome  questions  arise.  Many  difficulties  can  of  course  be  avoided 
by  giving  large  discretionary  powers  to  the  sanitary  authority  and  avoid- 
ing the  specifying  of  these  powers  in  detail.  In  this  manner  the  law  may 
be  made  brief,  and  in  appearance  very  simple;  and  it  affords  a  certain 
elasticity  and  means  of  accommodation  to  circumstances  which  might 
give  much  better  results  than  could  be  obtained  from  a  detailed,  fixed, 
and  uniform  code,  provided  that  the  sanitary  OAithorities  are  properly 
qualified  persons.  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  concise  law  must  confer 
powers  of  legislation,  and  indirectly  of  taxation,  to  an  extent  which  will 
be  repugnant  to  many,  and  which  might  conflict  seriously  with  other  im- 
portant interests,  and  result  in  great  abuse.  A  certain  amount  of  such 
legislative  power  miist,  however,  be  conferred  upon  any  sanitary  organi- 
zation which  is  to  have  real  efficiency,  and  the  question  as  to  whether  the 
legislature  of  a  State  can  confer  such  power  was  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State  of  New  York,  as  follows: 

"  The  legislature  has  the  power  to  confer  the  authority  to  enact  and 
enforce  ordinances,  not  only  on  a  municipal  government,  but  on  any  de- 
partment of  a  municipal  government,  as,  for  instance,  on  a  board  of 
health  ; "  ^  and  this  decision  was  reaffirmed  in  the  case  of  Polinsky  v. 
the  State,-  with  the  qualification  that  such  ordinances  must  cover  of- 
fences only  which  are  not  covered  by  a  statute.  The  statute  in  general 
terms  declares  the  violation  of  ordinances  nassed  bv  the  Board  of  Health 


'  People  ex  rel.  P.  Cox,  Hun,  7,  p.  314 
2  Hun,  XYIII.,  p.  390. 
Vol.  I.— 4 


50  INTRODUCTION. 

to  be  a  misdemeanor,  and  the  same,  or  another  statute,  fixes  the  penalty 
for  such  misdemeanors. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  importance  of  the  question  of 
cost  in  sanitary  measures,  and  in  framing  a  law  to  secure  such  it  is  highly 
desirable  that  it  shall  show  as  clearly  as  possible  not  only  the  cost  of  the 
health  organization  itself,  but  the  cost  of  the  measures  which  it  is  to  be 
authorized  to  carry  out. 

Also  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  common  law  covers  all  questions 
not  specifically  settled  by  statute,  and  hence  a  vague  and  indefinite  stat- 
ute soon  becomes  of  little  force  or  value,  since  it  will  be  promptly  overridden 
and  superseded  by  judicial  decisions  based  on  the  comixion  law,  which  in 
sanitary  matters  have  always  proved  to  be  of  little  utility.  On  the  other 
hand,  attempts  to  provide  specifically,  as  far  as  possible,  by  statute,  for  all 
emergencies,  leads  to  great  prolixity,  and  may  even  have  the  effect  of 
making  the  law  unintelligible  except  to  a  few  specially  skilled  lawyers, 
leaving  the  average  citizen  very  much  in  the  dark  as  to  how  it  affects 
him.  For  instance,  the  act  creating  a  Metropolitan  Sanitary  District  and 
Board  of  Health  for  the  City  of  New  York,  passed  in  1866,  was,  from  a 
legal  point  of  view,  in  most  respects  very  satisfactory,  but  it  would  require 
a  large  and  very  carefully  prepared  volume  of  commentary  to  enable  the 
average  merchant  or  practising  physician  to  understand  its  full  scope. 

Again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  fact  that  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial  powers  have  been  conferred  on  a  board  of  health,  does 
not  do  away  with  its  responsibility  for  the  results  of  their  exercise.  If  it 
destroys  property  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  nuisance,  it  must  be  able  to 
prove  conclusively  that  it  is  a  nuisance.  If  it  authorizes  the  construction 
of  a  hospital  for  contagious  diseases,  in  a  given  locality,  it  must  be  held 
responsible  for  the  results,  and  the  remedy  for  those  to  whom  the  hospital 
proves  a  nuisance  should  be,  under  the  common  law,  in  a  court  other  than 
the  board  itself.  Experience  has  shown  that  when  cases  of  this  kind  are 
tried  before  a  jury,  the  probability  that  they  will  be  decided  according  to 
their  real  merits  is  small,  and  hence  the  decisions  in  the  New  York  courts 
to  the  effect  that  trial  by  jury  cannot  be  insisted  on  are  regarded  as  very 
important.'  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  the  reason  why  trial  by 
jury  was  not  insisted  on  by  the  court  was  because  a  jury  had  not  been 
the  ordinary  tribunal  for  such  cases,  and  hence  the  decision  would  have 
little  weight  in  another  State;  in  fact,  it  has  been  expressly  decided  in 
Massachusetts  that  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  cannot  be  superseded  b}^  the 
State  board  of  health. 

This  decision  was  given  in  the  case  of  Sawyer  v.  State  Board  of  Health, 
in  which  it  was  claimed  by  the  petitioner  that  if  the  statute  of  1871  ap- 
plies to  his  buildings  and  trade,  and  deprives  him  of  the  right  of  appeal  to 


'  See  C.  H.  Reynolds  v.  J.  S.  Schultz  et  al.,  Robertson's.  Repts.  Sup.  Court  City  of 
N.  Y.,  IV.,  1868,  p.  282.  and  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Health  «.  J.  Heister,  Tiffany's 
Repts.  Court  of  Appeals,  State  of  N.  Y.,  1868,  Vol.  XXX.,  in  which  last  the  dis- 
senting opinions  by  three  members  of  the  court  should  be  carefully  considered  by 
those  engaged  in  framing  a  health  law. 


INTRODUCTIOISr.  51 

a  jury,  it  is  unconstitutional;  while  it  was  claimed  on  the  part  of  the 
board  that  the  statute  is  simply  a  license  law.  The  statute  in  question  is 
as  follows:  "Whenever  in  any  city  or  town  containing  more  than  four 
thousand  inhabitants,  any  building  or  premises  all  occupied  or  used  by 
any  person  or  persons  or  corporation  for  carrying  on  the  business  of 
slaughtering  cattle,  sheep,  or  other  animals,  or  for  melting  or  rendering 
establishments  or  for  other  noxious  or  offensive  trades,  the  State  Board  of 
Health  may,  if  in  their  judgment  the  public  health  or  the  public  comfort 
and  convenience  shall  require,  order  any  person  or  persons  or  corporations 
carrying  on  said  trades  or  occupations,  to  desist  and  cease  from  carrying- 
on  said  trades  or  occupations  in  such  building  or  premises,  and  any  person 
or  persons  or  corporation  continuing  to  occupy  or  use  such  building  or 
premises  for  carrying  on  said  trades  or  occupations,  after  being  ordered  to 
desist  and  cease  therefrom  by  said  board,  shall  forfeit  a  sum  not  exceed- 
ing two  hundred  dollars  for  every  month  he  or  they  continue  to  occupy 
and  use  such  buildings  or  premises  for  carrying  on  said  trades  or  occupa- 
tions after  being  ordered  to  cease  and  desist  tli  ere  from  by  said  board  as 
aforesaid,  and  in  like  proportion  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time:  provided 
that  on  any  application  to  said  board  to  exercise  the  powers  in  this  sec- 
tion conferred  upon  them,  a  time  and  place  for  hearing  the  parties  shall 
be  assigned  by  said  board  and  due  notice  thereof  given  to  the  party 
against  whom  the  apj^lication  is  made,  and  the  order  hereintofore  pro- 
vided shall  only  be  issued  after  such  notice  and  hearing."  ' 

The  boards  of  health  of  towns  have  the  same  power,  but  they  are  not 
obliged  to  give  notice  and  hearing. 

The  court  goes  on  to  say:  "  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  mayor  and 
aldermen  or  selectmen  may  authorize  in  writing  the  carrying  on  of  noxious 
or  offensive  trades  at  a  certain  place  in  a  city  or  town  of  more  than  4,000 
inhabitants;  and  the  day  after  the  occupancy  commences  the  State  board 
of  health  may  give  a  notice  and  hearing  to  the  party  thus  authorized,  and 
may  issue  an  order  forbidding  the  use  of  that  place.  Did  the  legislature 
intend  that  the  town  board  of  health  might  then  again  authorize  the 
same  business  in  the  same  place,  to  be  again  prohibited  by  the  State 
board  of  health  ?  We  can  no  more  suppose  that  the  legislature  intended 
to  introduce  this  conflict  and  confusion  into  the  law  than  that  it  intended 
by  implication  to  submit  the  whole  system  of  regulation  by  absorption 
into  a  general  authority  of  prohibition  all  over  the  commonwealth  by  a 
board  composed  of  only  seven  members,  serving  without  compensation, 
and  necessarily  strangers  to  the  great  majority  of  the  various  municipali- 
ties, and  unacquainted  with  their  local  interests.  The  only  construction 
which  we  can  give  to  the  statute  consistent  with  the  constitution  of  the 
commonwealth,  with  existing  laws  recognized  by  the  act  itself  as  still  in 
force,  with  the  general  policy  of  the  legislation  upon  the  subject,  is  to 
treat  the  power  given  by  the  statute  as  given  subject  to  the  same  limita- 
tions and  qualifications  as  that  given  to  town  boards  of  health  upon  the 


'  Acts  of  Mass.,  1871,  Chap.  167,  Sec.  2. 


52  INTEODUCTION. 

same  subject,  and,  of  course,  with  the  same  right  of  appeal.  This  con- 
struction of  the  statute  preserves  the  general  system  provided  by  law  un- 
imj)aired;  it  simply  gives  to  the  State  board  of  health  jurisdiction, 
whether  concurrent  with  the  town  boards  or  exclusively,  it  is  not  material 
to  this  case  to  inquire,  in  cities  and  large  towns  to  do  what  may  be  done 
in  every  town  of  the  commonwealth  by  the  local  board  of  health;  but  we 
do  not  think  that  it  was  the  purj)ose  of  the  legislature,  nor  does  the 
language  of  the  act  compel  us  to  say  that  its  effect  is  to  deprive  the  party 
of  that  right  of  trial  by  jury  to  which  the  citizens  in  such  cases  have  been 
accustomed  for  nearly  two  centuries.  .  .  ."  "  There  is  a  peculiarity  in 
this  proceeding  Avhich  quite  distinguishes  it  from  the  ordinary  rules  which 
govern  appeals.  The  apj^eal  to  a  jury  does  not  vacate  the  order.  It  re- 
mains in  full  force  till  annulled  or  altered.  If  not  annulled  or  altered,  it 
still  stands;  if  altered,  it  stands  as  altered.  If  the  alterations  made  are 
absokitely  impracticable,  the  order  still  stands  just  as  if  the  original  order 
had  been  made  in  the  terms  of  the  order  as  altered  by  the  jury;  and,  if  the 
original  order  had  contained  the  same  regulations,  we  certainly  could  not 
say,  as  matter  of  law,  that  the  order  was  void.  At  any  rate,  we  could  not 
say  that  it  was  void  so  far  as  the  restrictions  which  it  was  competent  for 
the  board  of  health  to  make  were  concerned,  whatever  may  be  said  as  to 
any  restrictions  which  it  was  not  within  their  power  to  make,  and  whatever 
the  board  of  health  may  do  the  jury  may  do,  and  with  the  same  eifect." 

This  diversity  of  opinion  between  the  judiciary  of  Massachusetts  and 
that  of  New  York  is  more  apparent  than  real,  but  illustrates  the  remarks 
made  above  as  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  common  law,  and  the  need  of 
great  care  in  preparing  statutes  relating  to  this  subject,  and  also  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  making  a  board  of  health  a  final  court  of  appeal. 

The  necessity  for  care  in  preparing  a  law  on  this  subject  will  also  appear 
from  the  following  considerations:  It  is  desirable  that  a  municipal  board 
of  health,  or  its  properly  authorized  agents,  shall  at  all  times  have  the 
right  to  enter  into,  or  upon,  any  premises  for  purposes  of  sanitary  inspec- 
tion, and  to  call  upon  the  police  to  aid  it  in  the  execution  of  its  orders; 
but,  oii  the  other  hand,  the  principle  that  every  man's  house  is  his  castle, 
that  is,  that  "  no  man's  house  can  be  forcibly  opened,  or  he  or  his  goods  be 
carried  away  after  it  has  thus  been  forced  except  in  cases  of  felony,  and 
then  the  sheriff  must  have  a  warrant,"  is,  as  explained  by  Lieber,  one  of 
the  special  means  by  which  personal  liberty  is  secured  in  Anglican  com- 
munities, and  this  principle,  together  with  that  of  the  prohibition  of  gen- 
eral warrants,  should  be  preserved  as  far  as  possible.  The  means  by  which 
the  sanitary  code  is  to  be  enforced  should  be  distinctly  stated  in  the  code 
itself. 

It  is  also  desirable  that  the  act  should  define  clearly  the  meanings  in 
which  such  words  as  the  following  are  used,  viz. :  Persons  (to  include  cor- 
porations); owner  (to  include  agent  or  trustee);  land,  drain,  sewer,  street, 
house,  report,  permit,  light,  adulteration,  etc. 

In  attempting  to  remove  a  municipal  health  department  as  much  as 
possible  from  the  arena  of  politics,  the  question  "svill  arise  as  to  whether  it 


USTTKODUCTIOJS^.  53 

is  to  liave  direct  charge  of  sucli  matters  as  street-cleaning,  removal  of 
garbage,  etc.  It  is  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  impose  such 
duties  upon  a  board  of  health  without  injuring  its  character  as  a  scientific 
and  expert  commission  and  burdening  it  with  a  patronage  which  it  is  not 
desirable  that  it  should  possess;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  seems  desirable, 
for  the  sake  of  promptness  and  efficiency,  as  well  as  to  avoid  multiplica- 
tion of  officers  and  division  of  responsibility,  that  the  board  of  health 
should  have  some  control  of  such  matters. 

No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  on  this  subject,  but  it  would  appear 
that  usually  the  details  of  such  work  had  better  be  left  to  the  police 
authorities;  while  the  health  authorities  should  advise  as  to  what  should 
be  done,  and  inspect  and  report  upon  the  methods  of  performance  and 
the  results  obtained. 

If  a  municipal  board  of  health  be  properly  constituted,  so  that  its  rela- 
tions with  the  majority  of  the  medical  profession  are  harmonious,  it  is 
extremely  desirable  that  it  should  be  charged  with  the  general  supervi- 
sion of  all  medical  charities;  such  as  hospitals,  dispensaries,  and  asylums; 
which  receive  support  entirely  or  in  part  from  the  public  funds,  and  that 
it  should  have  power  to  require  from  them  such  reports  and  statistics  as 
it  may  deem  necessary;  in  fact  all  public  medical  attendance  furnished  to 
the  poor  might  well  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  sanitary  organization, 
and  even  private  medical  charities  should  of  their  own  accord  invite  inspec- 
tion by  its  officers,  and  furnish  to  it  statistics  and  reports. 

A  municipal  board  of  health  should  also  be  charged  with  the  sanitary 
inspection  of  all  schools,  pubKc  and  private,  and  should  have  power  to 
dii'ect  the  abatement  of  any  nuisances  in  them,  to  prevent  overcrowding, 
and  to  decide  under  what  circumstances  a  child  shall  not  be  permitted  to 
attend  the  school — as,  for  instance,  how  long  a  time  must  elapse  after  an 
attack  of  measles  or  scarlatina  before  the  patient  shall  be  allowed  to  rejoin 
his  playmates,  and  this  not  only  in  general,  but  in  particular  instances. 

In  all  health  boards,  municipal.  State,  or  national,  it  is  important  to 
secure  a  certain  degree  of  continuity  of  membership,  and  especially  is  this 
the  case  in  this  country,  where  there  are  as  yet  vexy  few  specially  trained 
sanitarians,  and  where  those  appointed  must  therefore  necessarily  spend 
some  time  in  acquiring  by  experience  the  knowledge  and  ability  to  prop- 
erly perform  their  duties.  Hence,  the  period  of  service  may  well  be  from 
three  to  six  years,  and  it  should  be  so  arranged  that  only  a  minority  of  the 
board  shall  go  out  of  office  at  one  time.  The  continuity  of  the  board 
should  also  be  secured  by  the  keeping  a  full,  and  accurate  record  of  its 
proceedings,  with  files  of  all  correspondence,  reports,  etc.  So  important 
is  this  that  some  means  should  be  provided  whereby  an  inspection  of  these 
records  and  files  shall  be  made,  both  at  stated  and  irregular  intervals,  by 
some  authorized  and  properly  qualified  agent  of  the  appointing  power  in- 
dependent of  the  board  itself. 

It  should  also  be  observed  with  regard  to  these  records  and  reports  that 
many  of  them  should  be  considered  as  strictly  confidential;  in  fact,  unless 
it  is  well  known  that  this  is  the  case,  it  will  be  found  almost  impossible  to 


54  INTRODUCTION. 

secure  from  the  medical  profession  some  of  the  reports  which  are  most 
essential  and  important. 

What  a  board  of  health  needs,  and  should  strive  above  everything- 
else  to  obtain,  is  prompt,  full,  and  accurate  information  w^ith  regard  to 
all  matters  under  its  charge,  and  it  should  use  all  means  to  encourage 
and  stimulate  the  furnishing  of  such  information,  and  in  particular  it 
should  take  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  the  use  for  private  purposes  of 
any  reports  made  to  it.  Nor  should  the  board  by  any  means  confine  itself 
to  information  furnished  by  its  own  special,  regularly  salaried  agents. 

When  a  special  subject  requires  investigation,  it  should  endeavor  to 
secure  skilled  labor:  to  get  the  man  who  probably  is  best  fitted  to  carry 
out  the  research,  and,  above  all  things,  to  avoid,  not  merely  the  making  of 
political  appointments,  but  the  incurring  the  suspicion  of  making  such. 

Its  success  will  depend  largely  upon  its  relations  with  the  better  class 
of  the  medical  profession,  upon  its  securing  the  interest  and  co-operation 
of  the  leading  physicians  of  the  community  who  form  the  tribunal  by 
which  it  will  be  judged. 

The  branches  of  medical  knowledge  with  which  it  is  most  desirable 
that  the  health  officer  should  be  familiar  are  not  those  most  nearly  related 
to  therapeutics,  and  the  most  distinguished  practitioner  of  a  neighborhood 
may  not  be  by  any  means  the  person  best  qualified  for  a  sanitary  appoint- 
ment, although  tact  and  good  sense  are  equally  necessary  for  both. 

But  the  health  officer  should  be  a  good  diagnostician  and  pathologist; 
he  should  be  thoroughly  qualified  to  fill  the  position  of  coroner,  and  prob- 
ably it  would  in  most  cases  be  best  to  merge  the  duties  of  that  office  with 
his  own. 

And  finally,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Letheby :  "  There  are  many  occasions, 
especially  those  of  secondary  importance,  which  occur  most  frequently, 
when  an  officer  of  health  acts  as  an  intermediate  agent  between  the  public 
and  the  administration,  when  his  functions  are  those  of  a  conciliator,  when 
he  has  to  listen  to  complaints  of  grievances  on  one  side,  and  angry  re- 
criminations on  the  other. 

"  Judging,  however,  solely  of  the  question  of  public  safety  and  public 
health,  and  disregarding  or  calming  down  the  animosities  with  which  the 
complaints  are  too  often  beset,  he  should  endeavor  to  decide  in  such  w^ise 
as  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  administration,  as  well  as  the  reasonable 
objections  of  opponents.  His  advice,  indeed,  should  be  such  as  will  not 
only  meet  the  requirements  of  the  case,  but  will  also  gain  the  assent  of 
every  good  citizen.  Above  all,  he  should  even  oppose  himself  to  all  vexa- 
tious and  litigious  proceedings,  to  all  unfounded  misapprehensions,  and 
to  all  exaggerated  views  of  public  sanitary  questions;  for  nothing  is  more 
likely  to  impede  the  progress  of  knowledge,  and  to  bring  the  functions  of 
his  office  into  disrepute,  than  the  unchecked  fancies  of  visionary  alarmists, 
or  the  still  more  mischievous  opinions  of  sensational  agitators."' 

>  H.  Letheby:  On  the  Qualifications  and  Duties  of  an  Officer  of  Health,  London, 
1867,  13mo,  p.  19. 


INTRODUCTION.  .05 

Much  of  what  has  been  said  with  regard  to  municipal  or  local  boards 
will  apply  also  to  State  boards  of  health. 

The  State  board  of  health  should  be  the  central  supervising  authority, 
having  much  the  same  relations  to  local  boards  that  the  local  board  has  to 
the  householder. 

Its  functions  may  be  classed  roughly  as  follows: 

1st.  To  promote  the  organization  of  local  and  municipal  boards. 

2d.  To  obtain  medical  and  vital  statistics. 

3d.  To  investigate  the  causes  of  undue  sickness  and  mortality,  as  in- 
dicated by  these  statistics. 

■4th.  The  removal  of  these  causes,  acting  as  far  as  possible  through  the 
local  sanitary  authorities. 

5th.  The  supervision  of  the  hygiene  of  State  institutions,  such  as  pris- 
ons, insane  asylums,  workhouses,  etc. 

Gth.   The  supervision  of  quarantine. 

There  are  now  in  existence  in  the  United  States  nineteen  State  boards 
of  health.  For  the  details  of  legislation  with  regard  to  these,  reference 
may  be  made  to  the  discourse  of  Dr.  H.  I.  Bowditch  on  "  Public  Hygiene 
in  America,"  Boston,  1877,  8vo;  and  more  especially  to  the  appendix  by 
H.  G.  Pickering,  entitled  a  Digest  of  American  Sanitar}'  Law. 

Very  much  of  this  legislation  as  regards  State  boards  of  health  is, 
however,  merely  theoretical,  and  has  no  actual  practical  application. 

The  code  looks  well  on  paper,  but  has  no  real  force,  and  from  an  ex- 
amination of  existing  statutes  only,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  what  the  real 
powers  and  duties  of  the  State  sanitary  organizations  actually  are.  Of 
the  nineteen  State  boards  of  health  now  existing',  more  than  one-half 
have  no  sufficient  means  or  powers  to  perform  the  duties  imposed  on  them 
by  statute. 

It  would  be  useless,  therefore,  to  comment  on  the  differences  in  these 
organizations,  but  some  of  them  are  so  peculiar  as  to  merit  a  brief  notice. 

The  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  which  is  the  most  firmly 
established  of  all,  has  the  peculiar  power  of  acting  as  a  court  with  regard 
to  nuisances  throughout  the  State,  and  until  i-ecently  its  decisions  were 
considered  as  final.  At  present  the  party  upon  whom  the  order  of  the 
board  of  health  is  served  has  the  right  of  appeal  to  a  jury,  as  above  re- 
ferred to;  but  while  the  appeal  is  pending  the  order  of  the  board  remains 
in  force.  The  members  of  the  board  serve  without  compensation,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  system  depends  mainly  on  the  secretary. 

The  State  Board  of  Health  of  x\labama,  by  Act  of  1875,  is  made  iden- 
tical with  the  State  Medical  Society.  This  organization  has  not  yet  been 
at  work  long  enough  to  show  its  capabilities  for  good  or  evil,  nor  indeed 
has  it  been  intrusted  with  more  than  advisory  powers,  being  in  fact  very 
much  like  a  French  departmental  conseil  de  sante. 

It  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  is  a  self-perpetuating  corporation,  composed 
exclusively  of  medical  men,  which  defines  its  own  duties,  directs  its  own 
operations,  and  appoints  its  own  agents,  and  is  thus  placed  beyond  the 
control  of  local  and  political  influences,  and  that  it  secures  to  the  State 


56  INTEODUCTION. 

the  largest  amount  of  the  best  work  at  the  least  risk  and  smallest  possi- 
ble expenditure  of  money;  ^  and  in  this  there  is  much  truth,  but  so  long 
as  its  powers  are  merely  advisory,  no  specially  good  results  can  be  ex- 
pected, and,  so  far  as  economy  is  concerned,  this  is  by  no  means  identical 
with  cheapness.  The  State  Board  of  Health  of  North  Carolina  was  organ^ 
ized  on  the  same  plan,  and  allowed  $100  for  its  yearly  expenses.  When 
Alabama  or  North  Carolina  allows  to  its  State  Board  of  Health,  as  at 
present  constituted,  about  120,000  per  annum  for  expenses,  and  confers 
on  it  such  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  powers  as  were  given  to  the 
Metropolitan  Board  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York,  it  will  try  a  very 
interesting  experiment,  the  results  of  which,  whatever  they  might  be, 
would  be  well  worth  the  annual  appropriation  for  two  or  three  years. 

The  State  Board  of  Health  of  Illinois  has  more  extensive  duties  and 
theoretical  powers  than  any  other  similar  organization  in  this  country. 
It  is  composed  of  seven  persons,  who  hold  their  office  for  seven  years,  and 
it  is  declared  by  the  statute  that  "  they  shall  have  charge  of  all  matters 
pertaining  to  quarantine,  and  shall  have  authority  to  make  such  rules 
and  regulations,  and  such  sanitary  investigations,  as  they  may  from  time 
to  time  deem  necessary  for  the  preservation  or  improvement  of  the  public 
health,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  police-officers,  sheriffs,  constables, 
and  all  other  officers  and  employees  of  the  State  to  enforce  svich  rules  and 
regulations  so  far  as  the  efficiency  and  success  of  the  board  may  depend 
upon  their  official  co-operation."  If  it  were  not  for  the  last  sentence,  this 
would  certainly  seem  to  give  the  board  almost  unlimited  power;  but  this 
clause  is  of  very  doubtful  meaning,  since  it  does  not  appear  who  is  to 
decide  as  to  when  the  "  efficiency,  etc.,  depend,"  etc. 

Another  peculiarity  in  the  duties  and  jDowers  of  this  board  is  shown 
in  the  following  extract  from  a  decision  of  Judge  Williams,  delivered  at 
the  October  term  of  the  Cook  Circuit  Court,  in  1878,  in  the  case  of  Nathan 
J.  Aikin  v.  State  Board  of  Health: 

"  It  (the  State  board  of  health)  is  constituted,  among  other  things,  to 
have  charge  of  medical  practice  and  medical  practitioners  in  this  State, 
and  it  is  its  right  and  duty  to  have  surveillance  of  the  professional  con- 
duct of  physicians  by  the  language  of  the  act  of  incorporation.  Any  per- 
sons guilty  of  unprofessional  conduct  may  be  by  it  refused  certificates, 
and  any  persons  having  certificates  who  were  guilty  of  unprofessional  con- 
duct may  have  their  certificates  revoked  by  the  board.  The  object  of  the 
incorporation  of  the  board  is,  among  other  things,  to  secure  a  higher  pro- 
fessional standard  in  the  medical  profession.  It  is  to  exclude  empirics  and 
empiricism  from  the  profession.  The  duties  of  the  board  are  various,  and 
the  interests  intrusted  to  its  keeping  affect  all  classes  of  the  community, 
and  affect  them  in  the  most  vital  points.  The  character  of  its  duties  is  in 
part  set  forth  in  the  second  section  of  the  act  creating  the  board.  '  The 
State  board  of  health  shall  have  the  general  supervision  of  the  interests 
of  the  health  and  life  of  the  citizens  of  the  State.     They  shall  have  charge 

J  See  Annual  Message  of  Peter  Beyre,  M.D.,  1878,  p.  8. 


INTRODUCTION.  57 

of  all  matters  pertaining  to  quarantine,  and  shall  have  authority  to  make 
such  rules  and  regulations,  and  such  sanitary  investigations,  as  they  may 
from  time  to  time  deem  necessary  for  the  preservation  or  iinprovement  of 
public  health,'  and  all  police-officers,  sheriffs,  and  other  employees  of  the 
State  are  required  to  enforce  its  rules  and  regulations  so  far  as  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  board  may  depend  upon  their  co-operation.  Such  a  board 
must,  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  be  vested  with  a  large  discretion. 
And,  in  the  legitimate  exercise  of  its  discretions,  it  ought  not  to  be,  and 
cannot  be,  properly  controlled  by  judicial  tribunals.  The  duties  of  the 
board,  with  reference  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  people,  bring  it 
into  such  relations  to  the  medical  profession  as  fit  it  to  determine  the 
necessary  qualifications  of  its  members,  and  to  judge  of  the  propriety  or 
impropriety  of  their  professional  deportment.  The  law  has  devolved  this 
and  similar  duties  upon  the  board,  and  it  has  created  no  other  corjDoration 
in  the  State  for  a  like  purpose,  nor  has  it  given  to  any  State  officer  super- 
vision over  the  board  in  the  discharge  of  its  ajopropriate  duties  and  the 
exercise  of  its  legitimate  discretions.  A  physician  may  be  guilty  of  un- 
professional and  dishonorable  conduct,  and  not  of  criminal  conduct.  It 
would  have  been  a  work  of  supererogation  in  the  law-makers  to  have 
vested  the  board  of  health  with  the  supervision  of  the  unprofessional  con- 
duct of  the  medical  practitioner,  if  unprofessional  conduct  and  criminal 
conduct  were  synonymous.  As  a  citizen,  the  physician  is,  with  every 
other  citizen,  answerable  to  the  criminal  laws,  and  as  an  alleged  criminal 
is  liable  to  be  arraigned  before  our  courts.  It  is  only  as  a  physician  that 
he  is  liable  to  have  his  professional  conduct  inquired  into  and  brought  be- 
fore the  State  board  of  health.  The  term  unprofessional  is  therefore  far 
wider  than  criminal.  Many  acts  would  be  unprofessional  that  were  not 
criminal;  some  acts  that  were  criminal  might  not  be  esteemed  vinprofes- 
sional.  What  is  professional  conduct  can  only  be  determined  by  bringing 
the  act  to  the  professional  criterion,  and  who  so  well  qualified  to  judge  of 
the  proper  professional  criterion  for  the  medical  profession  as  a  board  con- 
stituted, as  the  bill  shows  this  board  to  be,  of  seven  gentlemen,  five  of 
whom  are  physicians,  and  a  board  created  for  sanitary  purjjoses,  and  ac- 
customed to  sanitary  investigation  ?  The  '  unprofessional '  conduct  which 
authorizes  the  board  to  exclude  a  physician  from  the  profession  does  not, 
therefore,  mean  necessarily  criminal  or  immoral  acts,  but  such  conduct  as 
is  inconsistent  with  the  honorable  jDractice  of  the  profession;  and,  in  judg- 
ing of  such  conduct,  the  board  of  health  has  a  wide  discretion,  and  in  its 
exercise  courts  ought  not  to  interfere  with  it." 

This  decision  has  been  appealed  from,  and  the  result  cannot  be  pre- 
dicted, but  among  observant  sanitarians  there  is  a  fear  that  if  mat- 
ters take  the  usual  course,  there  will  be  a  reaction,  and  that  the  de- 
scription of  the  course  of  public  hygiene  in  England — viz.,  that  it  has  con- 
sisted in  taking  three  steps  forward  and  two  backward — will  also  apply 
here. 

The  act  to  establish  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Illinois  must  be 
taken  in  connection  with  the  act  passed  at  the  same  time  to   regulate  the 


58  INTKODUCTION. 

practice  of  medicine  in  the  State,  by  which  the  board  of  health  is  given 
supervision  over  medical  education,  and  acts  as  an  examining  board  in  is- 
suing licenses  to  practise,' 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this  provision,  it  certainly  seems  emi- 
nently desirable  and  proper  that  a  State  board  of  health  should  provide 
some  machinery  for  examining  and  certifying  to  the  fitness  of  candidates 
for  positions  as  local  health  officers.  ' 

The  result  in  Illinois  has  been  that  of  3,600  non -graduates,  who  were 
practising  medicine  in  the  State  when  the  act  went  into  effect,  about 
1,400  have  left  the  State,  or  ceased  to  practise."^ 

By  the  tenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  it 
is  provided  that  "  the  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the 
Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively,  or  to  the  people."  It  is  under  this  clause  that,  as  has  been 
shown  by  judicial  decisions  quoted  above,  the  police  power  is  reserved  to 
the  several  States,  and  does  not  belong  to  the  General  Government,  except 
as  regards  the  District  of  Columbia  ;  and  hence  there  are  special  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  giving  any  administrative  powers  to  any  central  sani- 
tary organization,  such  as  a  national  department  of  health,  health  board, 
etc.,  even  if  it  be  considered  desirable  that  it  should  possess  such  powers. 

As  it  is  important  that  the  powers  of  the  General  Government  should 
be  clearly  understood  by  those  who  are  interested  in  congressional  legis- 
lation affecting  the  public  health,  special  attention  is  invited  to  the  fol- 
lowing extracts  from  judicial  opinions,  involving  the  general  principles 
which  determine  these  powers: 

"  The  object  of  "inspection  laws  is  to  improve  the  quality  of  articles 
produced  by  the  labor  of  a  country  ;  to  fit  them  for  exportation  ;  or,  it 
may  be,  for  domestic  use They  form  a  portion  of  that  im- 
mense mass  of  legislation  which  embraces  everything  within  the-  territory 
of  a  State  not  surrendered  to  the  General  Government;  all  which  can  be 
most  advantageously  exercised  by  the  States  themselves.  Inspection 
laws,  cjuarantine  laws,  health  laws  of  every  description,  as  well  as  laws 
for  regvdating  the  internal  commerce  of  a  State  and  those  which  respect 
turnpike  roads,  ferries,  etc.,  are  component  parts  of  this  mass. 

'  For  details  as  to  the  working  of  these  acts,  consult  the  First  Annual  Keport  of 
the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Illinois,  Springfield,  111.,  1879,  8vo. 

-  For  further  particulars  as  to  the  organization  and  powers  of  municipal  and 
State  boards  of  health,  consult  "  The  Sanitary  Code  for  Cities,"  prepared  by  Henry 
G.  Clark,  M.D.  Kevised  and  adopted  by  the  National  Quarantine  and  Sanitary  Con- 
vention.    Revised  reprint,  Boston,  1865,  8vo. 

Digests  of  Statutes  and  Ordinances  relating  to  the  Public  Health,  Boston,  1873, 
13mo. 

Rules  and  Regulations  recommended  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Michigan  for 
Adoption  by  Local  Boards  of  Health,  Lansing,  1875. 

Metropolitan  Board  of  Health,  Code  of  Sanitary  Ordinances,  New  York,  1867,  8vo. 

Sanitary  Legislation  in  England  and  New  York,  New  York,  1872.  8vo. 

Plan  of  an  Act  to  establish  State  Board  of  Health,  Public  Health  Reports,  Am, 
Pub.  Health  Assoc,  Vol.  IL,  N.  Y.,  1876,  p.  526. 


INTRODUCTION.  59 

"  No  direct  general  power  over  these  objects  is  granted  to  Congress  ; 
and  consequently  they  remain  subject  to  State  legislation.  If  the 
legislative  power  of  the  Union  can  reach  them,  it  must  be  for  national 
purposes  ;  it  must  be  where  the  power  is  expressly  given  for  a  special 
purpose,  or  is  clearly  incidental  to  some  power  which  is  expressly  given,  ^ 

"  That  a  State  has  the  same  undeniable  and  unlimited  jurisdiction  over 
all  persons  and  things,  within  its  territorial  limits,  as  any  foreign  nation  ; 
where  that  jurisdiction  is  not  surrendered  or  restrained  by  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  That,  by  virtue  of  this,  it  is  not  only  the  right, 
but  the  bounden  and  solemn  duty  of  a  State,  to  advance  the  safety, 
happiness,  and  prosperity  of  its  people,  and  to  provide  for  its  general 
welfare,  by  any  and  every  act  of  legislation,  which  it  may  deem  to  be 
conducive  to  these  ends,  where  the  power  over  the  particular  subject,  or 
the  manner  of  its  exercise  is  not  surrendered  or  restrained,  in  the  manner 
just  stated.  That  all  those  powers  which  relate  to  merely  municipal 
legislation,  or  what  may,  perhaps,  more  properly  be  called,  internal  police, 
are  not  thus  surrendered  or  restrained;  and  that  consequently,  in  relation 
to  these,  the  authority  of  a  State  is  complete,  unqualified,  and  exclusive, 

"  We  are  aware  that  it  is  at  all  times  difficult  to  define  any  subject 
with  proper  precision  and  accuracy;  if  this  be  so  in  general,  it  is  emphat- 
ically so  in  relation  to  a  subject  so  diversified  and  multifarious  as  the 
one  which  we  are  now  considering, 

"  If  we  were  to  attempt  it,  we  should  say  that  every  law  came  within 
this  description  which  concerned  the  welfare  of  the  whole  jDeople  of  a 
State,  or  any  individual  within  it,  whether  it  related  to  their  rights  or 
their  duties;  whether  it  respected  them  as  men,  or  as  citizens  of  the  State, 
whether  in  their  public  or  private  relations  ;  whether  it  related  to  the 
rights  of  persons  or  of  property,  of  the  whole  people  of  a  State  or  of  any 
individual  within  it;  and  whose  operation  was  within  the  territorial  limits 
of  the  State  and  upon  the  persons  and  things  within  its  jurisdiction."  ^ 

In  the  case  of  the  United  States  v.  De  Witt,  9th  Wallace,  p.  41,  it 
was  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  that,  "  1.  The  29th  section  of  the  In- 
ternal Revenue  Act  of  March  2,  1867  (14  Stat,  at  Large,  484),  which  makes 
It  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment,  to  mix  for  sale 
naphtha  and  illuminating  oils,  or  to  sell  or  offer  such  mixture  for  sale,  or 
to  sell  or  offer  for  sale  oil  made  of  petroleum  for  illuminating  purposes, 
inflammable  at  less  temperature  or  fire-test  than  110  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
is  in  fact  a  police  regulation  relating  exclusively  to  the  internal  trade  of 
the  States."  "  As  a  police  regulation,  relating  exclusively  to  the  inter- 
nal trade  of  the  States,  it  can  only  have  effect  where  the  legislative 
authority   of   Congress    excludes,  territorially,  all    State   legislation,  as, 


^  From  writings  of  John  Marshall upon  the   Federal  Constitution, 

Boston,  1839,  p.  300. 

^  From  Eeports  of  Cases  argued  and  adjudged  iu  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  January  Term,  1837,  by  Richard  Peters,  Vol.  XI.,  Philadelphia,  1837.  "The 
Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Commonalty  of  the  City  of  New  York,  Plaintiffs  v.  George 
Miln,"  p.  139. 


60  INTRODUCTION. 

for  example,  in  the  District  of  Columbia.     Within  State  limits,  it  can 
have  no  constitutional  operation." 

The  powers  of  the  General  Government  to  legislate  for  the  protection 
of  the  public  health  of  the  whole  country  have  been  more  especially  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  various  proposals  which  have  been  made  for 
the  establishment  of  a  national  system  of  quarantine. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  under  Par,  3,  Sec.  VIIL,  Act  I.,  of  the  Con- 
stitution, which  provides  that  Congress  shall  have  power  to  regulate  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several  States,  Congress  may 
prescribe  the  conditions  upon  which  ships  shall  be  allowed  to  land  goods  or 
passengers.  But  when  the  statutes  relating  to  this  subject  are  examined, 
it  will  be  found  that  they  recognize  the  principle  that  the  quarantine  and 
health  laws  of  a  State  are  supreme  over  any  regulations  which  Congress 
may  make  respecting  commerce. 

In  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States,  Title  LVIII.  relates  to 
the  public  health,  and  by  the  first  section,  which  is  the  Act  of  1799,  the 
officers  of  the  customs,  of  revenue  cutters  and  of  the  army,  are  required 
to  observe  and  aid  in  the  execution  of  the  quarantines  and  other  restraints 
established  by  the  health  laws  of  any  State. 

The  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  ease  of  Gibbons  v.  Ogden 
(9  Wheaton),  in  alluding  to  this  act,  affirms  its  constitutionality  as  con- 
nected with  "  the  acknowledged  power  of  a  State  to  provide  for  the  health 
of  its  citizens,"  Or,  in  other  words,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Tucker,  "  Congress 
should  sustain  the  health  laws  of  the  States,  and  may  make  provisions  in 
aid  of  them,  but  not  against  them,  or  contrary  to  their  purpose."' 

Attention  has  been  already  called  to  the  fact  that  judicial  law  is  rather 
uncertain,  but  it  would  seem  that  under  these  rulings  the  General  Govern- 
ment can  do  little  in  the  way  of  compulsory  legislation,  which  might  in- 
terfere with  the  action  of  the  several  States  to  control  their  own  sanitary 
affairs.  It  is  possible  that  upon  the  ground  of  power  to  legislate  with 
regard  to  commerce,  it  might  establish  some  general  system  of  quarantine 
and  do  something  toward  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  navigable 
streams;  but  it  could  probably  only  do  this  with  such  restrictions  and  ex- 
ceptions as  would  make  its  action  of  little  practical  value,  unless,  indeed, 
it  should  resort  to  its  right  of  eminent  domain,  and  become  liable  for  all 
damages,  individual  or  municipal,  which  its  action  might  cause.  As  re- 
gards quarantine,  the  power  of  the  General  Government  to  interfere, 
with  good  effect,  under  cover  of  its  right  to  regulate  commerce,  is  much 
restricted  by  the  proviso  in  Par,  5,  Sec,  IX,,  Art,  I,,  of  the  Constitution, 
which  directs  that  "  No  preference  shall  be  given,  by  any  regulation  of 
commerce  or  revenue,  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  another."  Under 
this  clause  quarantine  regulations  established  by  the  General  Govern-' 
ment  must  be  the  same  for  the  North  Atlantic  j)orts  as  for  those  on  the 
Gulf,  thus  entailing  much  useless  obstruction  to  commerce. 

'  Opinion  of  Hon.  J.  R.  Tucker,  M.  C. ,  upon  the  Constitutionality  of  Quarantine  Laws, 
in  Reports  and  Resolutions  relating  to  Sanitary  Legislation,  presented  to  the  Am.  Pub. , 
Health  Assoc,  Cambridge,  1878,  p.  8, 


INTliODUCTIOK-.  61 

It  is  possible  that  in  the  future  a  constitutional  amendment  may 
confer  upon  Congress  the  necessarj^  authority  to  prescribe  and  enforce 
measures  for  the  preservation  of  the  public  health;  and  it  is  evident  that 
with  regard  to  quarantine,  external  or  internal,  the  pollution  of  streams, 
and,  in  some  cases,  the  securing  of  good  drainage  and  a  pure  water-sup- 
ply, centralization  and  a  certain  degree  of  uniformity  are  essential  to  secur^ 
ing  the  best  results;  but  at  present  we  can  only  look  to  the  action  of  the 
individual  States. 

Upon  the  principles  above  laid  down  as  to  the  duties  and  powers  of 
municipal  and  State  boards  of  health,  and  of  the  General  Government,  it 
does  not  seem  desirable  to  burden  a  national  board  of  health  with  legisla- 
tive, administrative,  or  judicial  functions,  and  it  is  believed  that  a  board 
could  be  organized  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  nearly,  if  not  quite,  all 
the  good  results  which  could  be  hoped  for  from  such  an  institution  withovit 
in  any  way  interfering  with  the  rights  of  States  or  conflicting  with  the 
principles  laid  down  in  the  judicial  opinions  above  cited. 

It  is  urged  by  Mr,  Eaton  that  if  the  nation  can  properly  exercise  juris- 
diction over  every  vessel  and  package  of  merchandise  in  navigable  waters — 
can,  through  the  census,  make  minute  inquiries  into  the  private  affairs  of 
every  individual — can  collect  and  publish  the  signs  of  the  weather,  tax  for 
purposes  of  education,  or  seize  private  property  for  the  public  benefit — 
"  how  can  it  be  denied  that  it  is  the  right  and  the  duty  of  the  General 
Government  to  bring  the  diverse  elements  of  its  sanitary  jurisdiction,  as  far 
as  practicable,  under  one  efficient  board,  which  shall  act  in  harmony  with 
the  health  boards  of  the  several  States,  and  gather,  arrange,  print,  and 
send  all  over  the  Union  those  records  of  the  origin,  cause,  and  progress  of 
disease  and  death:  those  instructive  and  admonishing  statistics  of  vitality 
and  progress  which  measure  the  peril  and  the  possibilities  of  commerce, 
which  illustrate  the  poAver  and  the  morality  of  a  nation,  which  are  the 
measure  of  our  claims  to  the  greatness  to  which  we  aspire  and  of  our 
own  fidelity  to  the  religion  which  we  profess," ' 

All  this  is  certainly  true  so  far  as  regards  the  collection  of  information, 
whatever  may  be  thought  of  other  matters. 

No  one  would  deny  that  the  General  Government  can  properly  ci'eate 
an  organization  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  diffusing  information  on 
sanitary  matters;  but  comparatively  few  understand  how  much  real  power 
and  influence  such  an  organization  might  acquire  without  having  the 
slightest  legal  authority  to  enforce  any  of  its  recommendations. 

The  passing  of  sanitary  laws,  and  the  granting  to  a  certain  department 
the  power  to  enforce  these  laws,  will  not  ensure  good  public  health  unless 
the  public  at  large  supports  those  laws  intelligently,  and  it  can  only  do 
this  through  State  and  municipal  sanitary  organizations.  The  General 
Government  might  do  much  to  promote  the  formation  of  such  organiza- 
tions, and  to  assist  them  in  various  ways.     For  instance,  it  might  follow 

1  Prom  PubKc  Health  Reports  and  Papers.  Vol.  11. ,  N.  Y.,  1876:  The  Essential 
Conditions  of  Good  Sanitary  Administration,  by  Dorman  B.  Eaton,  LL.D.,  p.  514, 


62  INTRODUCTION. 

the  plan,  pursued  in  Great  Britain,  of  refunding  a  certain  portion  of  the 
expense  connected  with  the  management  of  a  State  board  of  health, 
if  organized  in  a  certain  way,  and  if  the  State  board  undertakes  to 
furnish  certain  reports  and  statistics  for  the  information  of  the  central 
board.  It  is  upon  this  principle  of  subsidizing  important  interests 
without  undertaking  to  directly  control  them,  that  the  United  States 
has  promoted  education,  the  construction  of  railroads,  etc.,  and  that 
it  now  proposes  (during  the  coming  year,  1880)  to  promote  the  gather- 
ing of  important  statistical  information,  by  the  several  States,  in  the 
census. 

By  the  "  act  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  infectious  or  contagious 
diseases  into  the  United  States,  and  to  establish  a  national  board  of 
health,"  approved  March  3,  1879,  the  first  step  has  been  taken  in  the 
direction  above  indicated. 

The  act  provides  for  a  national  board  of  health,  to  consist  of  seven 
members,  appointed  by  the  President,  and  of  four  officers  detailed  from 
the  Medical  Department  of  the  Army,  Medical  Department  of  the  Navy, 
and  the  Marine  Hospital  Service,  and  the  Department  of  Justice  respec- 
tively. No  definite  term  of  Office  is  prescribed,  the  Board  being  essen- 
tially provisional  in  character. 

The  duties  of  the  board  are  "  to  obtain  information  upon  all  matters 
affecting  the  public  health,  to  advise  the  several  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment, the  executives  of  the  several  States,  and  the  Commissioners  ot 
the  District  of  Columbia,  on  all  questions  submitted  by  them,  or  whenever 
in  the  ojDinion  of  the  board  such  advice  may  tend  to  the  preservation  and 
improvement  of  the  public  health." 

The  board  is  also  directed  to  j^repare  a  plan  for  a  national  public  health 
organization  in  conjunction  with  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
after  consultation  with  "the  principal  sanitary  organizations  and  the 
sanitarians  of  the  several  States  of  the  United  States,  special  attention 
being  given  to  the  subject  of  quarantine,  both  maritime  and  inland,  and 
especially  as  to  regulations  which  should  be  established  between  State  or 
local  systems  of  quarantine  and  a  national  quarantine  system." 

Many  of  the  reasons  which  may  be  urged  for  the  establishment  of  a 
national  board  of  health  in  the  United  States  will  also  apply  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  some  form  of  international  health  organization  which  shall 
serve  for  the  collection  and  centralization  of  information,  and  for  its 
publication  upon  some  uniform  plan,  and  also  to  some  extent  for  the 
prevention  of  epidemics.  The  principles  upon  which  such  an  organiza- 
tion should  be  established  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  indicated 
for  a  national  board  of  health  for  the  United  States  ;  the  relations  of 
the  civilized  nations  of  the  earth  to  each  other  in  regard  to  this  subject 
being  very  analogous  to  those  of  the  several  States  to  the  Federal 
Government. 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  formation  of  such  an  international  organ- 
ization has  been  the  fact  that  the  United  States  alone  possesses  no  central 
sanitary  authority  by  which  it  could  enter  into  relations  with  such  a  body, 


INTRODUCTION.  63 

wliile  her  commercial  relations  are  such  as  to  make  it  almost  indispensable 
that  she  should  be  a  party. 

In  view  of  tlie  difficulties  in  the  way  of  obtaining  satisfactory  legisla- 
tion upon  sanitary  matters,  and  the  ever-present  danger  that  the  officials 
to  be  charged  with  the  execution  of  State  or  municipal  health  laws  may 
be  unfit  for  such  position,  it  is  worth  noting  that  some  of  the  benefits  of 
co-operation  may  be  obtained,  and  the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  legisla- 
tive interference  avoided,  by  the  formation  of  sanitary  protection  associa- 
tions, as  has  been  done  at  Edinburgh  and  at  Newport,  R.  I.  These 
associations  are  essentially  mutual  insurance  companies,  and  although  the 
main  object  of  those  just  referred  to  is  to  secure  thorough  preliminary 
and  periodic  inspection  of  the  habitations  of  the  members  with  reference 
to  drainage,  plumbing,  etc.,  yet  the  principle  may  easily  be  extended ; 
and  it  would  be  quite  possible  to  organize  a  life  insurance  company  upon 
the  same  plan — a  company  which  should  not  merely  accept  the  usual 
chances  of  mortality,  but  should,  as  a  matter  of  profit,  attempt  to  reduce 
the  mortality  rates  of  its  members,  by  employing  skilled  officers  to  do 
such  work  as  is  contemplated  by  the  associations  just  referred  to.' 

Finally,  it  may  be  observed  that  while  education  of  the  people  in 
hygienic  matters  is  a  necessity,  and  while  the  sanitarian  must  not  in  his 
practical  work  go  beyond  the  point  in  which  he  will  be  supported  by 
public  opinion,  since  it  is  useless  to  prescribe  remedies  which  will  not  be 
taken,  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  the  people  often  wish  what  they  are  told 
they  wish,  and  legislation  is  itself  a  powerful  means  of  education. 

But  to  secure  true  progress  in  hygiene,  those  already  skilled  must 
acquire  more  skill ;  and  those  who  are  leaders,  more  knowledge.  Those 
who  are  charged  with  the  care  of  the  public  health  are  responsible,  not 
only  for  possessing  existing  knowledge,  but  for  the  increase  of  knowledge ; 
and  they  may  never  "rest  and  be  thankful,  for  the  ancient  Sphynx  meets 
them  at  every  turn,  and  her  demand  never  ceases:  Read  me  my  riddle,  O! 
man,  and  I  will  be  thy  slave  ;  neglect  it,  or  fail,  and  thou  shalt  surely  be 
devoured." 


The  following  lists  of  works  relating  to  the  general  subjects  of  hy- 
giene and  State  medicine  are  the  result  of  a  selection  from  a  much  larger 
number  of  titles.  It  will  be  understood,  therefore,  that  they  are  by  no 
means  a  bibliography  of  the  subject.  Works  relating  to  special  subjects 
are  not  given  here.  Only  the  last  edition  known  to  the  writer  is  noted, 
and  the  titles  are  given  as  briefly  as  is  consistent  with  the  identification 
of  the  work. 

The  third  section  especially  is  incomplete,  since  almost  every  country 
and  city  in  Europe  has  published  sanitary  ordinances  and  reports,  but 
the  majority  of  them  have  but  a  temporary  and  local  interest. 

'  For  details  consult  The  Edinburgh  Sanitary  Protection  Association,  San.  Jour., 
Glasgow,  June,  1878,  p.  IVS  ;  and  The  Sanitary  Protection  Association  of  Newport, 
R.  I.,  7  pp.,  8vo,  a  circular  issued  by  the  Society. 


64  INTRODUCTION. 


I. — Journals  and  Transactions. 

Annalen  der  Staatsarzneikunde.  Tiibingen,  1836-38.  Freiburg,  1839-46.  11 
Tols.  8vo.  (In  1847  united  with  Magazin  f.  d.  Staatsarzneikunde,  to  form  Vereinte 
deutsche  Zeitschrift  f.  die  Staatsarzneikunde.) 

Annales  d'hygiene  publique  et  de  medecine  legale.  Paris,  1829-78.  100  vols. 
8vo.     Current. 

Archiv  (Allgemeines)  der  Gesundheitspolizei.     Hannover,  1805-6.     8vo. 

Archiv  der  devitschen  Medicinal-Gesetzgebung  und  ofEentlichen  Gesundheitspflege. 
Erlangen,  1857-59.     fol.     (No.  26,  vol.  3,  last  published.) 

Beitrage  zur  exacten  Forschung  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Sanitats-Polizei.  Berlin, 
1860-62,  8vo.  (A  reprint,  with  new  pagination,  of  Nos.  4-12,  v.  ii. ,  of  Monatsschrif t 
f.  exacte  Forschung,  etc.) 

Beitrage  zur  Reform  des  Sanitatsweseu  aus  Westfalen.  Arnsberg,  1849.  1  vol. 
8vo. 

Blatter  fur  Staatsarzneikunde.  Beilage  zur  Allg.  Wien.  med.  Zeitung.  Wien, 
1868.     1  vol.  4to. 

Central- Archiv  fiir  die  gesammte  Staatsarzneikunde.  Regensbiirg,  1844  ;  Ansbach, 
1845-49.     6  vols.  8vo. 

Congres  general  d'hygiene  de  Bruxelles,  session  de  1852.  Compte  rendu  des  se- 
ances.    Bruxelles,  1852.     8vo. 

Congres  international  d'hygiene,  de  sauvetage  et  d'economie  sociale.  Paris  et 
Bruxelles,  1877.     2  vols.  roy.  8vo. 

Congresso  (il  secondo)  internazionale  sanitario  ed  il  regno  d'ltalia.  Milano,  1866. 
8vo. 

Correspondenz-Blatt  fiir  die  mittelrheinischen  Aerzte.  Organ  fiir  Epidemiologie 
und  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege.  Darmstadt  and  Leipzig,  1866-68.  1  vol.  8vo. 
(Continued  as  Zeitschrift  fiir  Epidemiologie,  etc.) 

Correspondenz-Blatt  des  niederrheinischen  Vereins  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheits- 
pflege.    Koln,  1871-78.    4to. 

Congress  (Den  hygieiuiske)  i  Kjobenhavn,  Juli,  1858.  Beretning,  etc.  Kjobenhavn, 
1858.     8vo. 

Dwutygodnik  medycyny  publicznej.  Organ  Towarzystwa  lekarzy  galicyjskich. 
Krakowie,  1877-78.     9  vols.  8vo. 

Gesundheit :  Zeitschrift  fiir  korperliches  und  geistiges  Wohl.  Elberfeld,  1875-78. 
3  vols.  4to. 

Jahresberichte  der  chemische  Centralstelle  fiir  oflfentliche  Gesundheitspflege  in 
Dresden.     I.-V.  Jahresb.     Dresden,  1875-76.     2  vols,  roy  8vo. 

Journal  d'hygiene,  etc.     Paris,  1875-78.     3  vols.  4to. 

Journal  of  Public  Health  and  Monthly  Record  of  Sanitary  Improvement.  London, 
1847-49.     2  vols.  8vo. 

The  Journal  of  Public  Health  and  Sanitary  Review.  London,  1855-63.  8  vols. 
8vo.      [Contains  Trans.  Epidemiological  Society  of  London  for  1855-58.] 

The  Liverpool  Health  of  Towns'  Advocate.  Liverpool,  Sept.,  1845-May,  1847.  19 
Nos.  8vo. 

Magazin  fur  die  Staatsarzneikunde.     Leipzig,  1842-46.     5  vols.  8vo. 

Medicinal-Gesetzgebung.  Zeitschrift  f.  Medicinal-,  Veterinar-  u.  Gesundheitspoli^ei 
im  deutschen  Reiche  u.  in  seinen  Einzelstaaten.  Hrsg.  unter  Benutzg.  der  amtl.  Quel- 
len.  5  Bd.  Jahrg.  1879.  26  Nrn.  (B),  hoch  4.  Berlin.  Grosses  Monatsblatt  fur  medi- 
cinische  Statistik  und  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege.  Berlin,  1856-75.  fol,  (Beilage 
zur  Deutschen  Klinik. ) 

Monatsblatt  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege.     Braunschweig,  1878.     Vol.  1,  8vo. 

Monatsschrif t  fiir  exacte  Forschung  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Sanitats-Polizei.  Berlin, 
1859-62.    2  vols.  8vo. 


INTRODUCTION.  65 

The  Plumber  and  Sanitary  Engineer.  New  York,  1877-79.     3  -,ols.  4to. 

Proceedings  and  Debates  of  the  Third  National  Quarantine  and  Sanitary  Conven- 
tion, held  ir.  the  City  of  New  York.    New  York,  1859.    8vo. 

Proceedings  and  Debates  of  the  Fourth  National  Quarantine  and  Sanitary  Conven- 
tion, held  in  the  City  of  Boston.     Boston,  1860.     8vo. 

Public  Health:  A  Journal  of  Sanitary  Science.     London,  1873-77.     7  vols.  4to. 

Public  Health  Reports  and  Papers  presented  at  the  Meetings  of  the  American 
PubHc  Health  Association.     New  York,  1875-77.     3  vols.  8vo. 

Publicationeu  des  Vereins  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege  in  Halle.  Halle, 
1869-72.     3  vols.  8vo. 

The  Sanitarian.     New  York,  1873-78.     6  vols.  8vo. 

The  Sanitary  Journal.     Glasgow,  1876-78.    2  vols.  8vo. 

The  Sanitary  Record  :  A  Journal  of  Public  Health.     London,  1874-78.    9  vols.  4to. 

Tijdschrift  voor  algemeene  Gezondheids-Regeling  en  geneeskundige  Politic.  Gra- 
venhage,  1855.     8vo. 

Transactions  of  the  Epidemiological  Society  of  London.  London,  1863-70.  3  vols, 
Svo.     [For  previous  years,  see  The  Journal  of  Public  Health  and  Sanitary  Review.] 

Verhandlungen  des  Intemationalen  Vereins  gegen  Verunreinigung  der  Fllisse,  des 
Bodens  und  der  Luft.     I.  Versammlung.     Berlin  u.  Leigzig,  1877.     Svo. 

Verhandlungen  und  MittheUungen  des  Vereins  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege 
in  Magdeburg.     Magdeburg,  1875-78.     Svo. 

Verhandlungen  und  MittheUungen  des  Vereins  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege 
zu  Hannover.     Hannover,  1876-77.     Svo. 

Verhandlungen  des  Vereins  fiir  Staatsarzneiwissenschaft  in  Berlin.  1st  Heft.  Er- 
langen,  1855.     Svo. 

Veroffentlichungen  des  kaiserlichdeutschen  Gesundheitsamtes.  Berlin,  1877-78.  2 
vols.  fol. 

Vierteljahrsschrift  fiir  gerichtliche  und  offentliche  Medicin.  Berlin,  1852-78. 
54  vols.  Svo. 

Vierteljahrsschrift  (Deutsche)  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege.  Braunschweig, 
1869-78.     10  vol.  Svo. 

Zeitschrift  (Deutsche)  fiir  die  Staats-Arzneikunde.  n.  F.,  Erlangen,  1853-72.  19 
vols.  Svo. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Epidemiologic  und  offenthche  Gesundheitspflege.  Darmstadt, 
1868-71.     3  vols.  Svo 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Hygiene,  medicinische  Statistik  und  Sanitatspolizei.  Tlibingen, 
1859-60.     1  vol.  8vo. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Staatsarzneikunde.     Erlangen,  1821-64.     118  vols.  Svo. 

Zeitschrift  (Vereinte  deutsche)  fiir  die  Staats-Arzneikunde.  Freiburg,  1847-52; 
and  Neue  Folge,  Erlangen,  1853-72.  39  vols.  Svo.  (Deutsche)  Zeitschrift  fiir  die 
Staats-Arzneikunde. 

Zeitschrift  des  Stammvereins  fiir  volksverstandHche  Gesundheitspflege.  Vol.  L 
Chemnitz,  1878.     Svo. 

Zdorovye,  nauchno  populamii  gigiencheskii  zhumal.     St.  Petersburg,  1874-7S. 

II. — General  axd  Collective  Treatises. 

Albu,  J.  :  Handbuch  der  allgemeinen  personlichen  und  offentKchen  Gesundheits- 
pflege.    Berlin,  1874.     Svo. 

Becquerel,  A.  :  Traite  elementaire  d'hygiene  privee  et  pubhque.  5*^  ed.  Paris,  1873. 
Svo.     Contains  good  bibliography  by  E.  Beaugrand. 

Bernt,  J.  .  Systematisches  Handbuch  der  offentlichen  Gesundheitspflege.  Wien, 
1818.     Svo. 

Berruti,  L.  :  Lezioni  sulla  igiene  pubhca  e  privata.    Torino,  1876-77.    2  vols.  12mo. 

Briand,  Th. :  Manuel  complet  d'hygiene,  ou  traite  des  moyens  de  conserver  la  sante. 
5 


QQ  INTEODUCTION. 

Nouv.  ed  avec  un  supplement  de  M.  Reveille  Parise  intitule  Hygiene  des  personnes 
livrees  aux  travaux  de  I'esprit.     Bruxelles,  1845.     16mo. 

Blyth,  A.  W.  :  A  Dictionary  of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health.     London,  1876.     Svo. 

Bryon,  F.  :  Urbium,  oppidorum,  locorum  denique  omnium  salubritatis  et  insalu- 
britatis  leges.     Parisiis,  1631.     12mo. 

Cameron,  C.  A.  :  A  Manual  of  Hygiene,  Public  and  Private.     Dublin,  1874.     Svo. 

Capello,  A.  :  Memorie  istoriclie  sull  igiene  publica.     Roma,  1848.     8vo. 

Carpenter,  A.  :  Preventive  Medicine  in  Relation  to  the  Public  Health.  London, 
1877.     12mo. 

Chapelle,  A.  :  Traite  d'hygiene  publique.     Paris,  1850.    8vo. 

de  Chaumont,  F.  :  Lectures  on  State  Medicine.     London,  1875.    8vo. 

Deslandes,  L.  :  Manuel  d'hygiene  publique  et  privee.     Paris,  1827.     18mo. 

Dunglison,  Robley:  Human  Health.  A  new  edition,  with  many  modifications, 
VIII.,  13  to  464  pp.     Philadelphia,  Lea  &  Blanchard,  1844.     8vo. 

Emmert,  C.  :  Ueber  offentUche  Gesundheitspflege  als  akademisches  Lehrfach  und 
als  Gesundheitsamt.     Bern,  1877.     8vo. 

Eulenberg,  H.  :  Handbuch  der  Gewerbe-Hygiene.     Berlin,  1876.    8vo. 

Fleury,  L.  :  Cours  d'hygiene  fait  a  la  faculte  de  medecine  de  Paris.  Paris,  1852- 
72.     3  vols.    Svo. 

Fodere,  E. :  Legons  sur  les  epidemies  et  I'hygiene  publique.  Paris,  1822-24.  4 
vols.  Svo. 

Fodere,  F.  E.  :  Traite  de  medecine  legale  et  hygiene  publique,  ou  de  police  de 
sante.    Nouv.  ed.     Paris,  1813.  6  vols.    Svo. 

Frank,  J.  P.  :  System  einer  voUstandigen  medicinischen  Polizei.  Mannheim,  1779- 
1813,  5  vols.  ;   and  Wien,  1816-19.  Vol.  VL  in  3  parts.  Svo. 

Freschi,  F. :  Dizionario  di  igiene  publica  e  privata  e  di  polizia  sanitaria.  Torino, 
1858.     4  vols.  Svo. 

Fuchs,  J.  :  Die  Gesundheits-Commissionen  und  hygienische  Studien  auf  dem 
Lande.     Miinchen,  1876.     Svo. 

Geigel,  A.,  Hirt,  L.,  and  Merkel,  G.  :  Handbuch  der  oflFentlichen  Gesundheits- 
pflege und  der  Gewerbe-Krankheiten.  Leipzig,  1874.  Svo.  [Vol.  I.  of  Ziemssen's 
Handb.  der  spec.  Path.,  etc.] 

Gesky,  A.  :  Gesundheitspflege,  ein  Vortrag.     Halle,  1875.     Svo. 

Gianelli,  G.  L.  :  Delia  influenza  della  medicina  publica  sul  benessere  fisico  e  morale 
dei  popoli.     Padova,  1836.     Svo. 

Giintner,  F.  X.  :  Handbuch  der  offentlichen  Sanitiitspflege.     Prag,  1865.    Svo. 

Guy,  W.  A.  :  Public  Health.     London,  1870-74.     Svo. 

Hauska,  F.  :  Compendium  der  Gesuudheits-Polizei.     Wien,  1859.    Svo. 

Hebenstreit,  E.  B.  G:  Lehrsatze  der  mediciaischen  Polizeywissenschaft.  Leipzig, 
1791.     Svo. 

Hemmer,  M. :  Hygienische  Studien.     Munchen,  1875.     Svo. 

Hirt,  L.:  System  der  Gesundheitspflege.     Breslau,  1876.     Svo. 

Judas,  J.  :  De  cura  magistratus  circa  valetudinem  civium.     Gottingse,  1758,  4to. 

Kraus,  L.  G.  W.  Pichler  :  Encyclopadisches  Worterbuch  der  Staatsarzneikunde. 
Erlangen,  1872-78,  4  vols.  Svo. 

Levy,  Michel ;  Traite  d'hygiene  publique  et  privee.  5^  ed.  Paris,  1869.  2  vols. 
Svo. 

Lion,  A.  (sen.)  :  Handbuch  der  Medicinal- und  Sanitatspolizei.  Iserlohn,  1862-75. 
3  vols.  Svo. 

Londe  C.  :  Nouveaux  elemens  d'hygiene.     2"  ed.     Paris,  1838.     2  vols.  Svo. 

Mapother,  E.  D.  :  Lectures  on  Public  Health.     2d  ed.     Dublin,  1867.     Svo. 

JVIichael,  W.  H.,  W.  H.,  Corfield,  and  J.  A.  Wanklyn :  A  Manual  of  Public  Health. 
London,  1874.     12mo. 

Monlau,  P.  F.  ;  Elementos  de  hygiene  publica.    3d  ed.    Madrid,  1871.     2  vols.  Svo. 

Motard,  A.  :  Traite  d'hygiene  generale.     Paris,  1868-69.     2  vols.  Svo. 


INTRODUCTION.  67 

Nicolai,  A.  H. :  Grunclriss  der  Sanitatspolizei,  mit  besonderer  Beziehung  auf  den 
preussischen  Staat.     Berlin,  1835.     8vo. 

Oesteiieu,  F. :   Handbuch  der  Hygiene.     3d  ed.     Tubingen,  1857.    Svo. 

Pappenheim,  L.  :  Handbuch  der  Sanitatspolizei.      2d  ed.     Berlin,  1868-70.      Svo. 

Parent-Duchatelet,  A.  J.  B. :  Hygiene  publique.     Paris,  1886.     2  vols.  Svo. 

Parkes,  E.  A.  :  A  Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene.     5th  ed.    London,  1878.     Svo, 

Parkes,  E.  A.  :  Public  Health.     London,  1876.      12nio. 

Petratti,  M.  A. :  Nozioni  d'igiene  pubblica  e  medicina  politica.  Foligno,  1874. 
Svo. 

von  Pettenkofer,  M.  :  Ueber  den  Werth  der  Gesundheit  fur  eine  Stadt.  Braun- 
schweig, 1873.     Svo. 

Pichler,  W.  und  L.  G.  Kraus,  :  Compendium  der  hygiene,  Sanitatspolizei,  und  ge- 
richtlichen  Medicin.      Stuttgart,  1875.      4to. 

Proust,  A.  :  Traite  d'hygiene  publique  et  privee.     Paris,  1877.     Svo. 

Proust,  A.  :  Essai  sur  Thygiene  internationale.      Paris,  1873.     Svo. 

Rameaux,  J.  F.  :  Appreciation  des  progres  de  1'  hygiene  publique  depuis  le  com- 
mencement du  XIX<=  siecle.     Strasbourg,  1839.     4to. 

Reich,  E. :  System  der  Hygiene.     Leipzig,  1870-71.    2  vols.  Svo. 

Reich,  E.  :  Die  Hygiene,  deren  Studium  und  ansllbung.     Wiirzbiu'g,  1874.     Svo. 

Riecke,  C.  F.  :  Beitrage  zur  Staatsgesundheitspflege.     Nordhausen,  1858-59.    Svo. 

Roberton,  J.  :  A  Treatise  on  Medical  Police.     Edinburgh,  1808-9.     2  vols.  Svo. 

Roncati,  F.  :  Compendio  d'igiene.     Napoli,  1S70.    Svo. 

Rumsey,  H.  W.  :  Essays  on  State  Medicine.     London,  1856.     Svo. 

V.  Russdorf,  E.  :  Lehrbuch  der  Gesundheitspflege.  Erlangen,  1857-60.  3  vols. 
Svo. 

Sainte-Marie,  E.  :  Lectures  relatives  a  la  police  medicale.     Paris,  1829.     Svo. 

Sander,  F.  :  Handbuch  der  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege.     Leipzig,  1877.      Svo. 

Scelles  de  Montdesert,  O.  :  Cours  d'hygiene.     Paris,  1866.    Svo. 

Schauenstein,  A.  :  Handbuch  der  offentlichen  Gesundheitspflege  in  Oesterreich. 
Wien,  1863.     Svo. 

Silberschlag,  C.  :  Die  Aufgabe  des  Staats  in  Bezug  auf  die  Heilkunde  und  die  offent- 
liche Gesundheitspflege.     Berlin,  1875.     Svo. 

Smith,  E.  :  Manual  for  Medical  Officers  of  Health.    London,  1878.    Svo. 

Smith,  E  :   Handbook  for  Inspectors  of  Nuisances.     London,  1873.     Svo. 

Stewart,  A.  P. ,  and  E.  Jenkins :  The  Medical  and  Legal  Aspects  of  Sanitary  Re- 
form.    London,  1867.     Svo. 

Tardieu,  A.  :  Dictionnaire  d'hygiene  publique  et  de  salubrite.  2d  ed.  Paris.  1863. 
4  vols.  Svo. 

Thevenin,  E.  :  Hygiene  publique.     Paris,  1863.     12mo. 

Thouvenel,  P.  :  Elements  d'hygiene.      Paris,  1840.     2  vols.  Svo. 

Vernois,  M.  :  Traite  pratique  d'hygiene  industrielle  et  administrative.  Paris,  1860. 
2  vols.  Svo. 

Virey,  J.  J.  :  Hygiene  phllosophique.     Paris,  1828.    Svo. 

Walbaum  :  Das  Wesen  der  offentlichen  Sanitatspflege  und  ihrer  Feinde.  Gera, 
1875.    Svo. 

Wilson,  G.  :  A  Handbook  of  Hygiene.     London,  1873.    Svo. 

III.  Legislation,  Reports,  etc. 

Austria. 

Linzbauer,  F.  X.  :  A  Magyar  Korona  Oeszagainak  Nemzetkozi  Egessegiigye.  Das 
internationale  Sanitatswesen  der  Ungarischen  Kronlander  (Hungarian  and  German 
texts).     Budan,  1878.     Roy.  Svo. 

Wolfenstein  :  Compendium  der  tisterreichischen  Sanitatsgesetze  und  Sanitatspoli- 
zeilichen  Verwendungen.     Wien,  1877.     Svo. 


68  INTE0DUCTI01S-. 

Belgium. 

Ministere  cle  I'lnterieur  :  Hygiene  publique.  Documents  et  instructions,  1848  a 
1858.     Bruxelles,  1859.     8vo. 

Conseil  superieur  d'hygiene  publique  :  Rapports.  4''  vol.,  1867-73  ;  5^  vol.,  1st 
fascic,  1874-76.     Bruxelles,  1868-77.     8vo. 

Meynne  :  TopograpMe  medicale  de  la  Belgique.     Bruxelles,  1865.     8vo, 

France. 

Bertulus,  E.  :  Marseille  et  son  intendance  Sanitaire.  I^tudes  historiques  et  medi- 
cales.     Paris  et  Marseille,  1864.     8vo. 

Limagne,  E.  de :  Manuel  du  service  sanitaire,  recueil  des  reglements  et  instruc- 
tions sur  la  police  sanitaire  en  France  et  en  Algerie.    2'=  ed.     Paris,  1858.     8vo. 

Monfalcon,  J.  B.  and  Poliniere,  A.  P.  J.  d.  :  Hygiene  de  la  ville  de  Lyon,  ou  opini- 
ons et  rapports  du  Conseil  de  Salubrite  du  departement  du  Rhone.     Paris,  1845.    8vo. 

Recueil  des  traveaux  du  comite  consultatif  d'hygiene  publique  de  France.  Paris, 
1872-78.     7  vols.  8yo. 

Travaux  du  conseil  d'hygiene  publique  et  de  salubrite  du  department  de  laG-ironde, 
1848-77,  tomes  I.-XIX.    Bordeaux,  1851-78.     8vo. 

Rapports  generaux  des  travaux  du  conseil  de  salubrite  pendant  les  annees  1846- 
66.    Paris,  1855-78.    4  vols.  4to. 

Rapport  general  des  travaux  du  conseil  de  salubrite  de  la  ville  de  Paris  et  du  de- 
partement de  la  Seine.    Paris,  1821-29.     2  vols.  4to. 

Rapports  sur  les  travaux  du  conseil  central  du  salubrite  du  departement  du  Nord. 
LiUe,  1839-73.    8vo. 

Great  Britain. 

Metropolitan  Sanitary  Commission.  Minutes  of  Evidence  and  Report.  London, 
1847-48.     8vo  and  fol. 

Report  of  the  G-eneral  Board  of  Health  on  the  Administration  of  the  Public  Health 
Act.     London,  1854.     8vo. 

Reports  to  the  General  Board  of  Health  on  Drainage,  Sewerage,  and  Sanitary  Con- 
dition of  Cities  and  Towns  of  England.     London,  1849-54.     27  vols.  8vo. 

Report  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Laboring  Population  of  Great  Britain. 
London,  1841  -42.     3  vols.  Svo. 

Reports  of  the  Royal  Sanitary  Commission  with  Minutes  of  Evidence.  London, 
1869-70.     2  vols.  fol. 

Reports  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council  and  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the 
Local  Government  Board.     London,  1859-78.     17  vols.  Svo. 

A  Digest  of  the  Statutes  Relating  to  Urban  Sanitary  Authorities.  London,  1873. 
Svo. 

Manual  of  Public  Health  for  Ireland.     Dublin,  1875.     Svo. 

The  Public  Health  Act  (Ireland),  with  Schedules,  etc.     Dublin,  1878.     12mo. 

Finkelnburg :  Die  off entliche  Gesundheitspflege  Englands  nach  ihrer  geschicht- 
lichen  Entwicklung  und  gegenwartigen  Organization.     Bonn.  1874.     8vo. 

Spens,  W.  C.  :  The  Sanitary  System  of  Scotland,  its  Defects  and  Proposed  Reme- 
dies.    Edinburgh,  1876.     Svo. 

Model  By-Laws  issued  by  the  Local  Government  Board  for  the  Use  of  Sanitary 
Authorities.     London,  1877. 

Report  of  the  Health  of  London  Association  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Me- 
tropolis.    London,  1847.     Svo. 

Robinson,  J.  :  Sanitary  Inspector's  Guide.     London,  1877.    Svo. 

Rumsey,  H.  W. :  On  Sanitary  Legislation  and  Administration  in  England.  London, 
1858.     Svo. 

Rumsey,  H.  W.  :  On  State  Medicine  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  London,  1867. 
Svo. 


LNTEODUCTIOjSr.  69 

Qermany. 

Der  Kayserliclien  Stadt  Bresslau  neu  auffgerichte  Infection  Ordnung.  Bresslau, 
1568.     4vo. 

Des  Raths  zu  Dressden  Ordnung  wieder  ereignenden  gefahrlichen  Seuchen  und 
anderen  ansteckenden  Krankheiten  (etc. ) .     Dressden,  1560.     4to. 

Schley  el,  J.  H.  G.  :  Sammlimg  aller  Sanitatsverordnungen  fiir  das  Fuerstenthum 
Weimar,  bis  zu  Ende  der  Jahres  1802.     Jena,  1803.     8vo. 

Neumann  S.  :  Die  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege  und  das  Eigenthum.  .  .  .  mit 
Bezug  auf  die  preussische  Medicinal- Verfassungs-Frage.     Berlin,  1847.     12mo. 

Denkschrift  iiber  die  Aufgaben  und  Ziele  die  sicli  das  kaiserliclie  Gesundheitsamt 
gesteUt  hat,  etc.     Berlin,  1878.     8vo 

Friedberg  H.  :  Ueber  die  Geltendmachen  der  offentlichen  Gesundheitspflege.  Er- 
langen,  1873.     8vo. 

Jahresbericht  liber  die  Verwaltung  des  Medicinalwesens,  die  Kranken-Anstalten 
und  die  offentlichen  Gesundheitsverhaltnisse  der  freien  Stadt  Frankfurt  betreffend. 
Frankfurt  a.  M.,  1859-78.     19  vols.  8vo. 

India. 

Reports  on  Sanitary  Measures  in  India.     London,  1868-78.     11  vols.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  with  the  Government  of  India. 
Calcutta,  1865-77.     13  vols.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  for  the  Government  of  Bombay. 
Bombay,  1865-77,     13  vols.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  on  the  Sanitary  Administration  of  British  Burmah.  Rangoon, 
1868-78.     8vo  and  folio. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  for  the  Central  Provinces.  Nagpur, 
1869-78.     10  vols.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  of  the  Hyderabad  Assigned  Districts. 
Hyderabad,  1873-78.     fol. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  for  Madras.  Madras,  1865-77. 
13  vols.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  of  the  North  West  Provinces.  Alla- 
habad, 1869-77.     9  vols.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  for  the  Province  of  Oudh.  Lucknow, 
1869-76.     8vo.  fol. 

Annual  Reports  on  the  Sanitary  Administration  of  the  Punjab.  Lahore  1868- 
77.     folio. 

Italy. 

Morathus,  P.  :  Racconto  de  gli  ordini  e  provision!  fatti  ne  lazaretti  in  Bologna  e 
suo  contado  in  tempo  del  contagio  del  anno  1630.     Bologna,  1631.     4to. 

Raccolta  di  tutti  li  bandi,  ordini  e  provision!  fatti  per  la  citta  di  Bologna  in  tempo 
di  contagio.     Bologna,  1631.     4to. 

Regolamenti  sanatarii  per  lo  regno  delle  due  Sicilie.     Xapoli.  1820.     Sm.  4to. 

Regolamento  per  la  pratica  esecuzione  del  codice  di  sanita  a  pei  porti  e  lidi  della 
Stato  Pontificio.     Roma,  1818.     4to. 

Strambio,  G.  :  Snila  organizzazione  sanitaria  in  Italia.  Slilano,  1862.  8vo.  Ext. 
d.  poUtecnico.    Vol.  XIV. 

Regolamento  comunale  di  igiene  publica.     Pescia,  1873.    8vo. 

Regolamento  di  sanita  ed  igiene  publica  pel  comune  di  Suvreto.  Lucca,  1872.   8vo. 

Regolamento  d'igiene  publica  pel  comune  di  Piove.     Padova,  1874.     8vo. 

Regolamento  d'igiene  publica  pel  comune  di  Cantarana.     Asti,  1875.     8vo. 

Regolamento  d'igiene  municipio  di  Empoli.     Empoli,  1875.    8vo. 

Regolamento  d'igiene  publica  del  comune  di  Fuiminata.     Camerino,  1875.     8vo. 

Regolamento  d'igiene  publica  pel  di  Malagnino.     Cremona,  1875.    8vo. 


70  INTRODUCTION. 

Regolamento  di  polizia  urbana  pel  comune  di  argegno  mandamento  di  menaggio 
circondario  di  Como,  provincia  di  Como.     Como,  1875.     4to. 

Regolamento  di  sanita  publica  per  il  comune  di  Voltaggio.    Novi-Ligure,  1875.    8vo. 

Netherlands. 

Verzam.eling  van  Witten,  besluiten  en  reglementen  betrekkelijk  de  buegerijke  ge- 
neeskundige  dienst  in  bet  koningrijk  der  Nederlanden.     Gravenbage,  1836.  8vo. 

Pennink,  J.  J. ;  Outwerp  eener  geneeskundige  staatsregeling  voor  Nederland. 
Deventer,  1842.     8vo. 

Seegers,  F.  C. :  De  beide  rapporten  over  de  geneeskundige  staatsregeling,  etc. 
Gravenbage,  1843.    8vo. 

Memorie  betrekkelijk  maatregelen  ter  bevordering  van  den  algemeenen  gezond- 
beidstoestand,  etc.    Leeuwaeden,  1856.    8vo. 

Verslagen  van  de  vereeniging  tot  verbetering  der  volksgezondbeit  Utrecht, 
1866-77.     10  vols.    8vo. 

Verzameling  van  stukken  betreffende  bet  geneeskundig  staatstorzigt  in  Neder- 
land,    Gravenbage,  1867-73.    8  vols.  8vo. 

United  States. 

Bowditcb,  H.  J.  ;  Public  Hygiene  in  America,  with  a  Digest  of  American  Sanitary 
Law,  by  H.  G.  Pickering.     Boston,  1877.    8vo. 

Biennial  Reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  California.  1st  to  4th.  Sacra- 
mento, 1871-77.    8vo. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Colorado.  1st  and  2d.  Denver, 
1877-78.    8vb. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  State  of  Georgia.  1st  and  2d.  At- 
lanta, 1875-76. 

Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  lUrnois.  1st.  Springfield,  1879. 
8vo. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  State  of  Louisiana.  New  Orleans, 
1867-77.    8vo. 

Report  of  a  General  Plan  for  the  Promotion  of  Public  and  Personal  Health.  By 
the  Commissioners  for  a  Sanitary  Survey  of  the  State.    Boston,  1850.    8vo. 

Biennial  Reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Maryland.  1st  and  2d.  An- 
napolis, 1876-78. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts.  1st  to  9tb.  Bos- 
ton, 1870-78.    8vo. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Michigan.  1st  to  6th.  Lansing, 
1873-78.  8vo. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Minnesota.  1st  to  6th.  St.  Paul 
and  Minneapolis,  1873-78.    8vo. 

Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey.  1st  and  2d.  Trenton, 
1877-78.    8vo. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Health  (of  New  York  City).  New 
York,  1867-70.  8vo.  Continued  as  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  Health 
Department  of  the  City  of  New  York.     New  York,  1871-74.    8vo. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin.  Ist  and  2d. 
Madison,  1877-78.    8vo. 


Part   I. 


INDIVIDUAL    HYGIENE 


INFANT    HYGIENE. 


A.   JACOBI,  M.D., 


CLIJJICAl  PEOFESSOE  OF  DISEASES  OP   CHILDEEN  IN  THE  COLLEGE  OF  PHYSICIANS  AND  SUBGEONS, 

NEW  YORK. 


INFANT  HYGIENE/ 


Tlie  Neioly-Born —  Care  of  Respiration  and  Circulation. 

Normal  respiration  and  circulation  ought  to  be  immediately  established 
after  the  child  is  born.  The  whole  chapter  of  asphyxia  cannot  be  con- 
sidered here,  but  Landau's  essay  on  "  The  Mela?na  of  the  New-Born,  with 
Notices  on  the  Obliteration  of  the  Foetal  Blood-Vessels,"  proves  that,  in 
many  instances,  but  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  subject.  He 
explains  its  occurrence  by  the  rupture  of  an  artery  or  vein,  in  a  round 
ulcer  of  the  stomach  or  duodenum,  which  has  not  originated  during  intra- 
uterine life,  and  not  in  consequence  of  inflammation,  but  has  been  pro- 
duced by  disturbances  of  the  circulation  dependent  upon  insufficient 
respiration.  The  impediment  to  respiration  consists  in  aspiration  of 
mucus,  in  pressure  during  the  process  of  parturition,  and,  finally,  in  con- 
genital mviscular  debility.  Circulation  suffers  in  consequence;  from  a 
secondary  thrombus  of  the  ductus  Botalli,  or  from  a  primary  one  near  the 
spot  where  the  umbilical  vein  is  ligated,  an  embolus  is  carried  off,  and 
becomes  the  source  of  hemorrhage.  It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  the  newly-born 
afflicted  with  mela?na  are  mostly  of  the  female  sex.  It  is  possible  that 
this  circumstance  is  to  be  explained  by  the  relative  smallness  of  the  blood- 
vessels in  the  female.  Even  in  such  cases,  where  no  material  causes  are 
found,  it  is  still  to  be  presumed  that  there  are  disturbances  of  circulation, 
dependent  upon  increased  pressure,  in  the  venous  system.  If  that  be  true, 
the  direct  inference  is  that  new-born  children  should  be  made  to  cry 
aloud.  Moreover,  it  is  proper  that  protracted  sleep,  in  feeble  children, 
should  be  prevented,  and  that  they  should  be  compelled  to  cry  occasion- 
ally. When  the  infant  does  not  cry,  both  respiration  and  circulation 
remain  defective,  and  immediate  resort  must  be  had  to  the  usual  means 
recommended  in  the  text-books  on  obstetrics,  such  as  external  irritations, 
beating,  alternation  of  warm  and  cold  bathing,  swinging,  etc.  In  cases 
in  which  all  these  means  fail  to  establish  respiration  and  circulation, 
Pernice,  myself,  and  others,  and  lately  Lauth,  have  resorted  to  the  use  of 
the  electrical  current.  Lauth  describes  three  cases:  one  with  permanent, 
and  one  with  temporary  success.  He  used  dry  electrodes  along  the 
vertebral  column,  the  brachial  plexus,  and  also  over  the  phrenic   nerve. 

*  The  material  used  in  the  present  article  is  drawn  largely  from  the  author's  con- 
tribution to  the  first  volume  of  Gerhardt's  Handhucfi  der  Kinderkrankheiten^  Tubin- 
gen, 1877. 


76  INEAISTT    HYGIEKE. 

Each  apjDlication  lasted  two  or  three  minutes,  and  in  the  intervals  he 
aided  recovery  by  insufflation.  But  this  much  must  be  said  with  refer- 
ence to  the  use  of  the  electrical  current,  that  a  continuous  application  for 
two  or  three  minutes  is  decidedly  too  long.  For  my  experience  has  taught 
me  that  the  irritation  turns  into  over-irritation  and  paralysis,  and  the  effect 
produced  is  directly  the  reverse  of  that  desired.  Xeither  have  I  been  able 
to  convince  myself,  contrary  to  the  theoretical  and  practical  postulations 
of  many  authors,  that  the  application  of  the  electrodes  over  certain  nerves, 
— for  instance,  over  the  phrenic  nerve  or  over  the  diaphragm — will  yield 
sjjecial  results.  This  is  jDarticularly  true  when  the  electrodes  are  dr\",  for 
there  is  no  possibility  of  their  effect  penetrating  the  skin.  The  effect 
will  remain  superficial.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  momentary  super- 
ficial pain  yields  the  main  effect.  The  application  must  be  momentary, 
frequent,  and  not  protracted.  In  a  number  of  cases  reported  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  New  York  Obstetrical  Society,  several  years  ago,  I  made 
the  observation  that,  in  the  very  commencement  of  the  faradic  treatment, 
respiration  becomes  deeper  and  more  frequent,  and  the  heart -beat  is  in- 
creased in  frequency  and  strength.  But  when  the  electrode  is  not  soon 
removed,  the  beat  of  the  heart  becomes  slower,  and  the  infant  appears  as 
though  in  a  fainting  spell,  or  in  the  condition  of  collapse.  My  rule,  there- 
fore, is  to  interrupt  the  trefitment  every  few  moments.  Besides,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  localize  the  current  over  small  and  deep-seated  localities. 
I  have  always  feared  that  the  smallness  of  the  territory  upon  which  we 
mean  to  act  gives  but  very  few  chances  for  a  circumscribed  application 
of  the  electrical  current.  The  correctness  of  this  doubt  has  already  been 
admitted,  so  far  as  the  phrenic  and  the  sj-mpathetic  nerves  are  concerned. 
For,  as  early  as  1S75,  Ziemssen  directed  general  attention  to  the  fact  that 
many  sj^mptoms,  attributed  to  the  influence  of  the  sympathetic,  did  not 
dejDend  upon  it  alone :  as,  for  example,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Bernard  and  Westphal,  can  result  from  any  strong  irritation 
of  any  of  the  sensitive  nerves.  Galvanization  over  the  neck,  with  a  very 
strong  current,  makes  a  very  marked  impression  upon  sensitive  nerves.  It 
is  therefore  to  be  accepted,  with  Fischer,  that  the  so-called  local  applica- 
tion of  either  the  faradic  or  the  galvanic  current,  in  the  region  of  the 
neck,  is  not  local  at  all,  but  that  the  sympathetic,  the  pneumogastric,  the 
phrenic,  the  superficial  sensory,  and  the  motory  nerves  are  excited  at  one 
and  the  same  time.  Still  the  electrical  treatment  will  be  successful  in  both 
asphyxia  and  the  debility  of  the  prematurely  born.  The  latter  are  to  be 
treated,  besides,  like  sick  infants,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  warm 
them,  artificially,  between  hot  cloths  or  bottles,  or  in  front  of  the  furnace 
register;  they  may  require  stimulating  enemata,  and  now  and  then  I  have 
seen  good  results  from  the  subcutaneous  injections  of  brandy.  Ahlf eld  has 
lately  shown  what  may  be  accomplished  with  infants  born  prematurely. 
He  refers  to  D'Outrepont,  who  preserved  the  life  of  an  infant  thirteen 
inches  in  length  and  weighing  one  and  a  half  pounds;  also  to  Kopp,  who 
saved  a  child  that  weighed  two  pounds,  and  was  eleven  inches  in  length; 
also  to  a  case  reported  by  Redmond,  in  which  the   infant  weighed  one 


IXFAXT    HYGIEXE.  77 

pound  three  ounces  and  a  half  and  was  thirteen  inches  in  length.  He  also 
gives  two  cases  of  his  own:  the^first  was  a  child,  born  in  the  twenty-eighth 
or  twenty-ninth  week  of  intra-uterine  life,  which  was  39  ctm.  in  length, 
and  could  not  nurse  until  it  was  a  few  weeks  old;  the  second wa.s  an  infant 
that  measured  39  ctm.  in  length  five  weeks  after  its  birth,  and  at  that  time 
weighed  1,450  grms.  He  recommends,  as  the  most  efficacious  means  of 
preserving  the  life  of  such  children,  warm  bathing,  wrapping  the  infant  in 
cotton,  and  the  frequent  administration  of  proper  food,  that  is,  hourly- 
feeding,  even  though  it  be  necessary  to  wake  up  the  child  for  that  purpose. 

The  Umbilical  Cord — Anatomy  and  Changes — Treatment  of  the  for- 
mal and  Pathologiccd  Conditions. 

As  soon  as  the  new-born  child  has  given  two  or  three  vigorous  cries 
there  is  no  longer  any  reason  for  delaying  the  ligation  of  the  cord.  The 
circulation  in  the  timbilical  vessels  or  in  the  placenta  has  no  further  in- 
fluence upon  the  child  the  moment  its  own  pulmonary  circulation  has  been 
awakened  to  normal  activity.  It  is  useless  to  wait  for  the  cessation  of 
pulsation  in  the  cord,  which  is  sure  to  become  weaker  and  weaker  what- 
ever change  takes  place  in  the  child's  circulation.  The  practice  of  empty- 
ing the  contents  of  the  umbilical  vein  into  the  child's  body  may  be  ex- 
cused in  a  puny,  ill-developed  newly-born  infant,  but  is  reprehensible,  as 
a  rule,  because  of  the  increased  stress  imposed  upon  the  child's  circula- 
tion, which,  right  after  birth,  is  so  easily  disturbed. 

In  every  case  of  asphyxia  we  should  ligate  as  quickly  as  possible  to  be 
able  to  make  efforts  to  resuscitate.  We  can  look  for  no  aid  in  the  simple 
fact  of  the  child's  connection  w^th  the  placenta,  which  has  already  begun 
to  be  detached  from  the  uterus.  The  ligation  is  made  with  a  cord  not 
fine  enough  to  cut  through  the  tissues,  nor  so  thick  as  not  thoroughly  to 
compress  the  vessels.  It  is  applied  from  three  to  six  centimetres  from 
the  body.  A  few  centimetres  nearer  the  placenta,  a  second  ligature  is  ap- 
plied, and  between  the  two  the  cord  is  di\ided.  The  child's  end  of  the 
cord  is  then  wrapped  loosely  in  a  piece  of  fine  old  linen,  and  laid  upon  the 
left  side  of  the  abdomen.  The  whole  is  then  covered  with  a  broad  strip 
of  linen,  and  over  that,  a  bandage,  something  wider  than  a  hand's  breadth, 
is  passed  once  and  a  haK  or,  at  most,  twice  around  the  body.  This  is 
drawn  just  tight  enoug-h  to  prevent  its  slipping,  and  sectired  with  a  band 
or  with  safety  pins.  The  bandage  may  be  of  flannel  or  cotton,  and 
should  be  sufficiently  wide  to  reach  from  the  axilla  to  a  little  below  the 
crests  of  the  ilia.  This  of  itself  serves  as  a  comfortable  and  convenient 
article  of  clothing  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  life.  The  entire  dressing 
should  be  changed  at  least  once  a  day.^ 

'  A  very  animated  discussion  of  the  question  of  ligation  of  the  cord  has  arisen  in 
connection  with  cows  and  mares.  It  was  observed  that  the  lower  animals,  both 
domestic  and  wild,  have  no  wet-nurses,  nor  do  they  use  Hgatures  and  shears.  And  in- 
asmuch as  we  hear  of  no  hemorrhages  from  the  cord  in  these  lower  creations,  we 
ought  not  to  expect  that  the  neglect  of  Ugation  would  be  followed  by  any  such  conse- 


78  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

The  umbilical  arteries  are  large  and  thick,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  navel,  both  inside  and  outside  the  abdomen.  Within  the  abdominal 
cavity  they  are  dense  and  of  yellov^^ish  red  color;  outside  the  abdomen 
they  are  softer  and  paler.  Their  muscular  fibres  are  mostly  circular;  a 
few  are  longitudinal.  Where  both  occur,  the  longitudinal  are  external. 
These  fibres  are  prolonged  into  the  adventitia,  and  are  especially  marked 
within  the  abdomen  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  ring,  but  further  in  are 
less  well- developed.  In  the  umbilical  cord  itself  massive  bundles  of  mus- 
cular fibres  extend  from  the  adventitia  to  the  endothelium.  It  is  only 
near  the  navel,  and  especially  within  the  abdomen,  that  we  have  any  min- 
gling of  elastic  tissue.  An  intima  proper  is  developed  only  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  iliac  artery.  We  thus  have  explained  the  marked  influence  which 
the  rigor  mortis  of  the  severed  cord  exercises  in  preventing  hemorrhage. 
The  artery  is  contracted  to  1|— 2  mm.,  so  that  a  fine  probe  can  scarcely 
be  introduced;  the  column  of  blood  is  coagulated,  and  outside  of  the  navel- 
ring  the  artery  is  so  narrow  that  no  thrombus  or  but  an  insignificant  one 
can  form  there.  The  action  of  the  rigor  mortis  and  the  coagulation  of 
the  blood  naturally  react  upon  the  intra-abdominal  circulation.  But  this 
is  not  all.  In  the  umbilical  arteries  there  are  certain  prominences,  ex- 
tending in  straight,  diagonal,  or  irregular  directions,  which  cannot  be  ob- 
literated by  stretching.  They  contain  much  elastic  tissue.  Dilatations 
occur  also  in  the  arteries,  the  result  only  of  variations  in  the  thickness  of 
the  walls.  Moreover,  there  are  longitudinal  furrows  in  which  the  muscu- 
lar layer  is  thinned,  and  also  folds,  especially  within  the  umbilical  cord, 
but  there  are  no  valves  (Stravinski).  The  arteries  which  are  stretched 
upon  the  placenta's  part  of  the  cord  are  more  tortuous  than  elsewhere, 
growing  smaller  as  they  approach  the  placenta's  border.  (Neugebauer, 
1858;  Hyrtl,  1870.)  Kleinwachter  found  the  same  characters  in  the 
arteries,  whether  the  foetus  was  carried  to  full  term  or  not,  while  the  veins, 
toward  the  end  of  foetal  life,  became  enlarged  (placenta  10,  cord  11.33  mm.'). 

quences  in  the  young  of  the  human  family.  The  ligature  has  not  only  been  declared 
useless,  but  even  injurious.  The  well-authenticated  instances  of  hemorrhages  occur- 
ring where  the  ligature  had  not  been  applied  or  had  slipped,  are  simply  ignored.  King 
recently  asserted  the  ligature  to  be  dangerous  "  by  preventing  the  escape  of  blood 
from  the  umbilical  veins,  with  consequent  congestion  of  the  liver"  (?!).  He  claims, 
too,  sometimes  it  is  fatal,  "by  keeping  the  right  ventricle  distended"  (?  !).  Instead, 
therefore,  of  tying  and  then  cutting  the  cord,  he  advises  its  division  close  to  the  body 
after  the  arterial  pulse  has  ceased.  The  division  is  effected  by  an  ecraseur  or  a  dull 
pair  of  shears,  and  the  contusion  must  be  thorough  and  long  continued.  The  idea, 
however,  is  not  new.  Old  Faust,  of  Biickeburg,  spoke  of  dividing  the  navel-cord  in 
"a  manner  well  pleasing  to  God,"  with  "gnawing  scissor- cuts."  The  facts  are  as 
f oUows  :  when  the  cord  is  cut  and  not  tied,  hemorrhages  generally  follow ;  when  it  is 
torn  in  a  circular  manner,  they  are  stUl  usual;  but  when  it  is  torn  off  irregularly, 
there  is  frequently  no  hemorrhage  whatever. 

The  above  facts  do  not  afford  a  complete  solution  of  the  question,  and  it  is  far 
better  to  be  guided  by  discretion  and  prudence  than  to  trust  to  mere  chance. 

1  In  long  and  heavy  foetuses  and  in  boys  the  vessels  are  larger.  Is  that  the  reason 
why  hemorrhages  from  the  cord  are  so  much  more  common  in  boys  than  in  girls  ? 
(Grandidier,  Jenkins,  Hitter.) 


INFANT   HTGIENE.  79 

The  furrows  and  dilatations  of  the  umbilical  arteries  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  arterial  contraction;  they  are  found  after  death  distended  and 
filled  with  blood.  So  they,  cannot  be  regarded  from  a  teleological  point 
of  view.  Stravinski,  to  whom  I  am  mainly  indebted  for  this  description, 
observes  further  that  the  thickened  portions  of  the  walls  are  not  always 
found  at  those  points  where  we  should  look  for  the  most  effective  contrac- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  stopping  the  flow  of  blood.  Therefore  there  is  but 
one  main  factor  that  operates  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  viz.,  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  powerful  muscular  apparatus  in  the  vessels  which  are  brought 
into  play,  partly  by  the  rigor  mortis,  partly  by  the  stimulating  effect  of  the 
atmosphere  and  other  influences  acting  upon  the  body  of  the  infant  and 
communicated  to  the  umbilical  arteries  by  reflex  action.  Still,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  strength  or  feebleness  of  this  contraction;  the  frequency  or  in- 
frequency  of  its  occurrence;  the  favorable  or  unfavorable  situation  of  the 
prominences;  dilatations,  thickenings,  and  furrows  in  the  blood-vessels, 
which,  though  they  do  not  entirely  prevent  the  flow  of  blood,  render  the 
current  slower,  narrower,  or  irregular — all  play  a  certain  part,  both  in 
producing  hemorrhage  and  in  stopping  it.  Therefore,  apply  the  ligature 
under  all  circumstances,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  neglect  to  tie 
the  cord  is  not  always  followed  by  hemorrhage.  We  may  disregard  such 
reports  as  that  of  Martin,  who  states  that  "  they  do  not  tie  the  cord  in 
Java,"  and  yet  no  hemorrhages  occur.  Under  the  influence  of  the  warmth 
of  the  bed,  or  of  the  warm  bath,  the  blood-vessels  may  again  relax,  the 
heart-muscle  be  excited  to  activity,  and  hemorrhage  be  apt  to  follow. 
Moreover,  the  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  vascular  anomalies  may 
occur.  Hausmann  reported  three  cases  of  unequal  development  of  the 
umbilical  arteries.  In  one  case  one  of  the  vessels  was  very  small,  and  ter- 
minated within  the  pelvic  cavity  on  the  posterior  wall  of  the  bladder,  close 
by  the  umbilical  cord.  The  other  artery,  together  with  the  hypogastric 
and  common  iliac,  was  enlarged. 

After  division  of  the  cord,  its  spiral  twist  is  obliterated.  The  vessels 
appear  retracted,  since,  under  the  pressure  of  the  ligature,  the  gelatinous 
matter  of  the  cord  is  somewhat  pressed  forward.  Desiccation  begins  at 
once,  commencing  at  the  ligature,  and  extends  rapidly  toward  the  ab- 
dominal wall.  The  rapidity  of  desiccation  will  of  course  depend  upon  the 
thickness  of  the  cord.  The  color  is  altered,  becoming  at  first  bluish,  with 
the  vessels  showing  through,  and  then  gradually  grows  darker  and  blackish. 

The  form  of  the  cord  is  altered,  partly  through  shrivelling  up,  partly 
by  the  external  pressure.  It  becomes  flat  and  parchment-like,  and  is  a 
little  thicker  near  its  cutaneous  portion,  where  the  line  of  demarcation  is 
forming.  This  line  of  demarcation  appears  almost  always  on  the  day  be- 
fore desiccation  is  complete.  Of  Tschamer's  100  cases  this  was  true  in 
85;  in  15  cases  the  line  did  not  appear  until  after  complete  desiccation, 
which  occurred  in  3  cases  on  the  first  day,  in  24  on  the  second,  in  71  on 
the  third,  and  twice  on  the  fourth.  The  line  of  demarcation  is  usually 
narrow,  only  a  line  in  width.  But  where  the  cord  is  large,  or  where  the 
skin  is  prolonged  into  the  cord  for  a  considerable  distance,  it  is  wider.     In 


80  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

such  cases,  there  is  not  unfrequently  a  pronounced  inflammatory  reaction. 
There  is  usually  but  little  suppuration.  Finally,  after  undergoing  granular 
disintegration,  the  desiccated  cord  drops  off.  At  the  last  it  is  held  only 
by  the  vein.  It  generally  falls  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  sometimes  on 
the  sixth  (once  in  Tschamer's  100  cases),  and  occasionally  on  the  seventh 
(twice  in  100,  according  to  Tschamer).  Doubtless  it  may  fall  even  later. 
I  have  seen  it  remain  till  the  eleventh  day,  and  E.  Loewensohn  saw  it  re- 
main till  the  thirteenth  day. 

The  extent  of  the  remaining  wound  and  the  rapidity  of  healing  will, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  depend  upon  the  thickness  of  the  cord  and 
the  severity  of  the  process  of  demarcation.  The  cutaneous  portion  of  the 
cord  quickly  retracts,  granulations  spring  up  rapidly,  and  the  wound  is 
soon  cicatrized.  At  first  the  scar  is  of  a  pale  red  color,  but  gradually  be- 
comes lighter.  ,  At  first  it  is  linear,  afterward  angular,  and  finally,  in 
consequence  of  the  retraction  of  the  umbilical  vessels,  the  peculiar  form 
of  the  navel  fossa  is  produced,  with  its  ■  greater  arch  above,  where  the 
arteries  retract,  and  the  lesser  below,  corresponding  to  the  vein.  In  the 
centre  can  be  seen  the  remains  of  the  vessels  in  what  is  known  as  the 
"  vascular  navel." 

The  surface,  as  a  rule,  is  quite  dry  a  few  days  after  the  fall  of  the 
umbilical  cord,  and  cicatrization  advances  without  interference.  This 
normal  course  may  be  disturbed  by  friction  of  the  part,  local  irritation,  or 
by  infectious  influences.  E.  Loewensohn  found  that  the  inflammatory 
redness  disappeared  from  the  surface  by  the  fifteenth  day,  but,  by  stretching 
open  the  navel  fossa,  he  found  it  still  red  and  covered  with  a  serous  or 
purulent  fluid  until  the  twenty-first  day.  Sometimes  it  was  completely 
healed  in  ten  days,  though  he  has  known  it  to  require  as  much  as  forty- 
one  days.  His  observations  were  made  in  the  Foundling  Asylum  of 
Moscow,  where  it  is  not  unlikely,  for  obvious  reasons,  that  the  healing 
process  may  have  been  unusually  delayed. 

Whenever  the  secretion  apj^ears  to  be  unduly  increased  or  the  inflam- 
matory redness  greater  than  usual,  lukewarm  astringent  solutions  of  zinc, 
lead,  alum,  or  creasote  are  indicated.  Bismuth  in  powder,  salves  of  zinc, 
or  alum,  or  oxide  of  zinc  dusted  over  the  part,  are  useful  applications. 
In  seasons  of  epidemic  erysipelas  or  diphtheria  such  applications  should 
be  made  without  delay;  for,  under  these  circumstances,  it  is  far  better  to 
do  what  may  be  superfluous  than  to  neglect  what  is  perhaps  of  very 
serious  importance.  The  perchloride  of  iron  should,  under  all  circum- 
stances, be  used  with  caution.  If  the  case  is  a  trifling  one,  a  simpler 
application  will  answer,  and,  where  the  secretion  is  abundant,  the  iron  may 
do  harm.  Roth  lost  a  child  by  septicEemia  after  having  made  an  applica- 
tion of  chloride  of  iron  for  hemorrhage  from  the  cord.  It  is  very  common 
to  see  septicEemia  proceed  from  the  uterus  or  from  a  lacerated  vagina  to 
which  chloride  of  iron  has  been  applied  to  stop  hemorrhage.  In  all  of 
these  cases  the  thick  layer  of  coagulated  blood,  by  preventing  the  escape 
of  the  foul  secretions,  facilitates  absorption  of  septic  substances. 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  81 

Should  the  healing  of  the  umbilical  stump  not  proceed  rapidly,  the 
navel  fossa  must  be  examined  frequently  and  applications  made  as  above 
described.  Not  unfrequently,  after  a  time,  a  growth  of  exuberant  granu- 
lations, known  as  "  fungus,"  will  be  found  in  the  umbilical  fossa.  These 
growths  are  sometimes  sessile,  though  occasionally  they  are  slightly 
pedunculated,  and  show  a  disposition  to  grow  rapidly.  Of  six  fungi  of 
this  sort,  described  by  O.  Kuester,  five  were  simple  granulomata  without 
epithelial  covering;  another  was  half  covered  with  epithelium,  and  showed 
a  distinct  horny  layer  and  rete  Malpighii.  The  treatment  of  these  granu- 
lation growths  is  very  simple.  Touching  them  with  alum,  an  occasional 
application  of  the  nitrate  of  silver,  or  once  a  day  touching  them  with  a 
drop  of  the  chloride  or  subsulphate  of  iron,  or  sometimes  the  application 
of  the  ligature,  suffices  to  hinder  their  further  growth  and  to  gradually  de- 
stroy them.^ 

Examination  of  the  JsTeirily-Born. 

The  body  of  the  infant  should  undergo  rapid  and  exact  examination 
immediately  after  its  birth.  Malformations  of  the  extremities  and  of  the 
face,  spina  bifida,  hypo-  and  epispadias,  imperforate  rectum  or  anus,  can 
be  easily  detected.  It  is  especially  important  to  examine  the  head  very 
carefully.  Now  and  then,  particularly  after  a  difficult  labor,  there  can  be 
found  fissures  chiefly  upon  the  frontal  and  the  parietal  bones.  There  may 
also  be  arrests  of  development,  as,  for  instance,  encephalic  or  meningeal 
hernia.  The  latter  are  of  very  great  importance.  The  more  so  because 
there  are  forms  which,  especially  in  the  temporal  and  the  orbital  regions, 
may  give  rise  to  great  mistakes  in  diagnosis.  This  subject,  being  mainly 
of  pathological  interest,  may  here  be  dropped.  But  there  is  another  class 
of  changes  which  is  of  vast  importance,  such  as  obliquities  and  flatten- 
ing of  the  cranial  bones,  with  considerable  asymmetry,  and  erosion,  or 
other  lesions  of  the  skin  resulting  from  pressure  either  of  the  promontory 
or  of  the  forceps.  Still  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  deformi- 
ties of  the  head  which  cannot  be  ascribed  to  disturbed  processes  of  par- 
turition. Hecker  has  lately  laid  stress  upon  the  fact  that  there  are  certain, 
forms  of  the  head  which  are  not  the  consequence  of  face  presentation, 
but  rather  its  cause. 

^  Kuester  has  also  described  a  navel  fungus  occurring  in  a  three-months-old  child, 

the  centre  of  which  consisted  of  dense  connective  tissue,  with  closely  packed  round 
cells  outside  of  it.  Throughout  the  entire  mass,  glands  were  embedded  with  cylindrical 
epithelium,  the  cells  of  which  were  closely  packed,  simple  in  nature,  and  measured 
0.024  mm.  The  epithelium  of  the  tumor  between  the  glands  was  disposed  in  a  single 
layer  of  cubiform  cells.  This  fungus,  therefore,  was  probably  the  remains  either  of 
the  allantois  or  of  the  ductus  omphalo-mesentericus.  The  former  might  be  inferred 
from  the  facts  demonstrated  by  Ahlfeld,  Zini,  Ruge,  and  Sabine,  which  point  to  the 
presence  of  a  fourth  canal  in  the  umbilical  cord.  In  favor  of  the  latter  is  the  fact  of 
the  not  very  uncommon  occurrence  of  well-marked  traces  of  canals  still  remaining 
open  which  are  capable  of  being  traced  into  the  intestinal  tract.  Twice  in  my  life  have 
I  seen  such  tumors,  evidently  the  remnants  of  the  omphalo-mesenteric  duct. 
Vol.  1.-6 


82  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

Tumefactions  about  the  head  are  frequent  and  interesting;  sometimes 
they  are  small  and  oedematous  only.  If  so,  they  will  disappear  within 
twelve  or  twenty-four  hours.  Even  in  those  cases  in  which  there  are 
numerous  punctate  hemorrhages  in  the  oedematous  tumefaction,  the  swell- 
ing disappears  after  a  short  time.  Actual  cephalohsematomata  are  more 
grave  in  character,  because  now  and  then  they  can  be  more  dangerous, 
and  have  a  longer  duration  than  the  simple  swellings  just  mentioned.  If 
the  seat  of  the  cephalohasmatomata  is  simply  extracranial,  and  there  is  no 
complication  with  intracranial  hemorrhage,  the  only  remedy  required  is 
time.  The  tumor  will  steadily,  but  slowly,  increase  in  size  for  several 
days.  Weeks,  and  sometimes  months,  are  required  for  its  absorption,  and 
the  jDrogress  will  be  favorable  if  the  practitioner  do  not  yield  to  the  tempta- 
tion of  disturbing  the  process  of  gradual  absorption  by  resorting  to  thera- 
peutical measures.  If  the  tumor  is  left  entirely  alone,  no  anomaly  will 
remain  behind.  These  cases  are  not  so  grave  as  they  at  first  appear.  If  the 
hemorrhage  be  considerable  and  the  periosteum  be  removed  over  a  large 
surface,  it  will  result  in  slight  asymmetry  of  the  cranium  in  consequence 
of  new-formed  bone.  The  rule  is,  however,  that  all  changes  of  this  kind 
will  after  a  time  entirely  disappear.  Even  marked  asymmetries  of  the 
cranium,  resulting  from  more  important  pathological  conditions,  have  a 
tendency  to  disappear  in  the  course  of  months  or  years.  Thus  I  remem- 
ber but  a  single  case  of  so  serious  an  affection  as  craniotabes,  in  which 
there  remained  during  life  a  very  moderate  flattening  in  the  right  occip- 
ital region. 

As  far  as  the  mouth  is  concerned,  malformations  may  render  nursing 
difficult,  and  sometimes  impossible.  The  muscular  debility  which,  now  and 
then,  prevents  the  infant  from  nursing  its  primiparous  mother,  but  per- 
mits it  perhaps  to  draw  milk  from  the  breast  of  the  miiltiparous  woman 
with  better-prepared  nipples,  I  shall  speak  of  at  some  other  place. 

Simple,  imcomplicated  hare-lip  prevents  nursing  only  in  feeble  chil- 
dren, as  long  as  the  alveolar  processes  do  not  complicate  the  fissure  in  the 
lip.  Nursing,  however,  is  completely  prevented  by  hare-lip  attended  with 
cleft  palate.  An  unusual  length  of  the  soft  palate  does  not  prevent  nurs- 
ing to  such  an  extent  as  does  undue  shortness.  In  the  latter  case,  no 
vacuum  can  be  formed  in  the  mouth.  I  once  saw,  in  an  idiotic  boy,  a 
soft  palate,  which  was  entirely  transparent  and  immovable.  There  was 
absolutely  no  muscular  tissue  in  it;  and  the  movements  of  deglutition  and 
articulation  were  very  defective.  For  many  months  efforts  had  been 
made  to  improve  the  boy's  articulation;  yet,  during  all  this  time,  his 
mouth  had  not  been  examined.  Small  defects  in  the  hard,  with  large  de- 
fects in  the  soft,  palate  are  also  important  in  their  effect  upon  nursing. 

So  far  as  the  sebaceous  follicles  along  the  median  line  of  the  palate  are 
concerned,  as  described  by  Bohn,  I  have  not  seen  them  in  a  state  of  ulcer- 
ation immediately  after  birth ;  but  I  have  seen  cases,  at  a  little  later  period, 
in  which  nursing  was  rendered  impossible  by  extensive  ulcerations,  which, 
in  consequence  of  permanent  neglect,  or  of  maltreatment,  had  extended 
down  to  the  bone. 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  83 

Of  cohesion  of  the  lips  in  the  median  line  I  have  no  personal  knowl- 
edge; but  extensive  lateral  fissure  I  have  met  with.  Now  and  then  the 
tongue  gives  rise  to  incapability  of  nursing,  either  in  consequence  of  a 
fissure  or  of  macroglossy.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  entirely  indifferent 
whether  it  consists  in  an  actual  new  formation  of  muscular  and  cellular 
tissue  or  of  cystic  degeneration.  One  such  case  was  operated  upon  by 
Fairlie  Clarke.  This  affection  is  the  more  serious,  as,  in  macroglossy,  we 
usually  have  to  deal  with  idiotic  children. 

It  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  \h.Q.  frenwin  Ungues  exerts  a  great 
influence  upon  nursing.  The  practice  of  cutting  or  tearing  it  dates  from 
the  period  in  which  the  mechanism  of  sucking  was  not  understood.  When 
there  is  the  slightest  motility  of  the  tongue  forward  and  backward,  there 
can  be  no  possibility  of  an  impediment  to  nursing;  but  there  will  be  an 
obstacle  to  articulation.  Thus  I  have  never  seen  any  serious  results  aris- 
ing either  from  shortness  or  from  elongation  of  the  frenum  linguae.  The 
so-called  "  swallowing  of  the  tongue,"  which  was  first  alluded  to  by  Petit 
and  Levret,  consists,  however,  in  an  unusual  length  of  the  frenum,  which 
permits  the  tongue  to  be  doubled  upon  itself,  thus  giving  rise  to  a  serious 
impediment  to  either  deglutition  or  respiration. 

Some  days  or  weeks  after  birth,  when  cleansing  the  mouth  is  neglected, 
there  will  be  7nitguet,  which,  now  and  then,  is  a  serious  impediment  to 
feeding,  and  may  render  the  weaning  of  the  infant  inevitable.  This  mu- 
guet  may  be  dangerous,  and  sometimes  it  proves  fatal,  although  the 
occurrence  of  the  same  affection  in  the  oesophagus  and  stomach  is  very 
rare  indeed.  It  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  the  mouths  of  very  young 
infants,  and  in  a  number  of  instances  is  explained  by  the  frequency  with 
which  pregnant  women  (according  to  Hausmann,  11  per  cent.)  suffer  from 
the  same  affection  in  the  vagina.  The  oidhun  albicans  of  the  muguet  of 
the  infant  is  also  the  parasite  in  this  affection  of  the  vagina  of  the  woman. 
IMoreover,  it  is  identical  with  the  oidiuni  lactis,  which  is  found  during  the 
fermentation  of  milk.  For  that  reason  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish 
varieties.  To  prevent  it,  absolute  cleanliness  is  usually  sufficient.  It  is 
necessary  to  wash  the  infant's  mouth  verv  frequentlv,  after  every  nursing  or 
vomiting,  with  cold  water;  and  it  is  also  important  to  wash  the  nipple  of 
the  woman  after  every  nursing.  If  drops  of  milk  are  allowed  to  remain 
upon  the  nipple,  the  result  will  be  fermentation  and  local  irritation.  In 
fissures  and  under  scabs  there  are  deposits  of  bacteria  and  vibriones;  and 
from  these  the  mouth  of  the  child  is  liable  to  be  influenced.  Just  so  the 
infant  infects  the  mother.  When  muguet  has  first  made  its  appearance  in 
the  nursling,  it  is  usually  sufiicient  to  wash  the  baby's  mouth  with  alka- 
line solutions  frequently  and  thoroughly.  It  is  not  sufficient,  however,  to 
simply  wet  it;  but  the  oidium,  the  epithelium,  and  the  foreign  substances 
which  make  up  the  deposits  are  to  be  rubbed  off,  until,  in  many  cases,  a 
small  quantity  of  blood  is  visible.  By  so  doing,  not  only  old  deposits  will 
be  removed,  but  the  formation  of  new  ones  will  be  prevented. 

Finally,  the  floor  of  the  mouth  should  be  carefully  examined.  Brandt 
found  a  ramda  of  the  size  of  an  almond  in  the  median  line  of  the  mouth 


84  ■  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

of  a  girl  of  four  days.  Her  brother  had  a  still  larger  one  at  the  same  age. 
In  a  girl  of  seven  weeks  he  found  a  bilateral  ranula,  and  one  ujDon  the 
left  side  of  the  mouth  in  a  boy  of  three  months.  All  of  these  cases  were 
speedily  cured  by  incision. 

The  elimination  of  urine  is  to  be  carefully  noticed.  Not  rarely  will  the 
newly-born  infant  urinate  immediately  after  birth,  but  sometimes  hours 
pass,  and  even  a  day,  before  the  bladder  is  emptied.  Deficient  excretion 
of  urine  may  be  the  result  of  an  insufficient  allowance,  to  the  infant,  of 
water.  In  such  cases  it  is  temporary  and  unimportant.  But  now  and 
then  there  is  an  actual  affection  of  the  kidneys,  which  prevents  secretion 
or  elimination.  Soon  after  birth  there  is  an  accumulation  of  uric  acid  in  the 
calices  of  the  kidneys,  which  may  prevent  the  excretion  of  urine.  Now  and 
then  this  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  stones,  which  are  sometimes  found 
in  very  young  infants.  In  forty  post-mortem  examinations,  made  upon 
infants  under  one  year  of  age,  I  found  renal  calculi  six  tiines.  This  cer- 
tainly cannot  be  the  rule,  but  it  shows  what  may  be  expected  under 
extraordinary  circumstances.  At  all  events,  copious  drinking,  occasionally 
of  mild  alkaline  solutions,  and  warm  bathing  are  indicated  in  cases  of 
defective  elimination  of  urine.  The  restlessness  and  screaming  will  be 
relieved  with  every  micturition.  The  same  observation  can  be  made  with 
reference  to  older  children,  who  have  violent,  constant,  and  apparently 
inexplicable  screaming  spells.  Those  symptoms  depend  frequently  upon 
the  presence  and  elimination  of  gravel  or  renal  calculi.  Nor  is  this  all; 
there  are  a  number  of  cases  in  which  the  presence  of  uric  acid  infarctus  is 
the  first  cause  of  nephritis,  that  disease  being  the  immediate  result  of 
actual  irritation  or  even  real  injury.  In  many  a  case  apparent  meningitis 
in  very  young  children  will,  upon  close  examination,  be  found  to  be  a  case 
of  nephritis.  In  one  case,  at  least,  which  passed  under  my  observation, 
there  was  apparent  sclerema  in  the  newly-born  that  was  the  result  of,  or 
perhaps,  I  might  say,  was  complicated  with,  acute  nephritis.  In  that  in- 
stance the  nephritis,  without  doubt,  was  due  to  the  presence  of  copious 
deposits  of  uric  acid  infarctus. 

TJie  Nipples  of  the  Neioly-Born. 

The  nipples  of  the  newly-born  exhibit  occasional  changes,  either  imme- 
diately after  birth  or  after  some  days;  tumefaction,  or  secretion,  is  not 
very  rare.  Guillot  reports  as  follows  on  his  examinations  of  the  latter:  It 
occurred  from  the  seventh  to  the  twelfth  day,  after  which  it  decreased  and 
ceased.  It  was  white,  neutral,  or  alkaline,  turned  sour  when  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere,  formed  a  serous  and  a  cream  layer  on  standing,  and  con- 
sisted of  water,  casein,  fat,  and  sugar.  Under  the  microscope  there  were 
spherical  bodies  of  unequal  diameter,  translucent,  and  insoluble  in  ether, 
Schlossberger  found  alkaline  reaction;  the  liquids  looked  like  watered  milk, 
did  not  coagulate  under  the  influence  of  heat,  but  did  so  under  that  of  acid 
or  rennet ;  they  contained  much  sugar,  normal  milk-corpuscles,  no  colos- 
trum corpuscles,  no  pus.     Genser  examined  the  mammary  secretion  of  a 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  •  85 

girl  of  fourteen  days,  wliose  mammas  were  as  large  as  a  walnut  each,  and 
permitted  the  removal,  by  gentle  pressure,  of  3  grms.  of  liquid.  Its  specific 
gravity  was  1.0198G;  it  was  strongly  alkaline.  The  microscopical  exami- 
nation revealed  coi'puscles  of  fat  and  colostrum  and  cell  detritus.  Chemi- 
cally it  contained  casein,  5.57;  albumen,  4.09;  sugar  of  milk,  9.56;  butter, 
14.56;  salts,  8.26 — altogether  42.95  per  1,000  of  solid  constituents.  The 
percentage  of  salts  corresponds  better  with  that  of  blood  (0.8)  than  with 
that  of  milk  (0.4-0.5).  In  the  salts  there  were  muriatic,  sulphuric,  and 
phosphoric  acids,  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  traces  of 
iron. 

Synety's  examination  was  mainly  anatomical  and  microscopical.  The 
histological  and  secretory  character  of  the  mammi^  of  the  newly-born  was 
very  much  like  that  of  the  woman,  with  none  but  the  quantitative  differ- 
■ence,  and  without  difference  as  to  sex.  The  superficial  milk-ducts  were 
obstructed  with  epithelium;  toward  the  interior  they  dilated,  and  formed 
cavities  with  cubic  epithelium  and  a  liquid  resembling  colostrum.  The 
latter  may  be  absent  in  the  mature  infant,  but  not  unfrequently  it  is  met 
with  in  premature  and  still-births,  though  the  mammifi  exhibited  but  a 
rudimentary  development.  The  secretion  resembles  that  of  the  woman 
mostly  from  the  fourth  to  the  tenth  day;  the  gland  itself  differs  from  that 
■of  woman  quantitatively  only.  About  that  time  the  milk-ducts  show 
diverticles  and  s^^routing;  not  all  of  them  yield  a  secretion  but  all  carry 
a  cubic  epithelium.  The  secretion  obtained  by  pressing  the  gland  in- 
creases up  to  six  or  eight  weeks. 

Squeezing,  however,  must  be  avoided.  It  is  barely  possible  that  the 
glands  can  be  squeezed  out  without  any  injury;  but  the  rule  is,  the  bring- 
ing on  of  irritation  and  inflammation.  Suppuration  in  the  infant,  and 
mutilation  of  a  mamma  in  the  adult  from  that  cause,  I  have  seen  a  num- 
ber of  times.  When  there  is  an  inflammatory  irritation,  water  or  lead- 
wash  are  indicated;  where  there  is  swelling  with  hardness  without  redness 
■or  pain,  iodide  of  potassium  and  glycerine  (1  :  2-G)  externally,  with  or 
without  extract  of  belladonna. 

Angiomata  on  or  very  near  the  mammje  are  not  rare.  The  subject 
■does  not  strictly  belong  here;  but  I  will  say  that,  as  these  n^evi  are  apt  to 
grow  fast,  and  become  destructive  to  the  neighboring  tissue,  they  ought 
to  be  destroyed  soon  in  female  infants.  The  safest  means  is  the  actual 
(galvanic)  cautery. 

Skin — Sathing —  Temperature. 

The  first  bath  of  the  child  and  its  bathing  generally  require  great 
■caution.  The  effect  of  the  increase  or  diminution  of  bodily  heat  in  the 
newly-born  or  young  child  presents  many  peculiar  features.  The  state- 
ments of  different  writers  with  regard  to  the  temperature  of  newly-born 
infants  are  on  the  whole  pretty  uniform.  Occasionally,  however,  we  meet 
with  some  discrepancies  in  the  measurements,  when  the  temperature  is 
taken  irregularly  and  unfrequently.     Thus,  J.  Stockton  Hough  examined 


86  INPANT    HYGIENE. 

14  children  and  again  13,  of  ages  varying  from  20  hours  to  44  months, 
and  found  in — 

5  children  from  SO  to  36  hours  old  an  aver.  temp,  of  37.39°  C.  (99,4°  F.) 

6  "  3   "  10  days  "  "  36.97°  C.  (98.6°  F.) 

7  "  2  "  9  weeks  "  "  36.73°  C.  (98.3°  F.) 
9                "           3   "  44  months          "             "             36.87°  C.  (98.5^  F.) 

But  we  have  plenty  of  facts  that  are  more  reliable.  Juergensen  generally 
found  less  regularity  than  in  a  maturer  age,  and  less  variation  depending 
upon  the  time  of  day.  Baerensprung  found  immediately  after  birth  a 
rectal  temperature  of  from  37.8"  to  37.9°  C.  (100°  F.  to  100.4°  F.),  a  little 
higher  than  in  the  uterus  or  vagina.  He  observed  a  fall  of  temperature 
of  one  degree,  Centigrade,  after  the  first  bath,  and  during  the  first  ten 
days  a  rectal  temperature  of  37.6°  C.  (99.8°  F.)  in  the  evening  and  37.4° 
C.  (99.4°  F.)  in  the  morning.  In  normal  births,  Wurster  found  the  tem- 
perature of  the  newly-born  child  on  an  average  0.1°  C.  (00.2°  F.)  higher 
than  the  temperature  of  the  vagina.  (Gaz.  med.,  24;  Gaz.  hop.,  17,  1870.) 
He  also  found  that  when  there  was  an  elevation  of  temperature  in  the 
vagina  the  bodily  heat  of  the  child  was  proportionately  higher.  M. 
Andral  concludes,  from  twenty-seven  measurements  of  the  temperature  in 
the  infant's  axilla  and  four  measurements  in  the  uterus,  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  newly-born  child  is  generally  above  normal,  seldom  below  (38.7° 
-38.9°  C.  [101.8°-102.1°  F.]  ),  corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  the 
uterus,  which  is  0.1°-0.4°  C.  (00.2°-0.8°  F.)  higher.  But  it  is  only  just 
after  birth  that  the  temperature  shows  this  elevation.  A  half  hour  later 
it  is  rather  below  normal,  and  from  the  second  hour  is  equivalent  to  the 
normal  temperature  of  the  adult.  Andral's  opinion  is  that  the  abnor- 
mally high  temperature  of  the  new-born  child  is  due  to  the  uterus,  the 
temperature  of  which  will  be  found  a  little  higher.  Had  he  taken  his 
measurements  in  the  rectum,  however,  and  not  contented  himself  with 
those  obtained  in  the  axilla,  he  would  doubtless  have  found  a  difference 
the  other  way.  Lepine  took  the  temperature  of  one  hundred  children 
twice  during  the  day  in  the  rectum.  Directly  after  birth  he  found  the 
temperature  0.2°  C.  (0.36°  F.)  higher  than  in  the  vagina  or  rectum  of  the 
mother  (37.5°  C.  [99.5°  F.]),  and  for  the  reason,  as  he  very  properly  states, 
that  the  latter  are  more  liable  to  be  cooled  than  the  foetus  in  utero.  In 
the  colder  temperature  of  the  air  the  temperature  of  the  child  falls  for 
several  hours  (in  weakly  children  to  33°  C.  [91.5°  F.]),  and  after  twenty- 
four  hours  becomes  normal  again.  An  interesting  supplement  to  his  ob- 
servations is  afforded  by  the  temperatures  as  compared  with  the  weight. 
When  the  weight  of  the  child  increased  from  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  day, 
the  temperature  was  36.83°  C.  (98.4°  F.);  where  the  weight  did  not  in- 
crease, it  was  36.82°  C.  As  a  general  rule,  his  temperatures  are  a  little 
low,  possibly  for  the  reason,  suggested  by  himself,  that  all  of  the  children 
whom  he  examined  lived  under  unfavorable  conditions.  H.  Fehling  made 
1,200  observations  upon  ninety  children;  twenty-five  examinations  gave  a 


IISTFANT    HYGIENE.  87 

medium  temperature  of  38.32"  C.  (101°  F.)  for  boys,  and  3r.99°C.  (100.4' 
F.)  for  girls,  with  variations  from  37.6°  to  38.9°  C.  (99.7°-102°  F.)  After 
bii'th  there  was  a  fall  of  temperature  which  passed  away  in  from  ten  to 
twelve  hours.  Later  there  was  a  characteristic  difference  between  the 
temperature  of  children  born  at  maturity  and  in  good  condition  (37.35°  C. 
[99.2°  F.])  and  those  born  prematurely — two  to  six  weeks  before  time 
(36.81°  C.  [98.3°  F.]).  Fever  in  the  nursing  mother  had  no  effect  upon 
the  child's  temperature. 

My  own  temperature  measurements,  which  have  not  been  very  numer- 
ous, were  all  taken  in  the  rectum.  I  have  occasionally  found,  directly 
after  birth,  a  difference  between  the  child's  temperature,  and  that  of 
the  mother's  vagina,  in  favor  of  the  former.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  child's 
temperature  sank  in  a  very  short  time  by  0.5-1°  C.  (0.19°  F.-0.18°  F.), 
and  on  the  following  day  was  normal,  above  37°  C.  (98.8°  F.),  The 
cause  of  the  fall  in  temperature  had  been  correctly  indicated  by  others. 
It  lies  partly  in  the  imperfect  circulation  and,  especially,  the  imperfect  res- 
piration, and  in  the  decided  chilling  to  which  the  child  is  exposed  on  enter- 
ing the  world.  The  feebler  the  child  is,  the  longer  will  it  be  before  the 
cutaneous  temperature  rises  again.  For  this  reason,  as  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  examinations  made  in  the  axilla — as  deceptive  here  as  in  many 
diseases  where  either  the  surface  is  very  rapidly  cooled  or  the  cutaneous 
circulation  is  very  sluggish — there  is  always  a  certain  lowering  of  the  tem- 
perature immediately  after  birth.  The  effect  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
cold  acting  on  the  skin  and  exciting  reflex  action  is  beneficial.  But 
if  the  cold  is  long-continued  before  the  bodily  functions  are  fully  and  regu- 
larly established,  it  can  only  do  harm.  Therefore,  the  newly-born  child 
should  not  remain  too  long  uncovered.  The  physician  cannot  watch  the 
professional  nurse  too  carefully,  as  she  slowly,  with  great  deliberation 
and  with  great  show  of  wisdom,  addresses  herself  to  the  work  of  oiling' 
and  soaping,  washing,  rubbing,  drying,  bandaging  and  dressing  the  child, 
till  finally,  its  hands  and  feet  blue  with  cold,  and  its  cheeks  sunken,  its 
array  is  complete. 

The  child's  bath  should  not  be  too  hot.  The  immense  number  of 
deaths  from  trismus  that  occurred  in  the  practice  of  the  Elbing-  midwife 
(99  out  of  380  deliveries)  is  a  sufficient  warning  in  this  connection  (Kehrer). 
On  the  other  hand,  it  should  not  be  below  32°  C.  (89.5°  F.).  Violent 
chilling  of  the  skin  at  this  early  period  of  life,  before  the  functions  have 
become  regular,  should  be  carefully  avoided.  During  the  first  few  months 
the  temperature  of  the  bath  should  not  be  much  lower,  and  always  should 
be  tested  with  the  thermometer.  We  need  not  share  X  Simon's  fears 
"  that  the  epidermis  will  be  macerated  by  the  warm  baths  ; "  that  the  chil- 
dren bathed  every  day  will  become  pale,  feeble,  and  relaxed,  and  "  suffer 
from  eczema;"  although  we  must  admit  the  truth  of  his  zoological  obser- 
vation that  "no  other  sucking  animal  regularly  receives  a  warm  bath." 
The  fact  should  be  remembered  that  the  younger  the  child,  the  greater  is 
the  proportion  of  external  surface  to  the  cubical  contents  of  the  body,  and 
that  the  immense  number  of  sensitive  nerve-filaments  and  capillaries  ex- 


88  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

pose  the  surface  in  the  young  infant  to  violent  reflex  manifestations.  A 
long-continued  cool  bath  will  not  be  borne  even  by  children  of  more 
advanced  age.  For  this  reason,  cool  or  luke-warm  baths  act  so  quickly 
and  effectively  in  the  fevers  of  children.  For,  as  already  said,  it  is  not 
iipon  the  weight  of  the  body  that  abstraction  of  heat  or  the  subsequent 
reaction  depends,  but  upon  the  relative  extent  of  conducting  and  radiat- 
ing surface. 

When  the  child  is  a  few  months  old,  and  during  the  hot  season  espe- 
cially, the  warm  baths  should  be  followed  by  a  cooler  one,  or  later  even  by 
a  cold  bath,  with  brisk  rubbing.  When  baths  proper  are  not  given,  but 
simple  washing  supplies  its  place,  inasmuch  as  the  whole  surface  is  not 
exposed  at  once,  cooler  water  can  be  employed.  Brisk  rubbing  must  not 
be  neglected,  and  it  should  be  done  during  the  bath,  when  the  baths  are 
gradually  being  made  colder.  It  serves  both  to  excite  the  cutaneous  ac7 
tivity  and  to  constantly  bring  fresh  water  in  contact  with  the  body.  In 
jDathological  conditions  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that,  when  luke- 
warm or  cool  baths  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  temperature, 
this  object  is  always  accomplished.  But  if  the  activity  of  the  cooled  skin 
is  not  restored  again,  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  body  will  be 
enormously  increased  while  the  skin  remains  cool.  In  such  cases  the 
temperature  will  fall  rapidly  when  a  warm  or  hot  bath  is  given,  with  the 
effect  of  dilating  the  cutaneous  blood-vessels,  inciting  external  circulation 
and  restoring  radiation  from  the  surface.  The  indication  for  so  doing  is 
mainly  found  in  such  cases  as  are  liable  to  prove  dangerous,  and  termi- 
nate fatally  through  the  elevation  of  temperature  only. 

But  these  pathological  and  therapeutical  questions  do  not  concern  us 
here,  I  insist  only  on  this,  again,  that  the  bath  of  the  young  infant  be 
warm  (about  31°  or  32°  C.  =  90°  F.);  about  the  end  of  the  second  or  third 
3'-ear  the  temperature  of  the  (short)  bath  ought  to  be  about  23°  or  24°  C. 
(73°-75.5°  F,).  The  warm  bath  of  the  young  infant  ought  to  be  followed 
by  a  S23onging  off,  or  washing,  with  cooler  water,  before  the  final  rubbing 
and  dr3^ing.  This  is  sufficient  in  the  direction  of  hardening.  The  latter 
is  desirable,  but  protection  and  safety  more  so. 

There  is  but  little  to  be  said  concerning  general  dietetic  rules  for  the 
newly-born,  such  as  are  contained  in  the  numberless  text-books  on  dis- 
eases of  children,  or  obstetrics.  General  physiological  and  dietetic  prin- 
ciples suffice  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  care  of  the  very  young. 
It  is  true  that  the  young  infant  requires  more  care,  but  not  true  that  it 
requires  a  different  one.  In  regard  to  the  above  remarks  on  the  treatment 
of  the  skin,  this  only  may  be  added,  that  rapid  changes  of  temjDerature 
are  not  well  tolerated,  and  high  and  low  temperatures  both  must  be 
avoided.  Besides,  by  regular  and  moderately  warm  bathing,  the  skin  is 
kept  in  a  sufficiently  normal  condition  to  reduce  the  number  and  severity 
of  cases  of  intertrigo.  Where  it  develops,  nevertheless,  lycopodium  and 
starch  act  less  beneficially  than  oxide  of  zinc  or  subnitrate  of  bismuth. 

Clothing  must  be  warm  and  comfortable.  Feet  and  abdomen  require 
keeping  warm.       Soft  flannel,    or    merino,  in   summer,   is  indispensable 


IJSriWNT    HYGIENE.  89 

among  the  articles  of  clothing.  Nothing  ought  to  press  or  constrict. 
Even  in  Germany  they  begin  to  acknowledge  the  fact  that  a  baby's  limbs 
and  chest  require  a  certain  freedom. 

Tile  general  rule  of  keeping  a  baby's  body  warm  jjermits  of  but  a  sin- 
gle exception  ;  and  this  refers  to  its  head.  It  ought  to  be  kejjt  cool,  and 
requires  a  hair  instead  of  a  feather  pillow,  or  a  folded-up  sheet  over  the 
latter.  Feather  beds  must  be  avoided  altogether,  except  iu  the  case  of 
feeble  or  prematurely  born  infants,  in  whom  it  is  often  very  difficult  to 
preserve  a  uniformly  warm  temjjerature  of  the  surface. 

Infant  Feeding. 

During  the  years  18-45-1804  the  percentage  of  infants,  under  observa- 
tion in  the  clinic  of  Prof.  Stoltz,  in  Strassburg,  when  nursed  by  their 
mothers,  was  19;  that  of  infants  raised  by  strangers,  87.  Willemain 
comjjared  the  mortality  of  nurslings  remaining  with  their  mothers,  while 
in  prison,  with  that  of  infants  raised  on  artificial  food  outside  the  prisons; 
the  former  was  19,  the  latter  43  per  cent.  Frank  reports,  for  Munich, 
2,804  deaths  in  the  first  year  of  life,  in  18G8;  2,539  in  1869;  2,986  in  1870. 
The  percentages  of  those  raised  on  breast-milk  were  10.6,  16.1,  17.6;  of 
those  fed  without,  89.4,  83.9,  82.4.  E.  Walser  reports  a  death-rate  of 
infants  under  a  year  of  499  per  1,000,  in  a  country-town  where  breast- 
milk  is  withheld  systematically;  of  322  in  a  neighboring  town  where  part 
of  the  babies  are  raised  on  the  breast.  The  differences  in  the  feeding  in 
these  two  localities  do  not  depend  on  necessity,  but  on  custom  only; 
and  the  fatal  results  of  artificial  and  coarse  alimentation  might  be  avoided. 
Under  less  favorable  circumstances  are  babies  in  industrial  districts, 
where  women  are  compelled  to  work  in  factories.  In  Zurich,  Dr.  Klein- 
mann  found  the  infant  mortality  considerably  larger  in  the  industrial 
than  in  the  agricultural  neighborhood.  Now,  of  all  the  deaths  (1,922)  in 
the  first  year  of  life,  40.89  per  cent,  were  from  digestive  disorders,  and 
21.01  from  respiratory  diseases.  In  the  second  year  of  life  there  were 
■695  deaths,  of  which  9.06  per  cent,  were  of  diseases  of  the  digestive,  36.54 
of  the  respiratory  organs.  Thus  the  main  cause  of  death  changes  com- 
]3letely.  In  the  first  year  of  life  stomach  and  intestines,  in  the  second 
bronchi  and  lungs,  are  the  sources  of  increase  of  the  death-rate.  The  respi- 
ratory organs  are  better  protected,  habitually,  in  the  first  year,  and  the 
digestive  organs  more  improperly  treated.  Those  infants  who  survive  the 
first  are  exposed  to  the  same  parental  ignorance  and  carelessness  concern- 
ing the  requirements  of  the  organs  of  respiration  in  the  second. 

Mortality  diminishes  with  every  day  of  advancing  life.  Every  addi- 
tional hour  improves  the  baby's  chances  for  preservation.  Of  1,585 
infants  born  alive,  687  died  in  the  first  month,  222  in  the  second,  157  in 
the  third — 1,066  in  the  first  quarter.  According  to  the  records  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Baden,  during  the  twelve  years,  1852-1863,  of  infants  born  alive 
26.13  per  cent,  died  in  the  first  year;  of  these  10.60  in  the  first,  3.06  in 
the  second  month.     Thus  more  than  one-half  of  those  dead  before  the 


90  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

end  of  the  first  twelvemonth,  perished  in  the  first  two  months.  Thus  the 
causes  of  disease  are  more  active  the  earlier  they  are  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  young  with  its  defective  vitality. 

Two  grave  conclusions  are  to  be  drawn  from  this  fact.  The  first  is, 
that  the  diminution  of  early  mortality  depends  on  avoiding  diseases  of  the 
digestive  organs  by  insisting  upon  normal  alimentation.  This  is  princi- 
pally important  in  the  first  few  months.  While  breast-milk  has  been 
shown  to  lower  infant  mortality  through  the  whole  first  year,  it  does  so 
more  in  the  first  few  months.  Thus,  though  an  infant  may  not  be  fed  on 
breast-milk  through  the  whole  normal  period  of  nursing,  a  great  gain, 
indeed,  is  accomplished  by  insisting  on  nursing,  though  for  a  limited  time, 
perhaps  two  months  only.  There  are  but  few  mothers  but  will  be  capa- 
ble of  nursing  during  that  brief  time,  and  none  who  ought  to  be  spared  the 
accusation  of  causing  ill-health  or  death  to  her  baby  if  she  refuses  to 
nurse  it  at  least  through  the  first  dangerous  months.  The  second  conclu- 
sion, resulting  from  the  above  figures,  is  this,  that  the  dietetic  problems 
and  rules  for  the  infant  concern  the  digestive  organs  mainly.  Thus  their 
physiology  and  pathology,  as  influenced  by  feeding,  will  be  the  main  ob- 
jects of  the  following  pages;  and  one  of  the  principal  difficulties  in  tliis 
connection  will  be  found  in  the  selection  of  the  proper  artificial  food  when 
breast-milk  cannot  be  obtained. 

Breast-milk^  when  to  he  gwen — Loss  of  'Weight. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  newly-born  child  should  be  put  to  the 
breast  at  once  or  after  waiting  a  short  time,  can  perhaps  be  better  ap- 
proached after  we  shall  have  considered  certain  changes  in  weight  which 
the  child  undergoes.  The  commonly  accepted  rule,  that  the  weight  of  the 
normal  child  stands  in  a  necessary  relation  to  its  condition,  may  be  taken 
for  granted.  In  speaking  of  such  a  relation,  however,  we  exclude  the 
slight  losses  of  weight  due  to  evaporation  of  the  amniotic  fluid,  the  re- 
moval of  vernix,  or  the  evacuation  of  already  formed  meconium  and 
urine.  The  writer  who  first  distinctly  stated  the  fact  that  the  newly-born 
child  lost  in  weight  after  birth  was  Chaussier.  Since  then  Bouchaud, 
Haake,  Winckel,  Gregory,  Edlefsen,  Ritter,  Knopf,  Krueger,  Kesmarzsky, 
Ingerslev,  and  others  have  followed  up  the  subject  with  activity.  Still 
another  investigator,  and  one  of  the  most  accomplished,  is  Kehrer. 
Chaussier  went  only  so  far  as  to  observe  that  children  continued  to  lose  in 
weight  from  one  to  five  days,  when  they  began  to  gain.  Kesmarzsky  found 
a  rapid  loss  during  the  first  two  or  three  days;  after  which  there  was  a 
gradual  increase,  but  so  slow  was  it  that  by  the  seventh  day  scarcely  one- 
half  of  what  was  lost  had  been  regained.  Haake  ascertained  that  in  the 
first  twenty-four  hours  there  was  an  average  loss  of  four  ounces  ;  accord- 
ing to  Winckel  it  was  3.47  oz.  for  boys  and  4.25  oz.  for  girls.  According 
to  Haake,  the  total  loss  of  weight  amounted  in  boys  to  from  one-sixteenth 
to  one-seventeenth  of  the  entire  weight;  in  girls  it  was  from  one-fifteenth 
to  one-sixteenth.    Winckel  found  that  the  total  loss  varied  between  3  and 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  91 

15  oz,  (90  and  450  grms).  Thirty-three  jDer  cent  of  newly-born  children 
had  not  recovered  their  original  weight  by  the  ninth  day,  and  it  was  ob- 
served that  boys  recovered  a  little  more  quickly  and  lost  less  than  girls. 
With  the  exception  of  Breslau  and  Ingerslev,  all  observers  seem  to  agree 
upon  this  point.  There  appears,  also,  to  be  no  difference  of  opinion  with 
regard  to  the  observation  of  Winckel  and  others,  that  those  children  who 
were  freely  nourished  with  breast-milk  began  to  increase  in  weight  on  the 
third  or  fourth  day,  while  those  fed  upon  cow's  milk  had  not  regained 
their  original  weight  by  the  tenth  day. 

Of  no  less  interest  is  the  observation,  that  heavy  children  suffer  less  loss 
than  light  ones  (Ingerslev),  and  that  the  children  of  primipara^  lose  more 
(7.2  per  cent.)  than  those  (6.48  per  cent.)  of  multiparte.  According  to  In- 
gerslev, the  weight  of  the  children  (3,450  in  the  Lying-in  Hospital  at  Copen- 
hagen) increased  with  each  successive  pregnancy.  Duncan  had  stated 
that  the  age  of  twenty-nine  in  the  mother  marks  the  maximum  point  in 
respect  to  the  weight  of  the  children  born.  Ingerslev's  results  uniformly 
showed  that  of  50  children  raised  at  the  breast,  47  lost  in  weight  until  the 
third  day,  and  33  did  not  begin  to  gain  until  the  fifth  day.  These  facts 
acquire  a  greater  theoretical  and  practical  significance  by  comparing  them 
with  observations  made  upon  the  lower  animals  (Kehrer).  In  all  mam- 
Bials  there  is  a  loss  during  the  first  hour  or  day,  depending  upon  evapora- 
tion of  fcetal  fluids,  or  the  discharge  of  meconium  and  urine.  But  aside 
from  this,  there  is  in  them  an  immediate,  and  uninterrupted,  though  vary- 
ing, increase  in  weight.  The  reason  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  young- 
of  animals — the  dog,  rabbit,  cat,  or  deer,  for  example — begin  to  suck 
directly  after  birth,  often  while  yet  attached  by  the  umbilical  cord.  The 
pig  and  lamb,  too,  take  the  dug  after  an  hour,  and  the  calf  and  foal  five 
or  six  hours  after  birth.  This  early  sucking  has  a  bearing  upon  the  pro- 
duction of  the  milk.  The  udders  of  these  animals  begin  to  secrete  earlier 
than  the  average  breast  of  the  human  female.  Colostrum  begins  to  flow 
even  before  the  commencement  of  labor.  During  parturition  the  dugs 
swell,  and  at  birth  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  colostrum  ;  and  the 
young  animal,  possessed  of  no  prejudice  in  respect  to  the  "slight  nutri- 
tive value  "  of  colostrum,  sucks  and  thrives. 

From  the  foregoing  series  of  facts  we  draw  the  following  conclusions; 
Large  children — hence,  as  a  rule,  boys — suffer  less  losS'  of  weight  and  re- 
cover more  quickly  than  small  ones.  A  medium  age  on  the  part  of  the 
mother  is  favorable  to  the  production  of  large  children.  Feeding  with 
cow's  milk  delays  the  increase  in  the  child's  weight.  Putting  the  child  at 
once  to  the  breast  affords  a  means  of  increasing  the  weight  immediately. 

It  will  rest  with  the  social  science  of  the  future,  controlled  by  liber- 
ality and  culture,  to  determine  how  far  measures  shall  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent child-bearing  among  women  who  are  immature  both  in  body  and 
years,  in  order  to  insure  the  generation  of  children  with  larger  frames,  and 
hence  better  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  life.  In  this  way  only  could 
the  probability  of  producing  larger  children  be  increased.  We  have  gen- 
eral reasons  for  believino-  that  our  babes  are  laro-er  than  those  of  former 


92  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

centuries.  For  we  know  that,  through  the  improved  facilities  for  obtain- 
ing food  and  the  increased  -protection  afforded  to  life,  health,  duration  of 
life,  size  and  strength  of  body,  have  all  been  improved  and  augmented. 
For,  in  spite  of  the  tendencies  of  our  civil  industries  to  create  at  the  same 
time  immense  fortunes  and  immense  misery,  and  though  we  still  have  with 
us  the  "  poor  peasant  boys  who  have  to  die  before  they  have  had  a  single 
chance  of  once  eating  a  square  meal "  (Zimmermann,  History  of  the  Peasant 
Wars),  yet  the  life  of  the  average  man  is  better  supplied,  better  pro- 
tected, more  vigorous,  and  of  longer  duration  than  ever  before.  The 
justness  and  moderation  of  future  periods  of  development,  in  elevating 
the  general  morality,  will  improve  the  stamp  of  the  race.  But  we  do  not 
need  to  wait  for  the  future  to  arrive  at  some  practical  and  immediate 
conclusions. 

The  more  abundant  the  supply  of  mother's  milk,  and  the  earlier  it  is 
furnished,  i.  e.,  the  sooner  the  child  is  jDut  to  the  breast,  the  better 
it  will  be.  With  every  hour  of  continued  loss  of  weight,  the  newly-born 
child  is  losing  vigor,  and  muscular  power  besides.  The  child  often  must 
learn  how  to  suck,  and,  while  it  makes  its  first  efforts,  the  mammary  gland 
is  stimulated  through  reflex  action,  producing  increased  congestion  and 
secretion.  The  loss  of  weight  oi\  the  part  of  the  child  must  not  be  under- 
estimated. The  animals  upon  which  Chaussat  experimented  had  but  to 
lose  a  fifth  of  their  weight  before  dying  of  starvation. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  most  women  do  not  have  any  colostrum  in 
their  breasts  till  some  time  between  the  first  and  fifth  days,  usually.  Vigor- 
ous women  or  delicate  women,  with  well-developed  breasts,  are  indeed  the 
exception.  But  it  happens  often  enough  that  even  before  the  birth  of 
the  child,  a  moderate  secretion  from  the  breast  takes  place,  and  it  is  not 
so  very  rare  that  the  child  finds  nourishment  directly  after  its  birth.  These 
comparatively  exceptional  cases  should  become  more  the  rule.  The  cattle- 
raiser  pays  very  great  attention  to  feeding  during  the  last  few  months 
of  pregnancy  and  during  parturition.  But  the  child-bearing  woman  is 
treated  differently.  The  domestic  animals  receive,  directly  after  the  birth 
of  their  young,  quantities  of  nourishing  and  easily-digested  liquid  food. 
But  for  centuries  it  has  been  the  custom  to  put  the  puerperal  woman 
xipon  a  starving  diet,  however  much  her  health  may  have  suffered  or  her 
strength  have  been  reduced.  The  demand  for  sufficient  nourishment 
should  not,  however,  lead  to  any  excess  (A.  Flint,  Sr.,  Barker),  for  even 
the  cattle-raiser  knows  that  too  much  or  too  coarse  food  tends  to  induce 
obstruction  and  fever.  But  the  food,  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 
should  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  blood  with  protein.  For  the  dictates 
of  common  sense  teach  that  the  puerj)eral  woman  should  not  in  nine  days 
lose  one-twentieth  of  her  weight.  I  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  diet, 
both  of  the  pregnant  and  the  puerperal  woman,  should  be  such  as  to  favor 
early  secretion  of  milk,  enabling  the  child  to  be  nursed  at  an  early  period 
and  at  rea'ular  intervals. 


INEANT    HYGIENE.  9S 


Period  of  Weaning. 

The  normal  time  for  weaning  corresponds  with  important  changes  in 
the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  infant.  It  has  arrived  when  a  group  of 
two,  four,  or  at  most  six  incisors  has  made  its  appearance,  viz.,  about 
the  eighth  or  tenth  month.  I  look  opon  this  rvile  as  an  axiom  as  long  as  we 
have  to  deal  with  normal  children,  though  Fleischmann  objects  to  its 
validity.  He  relies  on  the  increase  of  weight  as  the  proper  measure  of 
normal  development,  and  requires  infants  to  continue  nursing  as  long  as 
their  weight  is  on  the  increase.  But  he  forgets  that  not  a  few  infants 
grow  larger  and  heavier  while  and  because  they  are  abnormal.  Many  of 
them  are  fat,  heavy,  rotund,  and  apparently  in  good  condition;  but  the 
trained  eye  discovers  rhachitis  as  the  cause  of  this  rotundity  and  obesity. 
Many  become  more  rhachitical  with  every  week  of  continued  nursing  ; 
many  cases  of  rhachitis  depend  on  nothing  but  protracted  nursing.  Thus, 
the  fact  of  a  child  not  havino-  teeth  at  the  normal  time,  thouo-h  of  full  or 
nearly  full  weight,  indicates  the  necessity  of  a  change  of  food,  that  is,, 
weaning.  Sometimes  that  is  the  only  treatment  and  care  required  by 
rhachitis,  complicated  as  it  is  with  retarded  protrusion  of  teeth,  late  de- 
velopment of  osseous  and  muscular  tissue,  with  constipation,  hyperjemia, 
and  perspiration  of  the  head,  and  occij)ital  baldness.  Such  infants, 
when,  after  changing  wet-nurses,  or  after  having  been,  weaned  altogether, 
they  begin  to  become  more  normal,  will  lose  in  weight;  and  this  loss  of 
fat  and  weight  ought  to  be  hailed  with  joy.  In  other  cases,  though 
the  general  health  of  the  mother  be  good,  her  mammary  gland  may  be  de- 
veloped insufficiently,  and  its  secretion  defective.  In  but  very  rare  cases 
is  it  totally  absent,  but  it  is  sometimes  abnormal  in  quality,  and  therefore 
injurious.  "When  this  is  proved  by  direct  examination,  or  by  its  effect  on 
the  nursling,  it  is  time  to  wean  or  change  breast-milk.  Where  an  inherit- 
able disease  is  discovered  in  the  mother,  she  has  injured  her  offspring 
sufficiently  before  birth.  Consumptive,  syphilitic,  or  rhachitical  mothers 
ought  not  to  nurse.  A  healthy  wet-nurse,  or  even  artificial  feeding,  is 
preferable  to  the  continuation  of  a  lasting  injury.  No  baby  has  a  good 
chance  at  the  breast  of  such  a  mother;  many  will  thrive  even  better  on 
carefully  regulated  artificial  food. 

Acute  puerperal  diseases  prevent  women  from  nursing,  for  a  con- 
tinuous fever  stops  the  secretion  of  milk.  Mastitis  is  apt  to  terminate 
nursing  very  abruptly  ;  thus  the  preventive  care  of  the  nipples  and  the 
cure  of  superficial  erosions  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  Chronic  dis- 
eases of  the  uterus  do  not  always  form  a  contraindication  to  nursing  ;  on 
the  contrary,  regular  and  protracted  nursing  improves  insufficient  involu- 
tion. Women  who  lost  babies  with  acute  tuberculosis,  and  those  syphilitic 
ones,  whose  babies  are  not  liable  to  infect  wet-nurses  because  of  the  ab- 
sence of  specific  ulcerations  about  lips  and  mouth,  must  not  nurse.  Epi- 
lepsy and  other  serious  nervous  disorders,  and  chronic  exanthemata  on 
the  part  of  the  mother,  contraindicate  nursing,  or  require  early  weaning. 


94  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

So  does  anfemia,  though  its  effect  on  the  composition  of  the  milk  be  not 
always  the  same.  In  some  specimens  all  the  solid  constituents  were  found 
diminished — in  others  all  of  them,  with  the  single  exception  of  sugar ;  in 
others,  again,  there  was  less  casein  and  sugar,  but  more  butter  (which 
results  from  a  transformation  of  casein  and  sugar). 

It  is  not  the  above  serious  disorders  of  the  nervous  system  only  which 
contraindicate  nursing.  Less  imjDortant  affections — which,  however,  attack 
suddenly — influence  milk  considerably.  Burdach  reports  the  case  of  a 
woman  who  suffered  from  "nervous  attacks;  "  after  each  attack  the  milk 
was  transparent  and  of  varnish  consistency  for  hours.  Convulsions  have 
been  noticed,  also  diarrhoea,  in  babies  at  the  breast  of  women  suffering 
from  violent  emotions.  Berlyn  reports  the  case  of  a  baby  who  thus 
turned  pale  and  was  taken  with  a  convulsion  and  hemiplegia.  Levret  has 
even  the  report  of  a  young  dog  who  contracted  a  convulsion  by  taking 
the  breast  of  a  woman  after  she  had  been  subject  to  mental  emotion. 
Contesse  has  the  case  of  an  irascible  mother  who  lost  ten  children  ;  the 
eleventh  thrived  perfectly  at  the  breast  of  a  wet-nurse.  All  such  reports 
are  not  fabulous,  for  the  effect  of  the  nervous  system  on  secretions  is  well 
established,  be  they  lachrymal,  salivary,  renal,  or  mammary.  Agree- 
able emotions  on  the  part  of  the  mother  are  followed  by  cojdIous  secretion 
of  milk  ;  dejDressing  ones  diminish,  sudden  influences  suppress  it  (by 
contraction  of  blood-vessels).  But  not  only  increase  or  decrease  is  ob- 
served: there  is  a  chemical  change  also  depending  on  the  change  in  the 
amount  of  water,  resulting  from  vaso-motor  disturbances  and  abnormal 
cellular  action.  After  a  hysterical  attack,  Vogel  found  milk  transparent 
like  whey,  and  without  the  taste  of  sugar.  It  contained  more  water  and 
less  solid  constituents  :  water,  908;93;  sugar,  34.92;  casein,  50.0;  butter, 
5.14;  salts,  1.01,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1032.99.  Thus  the  many  cases 
of  colic  and  diarrhoea  on  the  part  of  the  nursling  find  their  ready  expla- 
nation. It  is  true  that  convulsions  and  sudden  deaths  offer  greater  difficulty 
to  a  satisfactory  explanation.  But  such  cases,  though  they  be  rare,  are 
explained  by  the  ready  and  serious  reflex  irritability  of  the  infant  or- 
ganism. 

Shall  a  Baby  he  loeaned  lohen  the  Nursing  Mother  decomes  pregnant 
again,  or  ichen  Menstruation  is  re-established?  ^ 

Lactation  and  pregnancy  are  incompatible.  It  is  but  a  rare  occur- 
rence that  a  woman  has  strength  and  blood  in  sufficient  quantity  to  sus- 
tain herself,  a  nursling,  and  an  embryo  or  foetus,  besides.  Therefore,  as 
early  as  1758,  a  law  was  passed  in  France  compelling  wet-nurses  to  inform 
their  employers  of  the  occurrence  of  another  conception.  Frequently  the 
uterus  will  be  unable  to  resist  the  persistent  mammary  irritation  kept  up 
by  nursing,  and  thus  the  foetus  is  expelled.  The  milk  of  pregnant  women 
undergoes  a   certain  number  of  changes.     According   to   N.  Davis,  the 

'  Cf.  Jour.  Obstet.,  etc.,  July,  1877. 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  95 

solid  constituents  decrease,   particularly  fat,   salts,   and    casein,   and  the 
milk  assumes  the  nature  of  colostrum. 

The  changes  brought  on  by  menstruation  are  analogous,  according  to 
the  same  author,  although  not  so  complete.  Ch.  Marchand  examined 
three  specimens  of  milk,  one  of  six  days  before  menstruation,  one  during 
menstruation,  and  one  six  days  after  menstruation. 

jSix  days  before  Menstruation. 

First  Second  Third 

individual.      individual,      individual. 

Butter 32.24  28.56  37.24 

Milk-sugar 08.25  69.31  69.75 

Casein  and  albumen 20.20  16.75  18.40 

Salts..... 1.90  1.74  1.82 

Water 877.41  883.64  872.79 

During  Menstruation. 

Butter 27.45  30.32  33.15 

Milk-sugar 65.46  65.15  64.42 

Casein  and  albumen 21 .  34  17.21  19 .  10 

Salts 1.98  1.80  1.89 

Water 883.77  885.52  881.44 

Six  days  after  Meti^truation. 

Butter 29.41  29.24  35.54 

Milk-sugar 69.15  68.87  68.95 

Casein  and  albumen 20 .  90  16 .  47  16.27 

Salts 1.89  1.82  1.72 

Water 878.65  883.60  877.42 

Thus  there  is  during  menstruation  a  marked  diminution  of  milk-sugar, 
a  trifling  diminution  of  butter,  and  a  trifling  increase  of  albuminous 
material. 

The  above  results  agree  with  those  obtained  by  Becquerel  and  Vernois, 
who  found  sugar  diminished  (40.49  :  43.88),  and  albuminates  and  extrac- 
tive material  increased  in  quantity  (47.69  :  38.69).  They  assert  that  in- 
fants nursed  by  menstruating  women  experience  no  injurious  effects. 

In  general  milk-sugar  and  albuminous  contents  appear  to  keep  up  a 
somewhat  inverse  proportion;  while  the  latter  are  increased,  the  former 
diminishes  in  quantity. 

Besides,  from  a  few  observations  made,  it  appears  that  milk-sugar  is 
always  found  lessened  during  the  continuance  of  a  uterine  affection,  be  it 
hemorrhage  or  catarrh  of  the  uterus  or  vagina. 

In  addition,  there  are  certainly  differences  in  the  condition  of  the  milk. 


96  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

which  can  be  appreciated  or  estimated,  particularly  as  to  the  size  of  the 
corjDuscles.  The  milk  corpuscles — all  of  them  spherical,  refracting  light, 
and  enclosed  in  a  membrane  consisting  of  insoluble  albuminates — range 
from  1.25  to  4.  mm.  in  diameter.  Fleischmann  divides  them  into  three 
classes,  large,  middle-size,  and  punctiform.  The  first  he  found  in  old 
women,  in  protracted  lactation,  in  fevers,  and  during  menstruation. 

But  still  opinions  differ  as  to  whether  menstruation  contraindicates 
nursing  or  not.  For  it  is  true  that  there  are  many  observations  of  colic, 
vomiting,  and  acid  diarrhoea  on  the  part  of  the  nursling,  but  just  as  many 
of  entire  comfort  during  the  menstruation  of  wet-nurse  or  mother.  It  is 
customary,  when  menstruation  makes  its  reaj^pearance,  either  to  wean  or 
to  change  wet-nurses.  But  in  very  many  cases  nursing  is  persisted  in  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  both  menstruation  and  pregnancy.  For  the 
functions  of  the  mammary  glands,  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  the  ovaries 
and  uterus,  on  the  other,  were  often  considered  to  exclude  each  other.  Such 
an  exclusion,  however,  does  not  exist.  Pregnancy  may  occur  without 
menstruation,  no  matter  whether  lactation  is  going  on  or  not.  I  had  a 
patient  who  never  had  a  child  during  her  married  life,  for  a  number  of 
years.  When  she  applied  to  me  she  had  not  menstruated  for  ten  months. 
Not  a  drop  of  blood  had  been  seen.  Her  uterus  appeared  rather  too  large 
for  a  normal  condition  ;  the  uterine  sound,  introduced  for  diagnostic  pur- 
poses, destroyed  a  normal  and  fresh  two  months'  foetus.  Nor  is  this  the 
only  case  of  pregnancy  commencing  during  amenorrhoea.  Cases  will  be 
met  with  occasionally  in  the  journals,  and  would  be  so  more  frequently 
if  practitioners  were  as  anxious  to  instruct  their  professional  brethren  by 
the  mistakes  they  made  as  to  benefit  them  by  the  reports  of  their  suc- 
cesses. During  lactation  pregnancy  is  not  infrequent,  no  matter  whether 
menstruation  is  regular,  has  reappeared,  or  has  disappeared  again.  Mean- 
while the  secretion  of  milk  may  be  quite  copious,  and  exhibit  no  very 
apparent  alterations. 

In  general,  lactation  is  persisted  in,  and  is  dispensed  with  at  the  ex- 
piration of  nine  or  twelve  months.  At  this  time  menstruation  has  usually 
reappeared  and  is  regular.  That  leng-th  of  time  is  also  required  to  fully 
re-establish  the  uterus  and  ovaiies  without  regard  to  lactation.  The  advice 
of  the  English  author,  who  wanted  women  to  nurse  their  babies  through 
a  period  of  four  years,  is  therefore  but  poorly  sustained  by  reasons.  His 
were  three.  The  first  was,  that  the  babies  were  thus  fed  both  well  and 
cheaply  ;  but  that  mode  of  feeding  would,  indeed,  be  neither  good,  nor 
cheap,  nor  sufficient.  His  second  reason  was,  that  the  woman  would  escape 
a  renewed  pregnancy  and  the  domestic  misery  emanating  from  the  abun- 
dance of  not-wished-for  children — which  is  contrary  to  the  established 
facts.  Thirdly,  he  urged  that  procedure  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
over-population.  But  the  real  result  would  be  to  check  over-population 
by  destroying  the  women  through  exhaustion  and  abortion,  Schoepf- 
Merei,  however,  knew  of  a  case  of  that  kind,  where  the  woman  would  have 
swelled  the  heart  of  that  style  of  Malthusian  with  joy  and  satisfaction. 
Her  twenty-two  jDregnancies  resulted  in  the  existence  of  one  child. 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  97 

Some  time  ago  Roberton  remarked  that  one-half  of  the  nursing  working- 
women  of  Manchester,  Eng.,  conceived  during  lactation;  and  but  a  few 
years  ago  L.  Mayer  collected  facts  concerning-  the  frequency  of  menstrua- 
tion during  that  period.  He  tabulates  1,:385  cases  in  395  individuals. 
Of  1,285  there  were  G85  who  nursed.  Of  these  685  there  were  402  who 
menstruated  after  some  time.  The  first  menstruation  appeared  after  six 
weeks  in  99  (25  per  cent.),  after  twelve  weeks  in  46,  after  four  months  in  41, 
of  the  above  number.'  Menstruation,  in  his  observ^ations,  had  no  injuri- 
ous influence  upon  the  health  of  the  nurslings.  Therefore,  the  reappear- 
ance of  menstruation,  in  his  opinion,  is  no  indication  for  either  weaning 
the  baby  or  changing  the  wet-nurse.  There  is  but  one  such  indication, 
viz.,  ill-health  of  tJie  hahy,  brought  on  by  the  continuation  of  nursing. 
For  the  diminution  of  the  quantity  of  blood  in  the  maternal  organism,  or 
the  thorough  change  in  its  circulation,  may,  but  does  not  necessarily,  result 
in  either  quantitative  or  qualitative  alterations  of  breast-milk.  In  cases 
of  doubt,  the  regular  use  of  the  scales  may  decide  the  question  of  nursing 
or  weaning  by  determining  the  weight  of  the  baby. 

The  effect  of  physiological  or  pathological  changes  in  the  nursing- 
woman  on  her  mammary  secretion  can,  after  all,  not  be  counted  up,  or 
defined,  with  mathematical  certainty.  The  latter  is  rendered  impossible 
by  the  variability  of  vital  processes,  and  the  changes  taking  place  in  the 
living  subject.  Still  there  are  on  record  a  number  of  good  observations 
which  illustrate  the  effect  of  chemical  substances  or  of  diseases  on  the 
breast-milk  of  either  animal  or  woman.  A  number  of  them  are  very 
useful  in  determining  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  condition  of  the  milk, 
and  the  influence  it  may  have  on  the  baby,  or  the  manner  in  which  it 
necessitates  weaning,  either  total  or  partial. 

Coloring  materials  are  known  to  enter  into  and  pervade  all  sorts  of 
tissues,  even  bones.  Milk  turns  yellow  by  the  eating  of  caltha  palustris, 
saffron,  and  rhubarb,  according  to  Mosler;  red  by  rhubarb,  opuntia,  rubia 
tinctorum;  blue  by  myosotis  palustris,  polygonum,  anchusa,  equisetum, 
according  to  Schauenstein  and  Spiith.  Still  the  blue  color,  which  pene- 
trates the  milk  uniformly,  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  superficial  layer  of 
discoloration  observed  in  milk  after  a  few  days'  keeping.  The  latter  is  of 
parasitic  character  (different  though  from  the  lactic  acid  parasite  of  Hess- 
ling),  and  identical  with  penicillium  glaucum  and  aniline  blue.  It  extends 
into  the  lower  layers  but  gradually,  infects,  by  communication,  normal 
milk,  and  remains  unchanged,  though  the  milk  be  filtered  through  three- 
fold paper.  When  introduced  into  the  stomach,  the  milk  thus  parasiti- 
cally  infected,  is  apt  to  give  rise  to  acute  gastritis  and  enteritis. 

Ethereal  oils  are  very  apt  to  enter  the  milk.  But  to  prove  their  pres- 
ence otherwise  than  by  taste  or  smell  is  not  always  easy.     For  organic 

^  Tilt  obtained  from  his  experience  the  following  results  :  Of  100  women  whose 
menstruation  returned  during  lactation,  45  retained  their  milk  unchanged  both  in 
quantity  and  quality.  In  8  the  quantity  diminished,  1  lost  her  milk  altogether,  24 
had  a  large  flow  during,  and  15  after,  menstruation.  In  5  the  percentage  of  solid  con- 
stituents decreased. 

Vol.  I.— 7 


98  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

chemistry  has  not  even  advanced  sufficiently  to  decide  whether  quinia, 
which,  when  given  internally,  communicates  a  bitter  taste  to  the  milk,  is 
eliminated  as  quinia  or  in  some  other  form  (Chevallier  and  Henry).  Nor 
can  alcohol,  opium,  or  morphia  be  discovered  with  absolute  certainty. 
Still  the  occurrence  of  poisoning  through  milk  is  an  undoubted  fact.  An 
endemic  is  reported,  in  Italian  and  German  journals,  of  an  affection  from 
which  many  people  suffered,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome,  Italy.  The 
symptoms  consisted  of  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  intense  thirst,  and  diminution 
of  temperature  and  pulse.  The  milk  of  the  goats  was  suspected;  the 
goats  were,  however,  declared  to  be  in  good  health  by  the  veterinary  sur- 
geon, and  on  analysis  the  milk  was  found  free  from  organic  poison  of  any 
kind.  Attention  was  then  drawn  to  the  food  of  the  goats.  On  the  pasture 
grounds  there  were  found  large  quantities  of  clematis  vitalba,  conium 
maculatum,  colchicum  autumnale,  plumbago  Europgea.  Again,  the  milk, 
and  the  masses  brought  up  by  vomiting,  were  examined  and  found  to  con- 
tain colchicine.  An  English  infant,  two  days  old,  died  soon  after  taking 
the  mother's  breast  for  the  first  time.  The  coroner  of  Manchester  investi- 
gated the  case,  and  elicited  the  fact  that  the  mother  was  an  habitual 
opium-eater,  the  amount  of  the  poison  swallowed  weekly  being  about  an 
ounce.  Dr.  Fletcher's  testimony  went  to  show  that  the  symptoms  with 
which  the  infant  died  were  the  effects  of  ojDium.^ 

More  positive  results  have  been  obtained  by  inorganic  chemistry  ;  a 
number  of  substances  have  been  found  in  the  secretion  of  the  mammae. 
As  far  as  human  milk  is  concerned,  these  results  are,  however,  mostly  ob- 
tained by  induction  or  clinical  observations,  for  very  few  attempts  at  a 
direct  chemical  examination  have  been  made.  Large  quantities  of  milk 
are  required  for  examination,  as  a  rule;  and,  therefore,  goats,  sometimes 
cows,  have  been  used  for  experiments.  Iron  is  contained  in  milk,  nor- 
mally: in  the  ashes  of  human  milk,  according  to  Wilderstein,  phosphate  of 
iron  0.21  per  cent.,  somewhat  less  than  in  the  milk  of  pigs  and  cows.  It 
was  not,  however,  found  by  Harnicr  and  Simon.  Other  experimenters — 
Lewald,  Marchand,  Chevallier  and  Henry,  Rombeau  and  Roseleur — found 
soluble  salts  of  iron,  when  given  internally,  within  a  short  time  in  the  milk; 
but  they  soon  disappeared.  Bistrow  noticed  a  rapid  improvement  in  the 
general  condition  of  infants,  when  the  wet-nurses  took  iron;  this,  how- 
ever, is  no  direct  proof,  in  itself,  of  the  mammary  elimination  of  iron,  inas- 
much as  the  general  improvement  of  the  health  of  the  wet-nurse  would 
explain  a  better  composition  of  her  milk  and  the  thriving  of  the  nursling. 
Wilderstein's  experiments  with  iron  administered  to  goats  had  the  result 
of  diminishing  the  quantity  of  the  milk,  but  its  specific  gravity  increased 
and  the  ashes  contained  twice  the  normal  amount  of  iron.  This  effect 
was  not  observed,  however,  before  twenty-four  hours  had  elapsed. 

Bismuth,  when  administered,  was  found  in  the  milk  by  Lewald,  Che- 
vallier and  Henry,  and  Marchand;  by  the  first  in  small,  by  the  second  in 
greater  quantities,  by  the  last  after  a  very  short  time. 

1  Med.  Press  and  Cir.,  1878. 


IJN-FANT    HYGIENE.  99 

Iodide  of  potassium  was  experimented  with  by  Lewald.  When  fifteen 
grammes  were  given,  its  presence  was  detected  after  four  days.  Then 
twenty-one  more  were  given.  The  effect  was  kept  up  by  that  dose,  and 
did  not  disappear  before  seventy-two  more  hours  had  passed  by.  When, 
after  that,  iodide  of  potassium  was  given,  the  milk  exhibited  iodine  after 
four  days,  and  continued  to  do  so  for  eleven  days.  Supported  by  such  facts 
as  these,  Leviseur  (Jahrb.  f.  Kinderheilk.,  N.  F.,  YI.,  3,  1873)  recommends 
to  treat  the  wet-nurse  Avith  iodide  of  potassium  for  syphilis,  sulphate  of 
quinia  for  intermittent  neuroses,  arsenic  for  cutaneous  secretions  in  the 
infant. 

Arsenic  was  found  in  the  milk  after  seventeen  hours.  It  persisted  in 
passing  through  the  mamma  sixty  hours.' 

Lead  and  oxide  of  zinc,  probably  all  other  preparations  of  zinc,  pass 
into  the  milk.  Oxide  of  zinc  was  found  in  from  four  to  eighteen  hours 
after  the  administration  of  a  single  dose  of  one  gramme;  it  disappeared 
in  from  fifty  to  sixty. 

Antimony  passes  into  the  mamma  very  easily,  and  requires  caution. 

Mercury  was  not  found  in  the  milk  by  Peligot,  Chevallier,  Henry,  and 
Harnier.  Lewald  and  Personne  proved  its  presence.  O.  Kahler  examined, 
by  Schneider's  electrolytico-chemical  method,  the  milk  of  three  women 
ixnder  treatment  with  mercurial  inunctions,  but  found  no  mercury.  Thus 
the  treatment  of  infants  affected  with  hereditary  syphilis  through  the 
milk  of  their  wet-nurse  is  not  yet  proved  rational.  My  own  clinical 
observations  do  not  favor  the  plan  at  all.  The  internal  administration 
of  mercurials,  when  persisted  in  sufficiently,  yields  very  satisfactory  re- 
sults in  the  usual  form  of  hereditary  syphilis,  which  exhibits  its  first 
symptoms  between  the  fifth  and  ninth  weeks.  Even  the  formidable  species 
of  syphilis,  attended  with  pemphigus  in  the  newly-born,  may  be  controlled 
by  subcutaneous  injections  of  the  bichloride — care  being  taken  that  the 
solution  administered  is  weaker  than  that  recommended  by  Lewin. 

Carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of  potassa  and  the  sulphates  of  soda  and 
magnesia  pass  out  through  the  milk.  The  vegetable  acids  of  alkaline 
salts  reappear  as  carbonic  acid.  Sulphides  of  alkalies  have  not  been 
found  by  Marchand. 

Thus  there  is  any  number  of  opinions  and  results  of  researches.  Is  it 
that  chemistry  is  so  uncertain  in  its  methods  of  examination,  or  the  repu- 
tation of  the  men  who  vouch  for  their  results  with  their  names  so  little 
reliable,  or  is  the  material  on  which  the  experiments  were  made  variable 
in  its  composition  or  perhaps  not  quite  well  known  in  its  physiological 
constituents  ? 

We  shall  see  that  the  fault  lies  very  probably  in  the  material  on  which 
■experimenters  tried  their  skill. 

The  nature  of  the  albuminates  of  the  milk  is  by  no  means  settled. 
Hoppe  believes  that  he  proved  the  existence  in  the  milk  of  an  albuminous 


'  Hertwig  asserts  that  arsenic  given  to  a  cow  for  medical  purposes  ra  medicinal  doses 
may  poison  her  meat. 


100  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

substance  identical  with  the  albumen  of  the  blood  serum.  There  is, 
according  to  him,  but  one  difference  between  casein  and  the  albuminate^ 
viz. :  that  the  former,  when  treated  with  caustic  potassa,  yields  sulphide  of 
potassium,  a  change  which  does  not  take  place  in  the  latter.  The  albumi- 
nate undergoes  its  transformation  into  casein  by  a  fermenting  process, 
j)roduced  by  lactic  acid  according  to  Zahn,  by  a  hypothetical  ferment  ac- 
cording to  Kemmerich. 

Thus  seemingly  simj)le  questions  cannot  yet  be  answered  with  absolute 
certainty.  It  cannot  yet  be  stated  that,  or  that  not,  the  albumen  of  the 
serum  of  the  blood  is  found  in  the  milk.  Still,  the  conditions  of  things- 
vary.  The  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  mamma  are  thinner  or  thicker, 
more  or  less  permeable,  and  vaso-motor  influences  will  change  circulation 
and  nutrition.  Thus  there  may  be  cases  in  which  blood  serum  is  simply 
added — as  a  transudation — to  the  secretion  of  the  mammary  gland.  In 
other  secretions  too  we  meet  with  considerable  differences,  many  times 
without  any  surjjrise.  By  assuming  that  blood  serum  is  found  admixed 
with  milk,  we  can  much  better  explain  the  cases  of  infants  influenced  by 
medicines,  infections,  emotions  acting  through  the  milk,  than  when  we 
look  upon  milk  simply  as  the  result  of  transformed  glandular  substances. 

For  such  it  is  normally.  The  mammary  gland  is  no  filter,  through 
which  the  serum  of  the  blood,  or  the  solutions  of  salts,  or  the  transformed 
foods  are  rendered  accessible  to  the  hungry  young.  The  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  milk  depend  upon  the  development  of  the  gland.  Milk  is  not  the 
product  of  the  action  of  the  cells;  it  is  the  ti'ansformed  cells,  the  very  or- 
gan. Thus  the  nursling  is  the  veriest  carnivorous  animal.  As  long  as  the 
epithelium  has  not  undergone  a  total  change,  the  secretion  is  not  milk,  but 
colostrum,  with  its  large  globules.  The  character  of  the  gland  influences 
the  milk,  much  more  than  food.  The  latter  influences  milk  only  by  build- 
ing up  the  gland,  the  cells  of  which  receive  materials  of  different  kinds, 
the  principal  of  which  is  albumen.  Where  too  large  an  amount  of  nitroge- 
nous material  is  received,  compared  with  carbohydrates,  the  proportion; 
of  albumen  destroyed  is  too  large,  and  the  result  may  be  that  both 
the  gland  and  the  production  of  milk  decrease.  Therefore,  the  propor- 
tion of  nitrogen  in  the  food  ought  not  to  be  disturbed  beyond  the  in- 
creased necessity  of  the  secretion.  A  moderate  amount  of  albuminous- 
substances  suffices  for  the  nursing  woman  and  the  nursling  both,  and  for 
both  the  fixed  and  the  circulating  albumen.  The  amount  of  the  latter  is- 
particularly  influenced  by  the  use  of  water.  Thus  the  favorable  influence 
on  the  amount  and  character  of  the  milk,  of  all  sort^  of  beverages,  is  easily 
understood. 

The  character  of  the  milk  is  beautifully  illustrated  by  its  chemical 
composition.  Its  ashes  are  tissue  ashes,  not  those  of  plasma,  for  they  con- 
tain much  potassa  and  phosphate  of  lime,  but  little  chloride  of  sodium. 

The  question  whether  medicinal  agents  will  appear  in  the  milk  is  not, 
therefore,  sufficiently  well  defined,  and  cannot  be  answered  either  affirma- 
tively or  negatively  as  long  as  the  milk  is  not  of  a  stable  quality.  Milk 
secreted  from  an  insufficient  mamma,  by  a  woman  not  in  full  health  and 


INFANT    HYGIENE. 


101 


vigor,  by  an  old  woman,  by  a  very  young  woman,  by  an  anremic  woman, 
by  a  convalescent  woman  who  has  used  up  a  large  portion  of  her  albumen 
both  in  circulation  and  in  the  tissues,  by  a  woman  soon  after  confinement, 
by  a  neurotic  woman  with  frequent  vaso-motor  disturbances — milk,  in 
fact,  which  is  not  mainly  composed  of  mammary  epithelium,  and  contains 
admixtures,  small  or  large,  of  transuded  serum,  is  apt  to  be  impregnated  with 
foreio-n  elements  circulatino-  in  the  blood.  The  indications  on  the  one  hand 
for  permission  to  nurse,  on  the  other  for  the  administration  of  medicines 
to  a  nursing  woman,  must  therefore  be  defined  with  a  greater  strictness 
than  is  usualty  the  case,  and  will  have  to  be  modified,  if  the  greatest 
good  is  to  come  from  nursing  to  the  young  infant.  The  good  results 
obtained  in  many  cases  by  artificial  feeding,  in  preference  to  nursing,  are, 
therefore,  more  than  accidental. 

The  milk,  then,  is  under  normal  circumstances,  and  always  ought  to 
be,  a  secretion  from  the  cells,  not  a  transudation  from  the  blood. 

The  difficulty  of  influencing  the  mammary  secretion  is,  however,  not 
equally  great  under  all  circumstances.  In  the  first  period  of  lactation  the 
glandular  transformation  is  not  yet  accomplished.  The  secretion  is  of  a 
different  nature.  It  requires  days  to  exhibit  casein.  Until  then  the 
protein  shows  the  nature  of  albumen.  At  the  same  time  the  percentage 
of  butter  and  salts  is  very  high  indeed,  both  of  which  explain  the  laxative 
character  of  colostrum.  No  less  do  macroscopic  and  microscopic  observa- 
tion convey  the  impression  of  its  being-  incomplete.  It  is  yellowish, 
thickish,  the  fat  globules  are  large,  unequal,  sticky,  and  mixed  with  epi- 
thelium almost  unchanged.  There  is  less  potassa  and  more  soda  than  in 
normal  milk,  approximating  it  to  the  chemical  character  of  plasma.  Be- 
sides, colostrum  of  the  cow  has  not  unfrequently  been  found  to  contain 
blood  and  to  coao-ulate  when  being-  boiled.     Thus  colostrum  ^  is  more  like 


Four  weeks 
before  part. 

Nine  days 
before  part. 

One  day 
after  part. 

Two  days 
after  part. 

Water 

945.24 
54.76 
29.81 

"'7!67 

17.27 

4.41 

858.55 

141.45 

80.73 

"23  ".47 

36.37 

5.45 

842.90 
157.10 



"5.12 

867.88 

Solids 

132.12 

Albumen 

Casein 

Butter 

Milk-sugar.    .        

'21 '.82 
48.63 
60  99 

Salts 

3.10 

a  transudation  than  a  glandular  secretion.  Such  colostrum,  as  stated 
above,  is  frequently  found  with  disturbances  in  the  general  health,  in 
anaemia,  fevers,  pregnancy,  or  advanced  age  of  mother  or  nurse.  Its 
administration  must  result  in  disturbing  the  health  of  the  nursling,  and 
therefore  the  greatest  attention  should  be  given  to  this  matter,  inasmuch 

'  Clemm's  Analysis  of  Colostrum. 


102  IJ^FAWT    HYGIElSrE. 

as  transudation  may  be  mixed,  at  almost  any  time  and  in  almost  any  pro- 
portion, with  the  normal  mammary  secretion. 

This,  then,  has  no  normal  standard,  neither  chemically  nor  physiologic- 
ally. That  a  mere  transudation  should  contain  all  sorts  of  material  cir- 
culating in  the  blood-plasma  is  evident.  Therefore  colostrum  is  apt  ta 
transfer  to  the  nursling  the  liquid  constituents  of  the  mother's  blood,  no 
matter  whether  normal  or  abnormal,  beneficial  or  injurious^  organic  or  in- 
organic. The  reports  of  infants  harmed  by  the  mother's  opiate,  influenced 
by  her  taking  mercury,  belong,  therefore,  mostly  to  the  earliest  period  of 
lactation,  or  to  a  period  of  sickness,  or  debility  on  the  part  of  the  woman. 
The  more  nearly  normal  the  mammary  secretion  the  less  the  danger  in  this 
resjDect,     Very  few  persons,  however,  are  ever  in  undisturbed  health. 

Another  point  still  is  worthy  of  remark.  Chemical  investigations  have 
been  made  almost  exclusively  on  the  breast-milk  of  animals.  Their  results 
are  sufficiently  various  indeed,  and  still  this  material  is  so  much  more  sta- 
ble than  the  milk  of  woman,  influenced  as  she  is  by  wealth  or  poverty,  idle- 
ness or  work,  rest  or  worry,  emotions  and  thoughts,  health  and  sickness. 

Selection  of  the  Wet-mirse. 

In  choosing  a  wet-nurse  we  should,  of  course,  see  that  she  has  "  good '^ 
milk  and  a  plenty  of  it.  The  obstetricians  vie  with  each  other  in  naming- 
with  great  minuteness  the  qualities  which  a  good  nurse  should  possess. 
Manifestly  a  nurse  with  mastitis,  sore  nipples,  or  acute  puerperal  disease, 
should  not  be  employed.  Such  conditions  would  be  an  objection  to  the 
mother's  nursing  her  own  child.  The  nipple  of  the  breast  should  be  so 
formed  that  the  child  can  lay  hold  of  it.  Whatever  be  the  extent  of  "the 
highly  vascular  surface  covered  with  secretory  epithelium  "  (as  the  mam- 
mary gland  was  lately  described  by  Boll),  if  the  nipple  be  too  small  a 
weakly  child  cannot  seize  it,  nor  can  a  strong  child  if  it  be  depressed.  The 
nipple  should  rather  be  too  large  than  too  small;  rarely  is  it  so  large  that  the 
child  is  unable  to  take  it  into  its  mouth.  It  should  be  well  developed  in 
every  respect  and  prominent.  The  breast  itself  should  be  to  the  touch 
rather  hard,  corded,  and  elastic — not  soft  and  flabby.  The  skin  should  be 
thin  and  transparent,  with  the  veins  plainly  showing  through.  By  slowly 
stroking  it  in  the  direction  of  the  nipple,  or  by  moderat  epressure,  the 
milk  should  flow  out  in  a  stream.  If  the  breast  has  not  been  emptied  for 
some  time  the  first  milk  that  appears  is  watery  and  bluish,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  just  after  the  breast  has  been  sucked  the  milk  is  whitish. 
Under  certain  circumstances  it  may  be  of  practical  importance,  in  selecting 
a  nurse  for  a  feeble  child,  to  choose  a  multipara;  her  milk  will  flow  more 
freely,  and  the  chances  are  that  she  will  know  better  how  to  tend  the  child 
than  would  a  primipara.  Generally  speaking,  the  age  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years  is  to  be  preferred.  The  nurse's  child  should  be  of  about  the  same  age 
as  that  of  the  foster-child. 

The  constituents  of  the  milk  vary  with  the  period  of  lactation,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  table  of  Vernois  and  Becquerel  : 


INFANT    HYGIENE. 


103 


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104  II^FANT    HYGIENE. 

Hence  the  casein  increases  to  the  end  of  the  seventh  month.  A  tem- 
porary increase  takes  place  in  the  eighth  and  twelfth  months.  The  butter 
decreases  from  month  to  month  with  slight  variations,  beginning  from  the 
fourth  month.  The  sugar  steadily  increases  and  reaches  its  highest  point 
in  the  eleventh  month. 

Still  the  nurse's  milk  will  not  always  suit  the  foster-child,  even  though 
the  age  corresponds,  and  occasionally  anothej  nurse's  milk  at  a  period  of 
lactation  not  corresjjonding  to  the  child's  age  will  answer  better.  The 
above  tabulated  figures  are  simj^ly  averages,  and  imply  no  invariable  law 
of  nature.  Not  unfrequently  the  physician  will  prefer  a  wet-nurse  whose 
child  is  a  little  older  than  the  child  she  is  employed  to  nurse.  He  will 
always  bo  cautious  about  choosing  one  just  delivered.  The  possibility  of 
the  nurse  or  her  breasts  becoming  subsequently  diseased,  or  of  the  non- 
appearance of  the  milk  secretion,  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  So 
the  rule  is,  whether  the  ages  of  the  two  children  differ  by  a  few  months  or 
not,  that  bluish  milk,  with  abundance  of  sugar,  should  be  chosen  for  younger 
children,  and  for  older  ones  milk  richer  in  casein  and  butter.  In  this 
connection  it  may  be  observed  that  by  testing  the  milk  itself,  even  though 
only  superficially,  we  obtain  a  better  estimate  of  its  character  than  by  any 
other  standard  (such  as  that  adopted  by  L.  Heritier,  who  claims  to  have 
discovered  a  marked  difference  between  the  milk  of  blondes  and  that  of 
brunettes').  The  best  criterion  for  the  milk  is  the  apjoearance  of  the 
nurse's  child — if  it  be  still  living. 

Wet-nurses,  whose  children  are  dead,  should  be  examined  with  partic- 
ular circumspection.  The  cause  of  death  should  be  ascertained  ;  whether 
it  was  a  constitutional  disease,  or  an  intestinal  catarrh — the  result  possibly 
of  an  excess  of  casein,  or  of  salts,  or  of  sugar,  in  the  milk.  Generally, 
even  though  the  child  may  have  been  dead  but  a  few  days,  the  milk  secre- 
tion will  have  notably  diminished  or  have  already  begun  to  dry  up.  For 
rarely  does  the  common  practice  of  sucking,  pumping,  or  milking  the 
breasts  out,  for  the  purpose  of  temporarily  keeping  up  the  secretion  till 
the  nurse  finds  a  place,  accomplish  its  object.  I  have  often  seen  the 
breasts  dry  up  entirely  under  these  circumstances.  In  such  a  case,  obvi- 
ously, much  less  will  be  accomplished  by  examination  with  the  micro- 
scoj)e  or  galactoscope  than  in  the  average  of  cases. 

Inquiry  into  the  general  condition  of  the  nurse  should  of  course  not 
be  neglected.  It  should  be  undertaken  in  the  same  way  as  we  would  ex- 
amine the  status  iwonsens  of  a  patient.  Whether  we  should  be  so  precise 
as  to  count  the  number  of  teeth,  or  particularly  note  the  shade  of  hair, 
may  be  left  to  the  taste  or  zeal  of  the  j^ractitioner.  The  nurse's  digestion  is 
generally  good,  and  her  appetite  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.     Particular 

Milk  of  blondes.  Milk  of  brtmettes. 

1  Water 892  853.3 

Butter 35.5  54.8 

Casein 10  10.3 

Milk-sugar 58.5  71.3 

Salts 4  4.0 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  105 

attention  is  of  course  to  be  directed  to  constitutional  diseases,  and  espe- 
cially to  syphilis.  But,  after  all,  it  is  clearly  impossible  in  any  particular 
case  to  undertake  to  guarantee  that  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk 
"will,  under  all  circumstances,  remain  satisfactory.  Both  will  depend  upon 
the  general  condition  of  the  nurse  and  partly  upon  the  care  she  receives. 

Diet  of  t/ie  JVurse. 

To  the  question  as  to  how  the  nurse's  food  shall  be  regulated  in  a 
manner  consistent  with  what  has  heretofore  been  said,  our  answer  can 
only  be  given  in  very  general  terms.  Strong  salts,  under  all  circumstances, 
are  to  be  avoided ;  hence  saline  cathartics,  and  the  immoderate  use  of 
common  salt,  as  "well  as  the  use  also  of  the  ethereal  oils  and  strong  spices. 
Further  to  be  aA'oided  are  all  those  things  which  may  retard  or  derange 
digestion  and  assimilation.  Generally  the  nurse  regards  her  place  as  a 
land  flo"wing  "u'ith  milk  and  honey,  where  the  birds  already  roasted  fly  into 
her  mouth — her  "  Canaan  "  and  her  "  Eldorado  "  together — and  she  con- 
tinues to  gorge  herself  long  after  the  appetite  has  ceased.  A  diet  that  is 
a  little  more  albuminous  than  usual  is  indicated  ;  but  if  it  contains  too 
much  albumen,  or  is  exclusively  albuminous,  it  will  be  unfavorable  to  the 
general  health  as  well  as  to  the  secretion  of  milk.  The  latter  is  promoted 
by  free  ingestion  of  fluids.  The  moderate  use  of  beer  is  often  advan- 
tageous as  a  stomachic.  Oatmeal  gruel,  barley-water,  and  milk  have  a 
twofold  effect,  depending  upon  the  water  they  contain  and  upon  their 
nutritious  ingredients.  Tea  is  useful  chiefly  for  the  water  it  contains. 
Potatoes  in  large  quantities  or  other  carbo-hydrates  should  not  be  used  as 
chief  articles  of  food.  A  moderate  quantity  of  fat  may  be  jDermitted.  It 
is  a  good  general  rule  that  the  diet  upon  which  the  nurse  has  flourished 
iiitherto,  if  a  certain  quantity  of  albuminous  food  be  added  to  it,  together 
with  an  abundant  supply  of  fluids,  makes  the  best  milk  and  the  largest 
quantity,  provided,  though,  that  her  mode  of  life  be  similar  to  what  it  has 
been  heretofore.  A  nurse  taken  from  the  hayfield  or  the  kitchen  and 
shut  up  in  a  lady's  boudoir  for  fear  lest  she  might  eat  an  unripe  apple, 
drink  a  glass  of  beer,  or  meet  her  sweetheart,  were  she  allowed  to  go  out, 
will  not  remain  iri  good  condition  nor  give  good  milk. 

According  to  these  principles  must  we  judge  of  the  value  of  certain 
articles  of  food  or  beverages  which  have  been  lauded  as  milk-producing 
agents.  Among  these  are  beer,  butter-milk,  milk,  chocolate,  broths,  legu- 
minous vegetables,  oysters,  crabs,  conger-eel  soup,  etc.  But  should  none 
of  these  dietetic  remedies  prove  of  any  avail,  we  next  resort,  with  more  or 
less  reason  and  with  more  or  less  confidence,  to  the  therapeutic  measures 
which  tend  to  pi^omote  the  secretion  of  the  milk.  C.  Gerner,  in  his  chapter 
(p.  45),  De  his  qicce  lactis  iihertatem  faciunt,  has  collected  all  of  the  cus- 
tomary remedies  in  use  in  his  own  and  even  in  Galen's  time.  Rosenstein 
recommended  a  remedy;  Huf eland,  a  milk-powder;  Moleschott,  the  chest- 
nut; Routh,  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  the  ricintis  communis^'  Gillilan, 
the  extr.  fol.  ricini ;  and  in  England  and  America  the  external  ai^i^lication 


106 


INFANT   HYGIENE. 


of  the  ricinus-leaves  gained  a  short-lived  popularity.  The  list  of  galacta- 
gogues,  which  Routh  presents,  makes  quite  a  formidable  appearance.  I 
cannot,  however,  from  any  success  of  my  own  with  these  remedies,  or 
from  that  of  others,  say  much  in  their  praise.  I  have  often  employed  the 
induced  current  of  electricity  to  increase  the  milk  secretion,  and  I  believe 
with  good  effect.  Inasmuch  as  the  benefit  derived  from  electricity  in 
these  cases  is  owing  to  the  increased  activity  of  the  circulation,  we  might 
anticijDate  even  better  effects  from  the  galvanic  current. 

Substitution  of  Animals'  Milk  for  the  Mother'^s  Milk. 

If  the  mother  is  unable  to  suckle  her  child  and  a  wet-nurse  is  not  to 
be  had,  what  shall  be  done  ?  The  child  should  have  some  kind  of  food  as 
nearly  homogeneous  with  the  breast-milk  as  possible.  In  this  connection 
we  must  take  into  consideration  the  chemical  composition  of  the  different 
kinds  of  milk,  together  with  the  practicability  of  obtaining  them.  The 
following  tables  show  the  mean  composition  of  human  milk  (from  184 
analyses),  and  of  cow's  milk  (from  128  analyses),  as  given  by  N.  Gerber: 


- 

Woman's  milk. 

Cow's  milk.- 

Water 

■  87.57 

1.95 

6.64 

•  3.59 

0.22 

86.23 

Casein  and  albumen 

3.70 

Sugar 

4.93 

Butter  .  .                      .                          

4.51 

Salts 

0.61 

According  to  Moleschott,  the  proportions  of  the  several  ingredients  of 
various  kinds  of  milk  in  1,000  parts  are  as  follows  : 


Woman's. 

Water 

889.08 

Solid  ingredients 

Casein 

110.92 
39.24 

Albumen 

Butter 

26.66 

Sugar. ...                  ... 

43.64 

Salts .  . 

1.38 

Cow's. 

Goat's. 

Sheep's. 

Ass's. 

857.05 

863.58 

839.89 

910.24 

142.95 

136.42 

160.11 

89.76 

48.28 
5.76 

33.60 
12.99 

j-    53.42 

20.18 

43.05 

43.57 

58.90 

12.56 

40.37 

40.04 

40.98 

j-    57.02 

5.48 

6.22 

6.81 

Mare's. 


828.37 
171.63 

16.41 

68.72 

86.50 

0.29 


Of  these,  with  rare  exceptions,  only  cow's  and  goat's  milk  are  ever  em- 
ployed. The  former  especially  has  come  into  very  general  use  as  infant's 
food,  on  account  of  its  being  so  easily  procured.  How  should  it  be  used  ? 
Should  it  be  boiled  or  not  ?  Should  it  be  diluted,  and,  if  so,  with  what  ? 
Or  are  there  certain  ingredients  in  cow's  milk  which  are  especially  useful 
and  desirable,  while  others  are  to  be  avoided  or  modified  ?  Can  anything  be 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  107 

added  to  the  milk  which  will  increase  its  nutrient  effect  or  tend  to  curtail 
its  objectionable  properties  ?  Finally,  is  there  anything  that  can  be  sub- 
stituted for  milk  either  wholly  or  partially  ?  All  of  these  questions  will 
in  turn  demand  our  attention. 

Milk  from  one   Cow. 

Is  it  better  for  the  infant  that  it  should  have  milk  always  from  one- 
and  the  same  cow  ?  This  question  cannot  be  answered  for  all  cases  alike. 
The  milk  of  a  pasture  cow  is  certainly  preferable  to  the  mixed  milk  of  a 
dairy  where  the  cows  are  stall-fed,  and  to  the  milk  that  is  sold  in  shops. 
Milk  kept  in  a  stationary  receptacle  is  not  always  uniform.  The  upper 
layer,  after  standing  for  some  time,  contains  more  cream  than  the  lower.. 
But  the  milk  of  a  cow  kept  by  poor  people  and  fed  in  a  stall  is  certainly 
no  better  than  the  mixed  milk  which  is  found  in  a  dairy  and  is  sold  in  the 
neighboring  town.  Furthermore,  every  cow  has  its  individual  peculiarities 
in  health  and  disease,  the  same  as  a  woman.  I  have  always  preferred  to 
rely  upon  the  mixed  milk  from  a  dairy  than  upon  the  yield  of  a  single 
cow.  Unlooked-for  changes  in  the  cow's  health  or  in  the  constitution  of 
her  milk  are  liable  at  any  time  to  produce  unpleasant  effects  upon  the 
child  which  is  fed  with  her  milk,  not  to  speak  of  any  such  grave  disorder- 
as  the  murrain. 

Condensed  Milk. 

The  method  of  preparing  condensed  milk  with  the  admixture  of  such 
great  quantities  of  sugar  as  to  yield  from  39  to  48  per  cent,  of  sugar  in 
its  solid  ingredients  is  a  well-known  process.  With  regard  to  this  prep- 
aration, Kehrer  says  that  when  sufficiently  diluted  it  readily  induces  the 
formation  of  lactic  acid,  and  that  delicate  children  will  not  thrive  on  it. 
In  such  cases  he  deems  it  necessary  to  add  barley-water  or  oatmeal  gruel 
as  well  as  antacids.  Fleischmann  also  accuses  it  of  causing  a  predisposi- 
tion to  thrush  and  diarrhoea.  He  lays  stress  upon  the  fact  that  even 
when  it  has  been  properly  diluted  the  projDortion  of  the  protein  com- 
pounds to  the  carbohydrates  is  diminished,  and  thereby  its  nutritive  value 
impaired.  My  own  experience  with  condensed  milk,  which  has  been  rather 
extensive,  has  led  me  to  learn  that  when  diluted  simply  with  water,  even 
though  to  the  proper  degree,  it  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  disagreeable 
results  ;  although  the  influence  of  the  large  amount  of  sugar  does  not 
operate  in  the  manner  as  above  alleged.  For  the  sugar  which  is  added  to 
condensed  milk  is  not  the  easily  decomposed  milk-sugar.  Yet  catarrh  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels  is  a  frequent  result  of  its  use.  I  have  seen  few 
children  enjoy  undisturbed  health  who  were  fed  exclusively  upon  con- 
densed milk.  Those,  however,  who  take  it  mixed  with  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  barley-water,  either  regularly,  as  I  recommend,  or  in  cases  of  tem- 
porary necessity,  as  advised  by  Kehrer,  thrive  quite  well.  I  cannot  say 
that  I  have  been  able  to  discover  any  material  difference,  whether  con- 
densed milk,  or  good  ordinary  city  milk,  was  given  in  this  way.     But  it 


108  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

should  not  be  forgotten  that  barley-water  is  a  more  desirable  addition  to 
the  mixture  than  oatmeal  gruel,  because  of  the  laxative  effect  which  the 
latter  may  have.  If  the  condensed  milk  be  given  in  this  way,  we  need 
not  fear  a  repetition  of  Daly's  experiences.  He  found  that  children  took 
the  condensed  milk  readily,  and  grew  fat;  but  in  case  they  fell  sick  they 
showed  but  slight  endurance;  they  began  to  walk  late;  their  fontanelles 
were  slow  in  closing,  and  other  signs  of  rhachitis  showed  themselves. 

Boiled  Milk. 

It  is  known  by  experience  that  the  effect  of  boiling  the  milk  is  to 
check  its  tendency  to  become  sour,  and  to  abstract  a  portion  of  its  cream 
(casein  and  fat).  It  is  true  that  the  amount  thus  withdrawn  is  but  trifling; 
but  to  rely  on  spontaneous  separation  of  the  cream — which  then  could  be 
removed — is  dangerous,  because  while  cream  is  forming  on  the  surface 
the  whole  of  the  milk  is  turning  sour.  With  regard  to  the  diminution  of 
the  tendency  to  become  sour,  the  influence  of  boiling  the  milk  may  operate 
in  various  ways.  Certainly,  amphoteric  milk  becomes  alkaline  by  boiling. 
By  this  means,  also,  a  large  quantity  of  gas  (three  per  cent.,  according  to 
Hoppe,  consisting  of  CO^55,15-N40,56-O4,29)  is  expelled  from  perfectly 
fresh  milk;  and  the  loss  of  oxygen  in  that  way  tends  to  diminish  the  for- 
mation of  lactic  fluid.  This  escape  of  gas,  together  with  the  slight  alter- 
ation in  taste,  is  doubtless  the  foundation  of  the  religious  aversion  with 
which  boiling  the  milk  is  regarded  in  many  quarters  :  "It  destroys  a  cer- 
tain volatile  principle,  of  unknown  nature  to  be  sure,  but  which  unques- 
tionably is  beneficial  in  its  effect."  ' 

For  the  reasons  given  above,  I  believe  that  the  effect  of  boiling  the  milk 
is  beneficial.  The  abstraction  of  gas  certainly  contributes  to  protect  the  milk 
from  such  influences  as  those  described  by  Lawson  Tait.  He  found  that 
milk  left  in  open  vessels  took  the  odor  of  substances  in  its  vicinity.  Should 
fungi  be  present,  boiling  would  either  destroy  them  or  at  least  temporarily 
prevent  their  development.  Bechamp  claims  to  have  found  alcohol  and 
acetic  acid  in  the  mammary  gland  itself.  Von  Hessling  has  published 
observations  concerning  the  development  of  mould  in  milk,  which  are 
interesting  as  showing  that  the  milk  could  be  so  permeated  with  the 
germs  as  to  communicate  their  poisonous  nature  to  the  coffee  to  which  it 
was  added;  those  taking  coffee  without  milk  were  not  affected.  Falger 
considered  it  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  milk  as  free  from  vegetable 
germs  as  possible,  to  have  it  milked  directly  into  bottles  that  could  be 
tightly  corked  immediately  afterward,  and  even  recommended  a  special 
apparatus  for  antiseptic  milking  and  for  preserving  the  milk  hermetically 
sealed.  In  addition,  but  lately,  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  and  infectious  dis- 
eases in  general,  have  been  reported  as  the  results  of  diseased  milk.  If 
all  this  is  anything  more  than  accident  or  caprice,  we  may  be  thankful 
that  in  the  simple  procedure  of  boiling,  we  have  the  means  of  rendering 

'  Barret,  p.  4G.     Routh. 


12iFANT   HYGIENE.  101) 

the  milk  safer  and  more  digestible.  Under  all  circumstances  I  forbid  that 
infants  shall  be  fed  on  raw  milk.  A  portion  of  the  fat  and  casein  can  and 
should  be  dispensed  with,  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  postponed  or  pre- 
vented, and  disease  germs  destroyed. 

Goafs  Milh. 

The  disparity  in  the  results  obtained  by  chemical  examinations  of 
goat's  milk,  and  in  the  methods  even  of  examination,  is  fully  in  keeping- 
with  the  diversity  in  the  clinical  results.  The  fact  that  goat's  milk  is 
generally  so  easily  procured  has  favored  the  accumulation  of  clinical  in- 
vestigations concerning  its  use.  Were  the  advantages  of  goat's  milk  as 
real  as  by  many  observers  they  are  believed  to  be,  surely  public  opinion 
would  long  ago  have  declared  in  its  favor.  People  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
let  the  children  suck  directly  from  the  goat;  such  extravagance  has  not 
been  reached  yet  with  regard  to  cow's  milk.  My  own  experience  is  not 
favorable  to  goat's  milk.  The  extreme  richness  in  fat  renders  it  indiges- 
tible, and  the  offensive  odor  is  often  objectionable.  It  is  now  a  long- 
time since  I  have  seen  children  fed  with  it.  Hauner's  experience  with 
res-ard  to  g-oats  as  wet-nurses  is  likewise  unfavorable.  Infants  never 
thrived  on  the  milk.  Two  remained  weak  and  thin;  the  others  did  not 
retain  it;  they  vomited  and  had  diarrhoea,  and  were  obliged  to  have  other 
nourishment.  The  writers  on  the  subject  do  not  agree  even  as  to  the 
chemical  and  physical  constitution  of  the  solid  ingredients  of  the  milk. 
Kehrer  having  asserted  that  goat's  milk  was  affected  by  the  artificial 
gastric  juice,  the  same  as  cow's  milk — an  assertion  that  I  have  myself 
very  often  verified  clinically — it  was  disputed  by  Kraus,  who  thought 
that  the  coagula  which  form  from  goat's  milk  under  the  action  of  rennet, 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  were  much  more  like  the  caseine  of  woman's  milk 
than  like  that  of  cow's  milk. 

After  all,  as  the  only  animal  milks  which  can  be  substituted  for  wo- 
man's milk,  when  this  is  wanting,  are  goat's  or  cow's  milk — ass's  or  mare's 
milk  being  out  of  the  question,  because  of  their  scarcity — the  latter  re- 
quires further  consideration  as  to  its  capability  of  serving  as  an  available 
substitute  for  human  milk. 

Cold's  Milk  and  Woman^s  Milh  Compared. 

The  differences  between  the  two  are  unexpectedly  great.  Human 
milk  is  alkaline;  the  reaction  of  cow's  milk  appears  doubtful  at  every 
moment.  hX  all  events,  authors  do  not  express  uniform  opinions.  D'Ar- 
cet  and  Petit  found  cow's  milk,  when  the  animal  was  fed  in  the  stable, 
always  acid;  in  pasture,  always  alkaline.  According  to  some,  as  Bruno 
Kerl  and  F.  Stohmann,  the  milk  begins  to  turn  acid  in  the  udder.  So 
believes  Zahn,  w^ho  explains  the  formation  of  casein  out  of  the  albumen 
of  the  milk  by  the  incipient  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the  udder. 

Hennig  succeeded  in  obtaining  alkaline  milk  by  proper  feeding.     The 


110  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

question  is  perhaps  best  answered  by  observations  of  Soxhlet  and  Heintz, 
who  first  discovered  the  so-called  amphoteric  reaction,  which  depends 
upon  the  relative  amount  of  bi-phosphate  of  potassa  and  the  two-thirds 
j^hosphate  of  potassa,  which  is  a  common  constituent  in  the  milk.  The 
former  has  the  quality  of  coagulating-  casein.  Where  it  preponderates, 
milk  coagulates  more  easily,  and  has  an  acid  reaction.  If  it  is  warmed 
again,  it  becomes  alkaline.  The  point  of  practical  importance  lies,  there- 
fore, in  the  fact  that  cow's  milk  is  frequently  slightly  acid  ;  milk  taken 
from  cows  fed  in  the  stable  being  always  so.  This  is  one  reason  why  it 
becomes  so  frequently  necessary  to  use  antacids  in  feeding  children. 

The  second  difference  between  the  two  milks  relates  to  the  jDercentage 
of  sugar.  There  is  more  sugar  \n  human  milk,  with  less  casein  and  butter. 
Hence  its  bluish  color,  and  part  of  the  purgative  effect  of  colostrum.  Its 
percentage  is  particularly  high  in  the  milk  of  angemic  women.  When,  as 
frequently  occurs,  the  solid  constituents  are  diminished,  diarrhoea  is  a  fre- 
quent result. 

The  transformation  of  milk-sugar  into  lactic  acid  takes  place  very  rap- 
idly, and  explains  why  cow's  milk  turns  acid  within  a  short  time.  This 
change  does  not  take  place  in  cane-sugar,  at  least  not  to  the  same  extent. 
For  that  very  reason,  cane-sugar  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  milk. 
It  is  through  it  that  condensed  milk  remains  unaffected  for  some  time. 
For  this  reason  it  is  not  at  all  indifferent  whether  milk-sugar  or  cane- 
sugar  is  added  in  artificial  feeding.  It  has  been  said  that  milk-sugar  is 
preferable;  first,  because  it  is  a  natural  constituent  of  natural  milk;  and, 
second,  because  it  contains  phosphates.  But  it  is  a  fact  of  much  greater 
importance  that  milk-sugar  turns  to  lactic  acid  in  a  very  short  time;  that 
Ihus  an  excess  of  acid  accumulates  in  the  stomach;  that  through  it  pro- 
tein coagulates  and  is  rendered  indigestible,  and  that  it  loosens  alkalies 
and  lime  from  its  phosphoric  combination,  thereby  eliminating  phosphoric 
acid  before  the  proper  time,  and  gives  rise  to  diarrhoea  and  rhachitis. 

This  should  be  a  sufficient  reason  why  milk-sugar,  as  an  addition  to 
that  which  is  found  in  cow's  milk,  should  he  careftdly  avoided,  and  should 
be  replaced  by  cane-sugar. 

The  third  difference  is  that  there  is  less  butter  in  the  milk  of  the 
woman  than  in  that  of  the  cow.  The  immediate  conclusion  that  may  be 
•drawn  from  this  fact  is  that  cow's  milk  should  be  deprived  of  some  of  its 
fat,  and  none,  as  some  have  it,  adcTed  to  it. 

I  know  that  the  jDrobable  reason  for  their  recommendation  was  the  at- 
tempt at  restoring  the  equilibrium  between  the  fat  and  casein;  but  the 
increase  of  butter  is  a  dangerous  procedure.  Even  in  human  milk  it  is  a 
constituent  of  doubtful  value. 

Fat  is  digested  by  the  pancreas.  It  is  decomposed  into  glycerine  and 
fat  acids.  The  glycerine  combines  with  phosphoric  acid  to  make  glycero- 
phosphoric  acid.  The  fat  acids  are  saponified  with  alkalies  found  in  the 
intestinal  tract. 

The  pancreas,  however,  acts  only  when  the  contents  of  the  intestine  are 
alkaline,  or  nearly  so.    This  alkaline  condition  is  the  result  of  the  presence 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  Ill 

•of  the  phosphate  of  soda.  "Where  there  is  acid  in  the  intestines,  the  effect 
of  the  pancreas  is  set  at  naught;  or,  at  all  events,  lime  is  washed  out,  and 
the  formation  of  bones  is  retarded.  Not  only  do  the  bones  suffer,  however, 
but  also  the  blood  and  muscles  are  wanting-  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid. 

This  condition,  known  by  the  general  name  of  rhachitis,  is  then  the 
result,  either  of  original  absence  of  phosphates  in  the  food,  or  still  more 
frequently  of  excessive  formation  of  acid  in  the  intestinal  tract.  Thus  it 
is  that  rhachitis  is  so  frequent  a  result  of  chronic  digestive  disorders.^ 

The  latter,  however,  is  much  more  frequent  than  the  former;  for  there 
are  verv  few  infant  foods  which  do  not  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of 
phosphates  for  the  wants  of  the  organism.  In  a  very  young  child  the  con- 
tents of  the  intestinal  tract,  however,  are  seldom  so  alkaline  as  they  should 
be  for  normal  pancreatic  digestion.  In  fact,  normal  fjeces  are  very  apt  to 
be  acid.  There  is  always  some  acetic,  stearic,  butyric,  ca^^ric,  capronic, 
and  caprylic  acid  contained  in  them. 

Hoppe-Seyler  found  free  acids  in  the  faeces  of  dogs  and  adults. 

AVegscheider  met  with  them  in  nurslings  who  received  nothing  but 
mother's  milk.  Their  percentage  depends  very  probably  upon  two  causes 
— either  the  quantity  of  food  introduced  into  the  stomach  is  too  large,  or 
the  quantity  of  digestive  fluid  is  too  small.  From  what  we  know  from 
direct  experiments  upon  the  diastatic  effect  of  the  pancreas  in  small  chil- 
dren, we  are  entitled  to  conclude  that  the  function  by  which  it  digests  fat 
is  limited  at  that  as  at  any  other  age.  This  is  not  only  a  conclusion  justi- 
fied d  2)riori,  but  direct  investigations  of  Wegscheider  led  him  to  the 
following  important  results  :  fats  are  not  completely  absorbed;  one  part 

'  The  question,  if  by  the  introduction,  into  the  digestive  organs  of  an  animal,  of  lac- 
tic acid,  the  bones  can  be  deprived  of  lime,  is  certainly  an  important  one.  When  lactic 
acid  is  introduced  into  the  system,  or  when  it  is  formed  by  the  normal,  or,  more  fre- 
quently, by  an  abnormal,  process  of  digestion,  can  it  inflaence  the  osseous  system  ? 
E.  Heiss  (Z.  f.  Biol.,  XII.)  reports  the  following  experiment :  A  dog,  one  and  a  half  years 
old,  and  weighing  4,701  grms.,  was  fed  through  308  days  on  44,983  grms.  of  meat, 
5,961  of  pork,  and  2,28(3  of  lactic  acid.  When  he  was  killed,  he  weighed  4,076  grms. 
Meanwhile,  the  amount  of  lime  and  magnesia  contained  in  his  urine  and  fteces  amounted 
to  just  the  sum  introduced  ;  thus  certainly  lactic  acid  eliminated  no  lime  or  magnesia. 
The  relative  weights  of  the  organs,  secretions,  and  blood  were  not  changed.  There 
■was  no  anomaly  of  the  bones,  particularly  no  rhachitis  or  osteomalacia. 

We  have  to  conclude,  then,  that,  as  but  little  lactic  acid  was  eliminated,  the  latter 
is  decomposed  in  the  system.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  is  it  not  possible  that  lactic  acid, 
slowly  and  irregularly  formed,  should  act  differently  from  what  lactic  acid,  introduced 
from  outside,  is  known  to  do  ?  If,  however,  lactic  acid  is  to  act  on  the  bones,  it  cannot 
reach  them  exce^jt  through  the  circulation.  Neither  lymph  nor  blood  is  acid,  and  cer- 
tainly contains  no  lactic  acid.  Thus  certainly  the  bones  are  in  perfect  safety  so  far  as 
any  danger  on  that  score  is  concerned.  The  theory  that  formation  of  lactic  acid  is  a 
sufficient  cause  for  rhachitis,  inasmuch  as  it  washes  out  the  phosphate  of  lime  from  the 
bones — a  theory  which  has  been  upheld  by  our  townsman,  Dr.  Heitzmarm — is  there- 
fore much  less  plausible  than  it  looks  on  first  sight.  For  it  is  true  that  lactic  acid 
will  dissolve  bone  in  the  tumbler  ;  but  in  the  organism  it  cannot  get  at  the  bones  ;  it 
is  decomposed  before  it  is  ready  for  an  attack.  Besides,  rhachitis  is  by  no  means  a 
simple  chemical  process.  If  it  were,  we  coiild  change  a  healthy  bone  into  a  rhachiti- 
cal  one  in  a  chemical  laboratoiy. 


112  INi'ANT    IIYGIEjStE. 

leaves  the  iutestine  in  a  saponified  condition  ;  a  second  part,  as  free,  fatty 
acid ;  a  third,  as  fat  in  an  unchanged  condition. 

"SYhepe  no  food  is  given  but  mother's  milk,  which  contains  fat  in  pro- 
portionately smaller  quantities  than  cow's  milk,  and  finely  suspended  and 
easily  absorbed,  a  good  deal  of  fat  is  eliminated. 

There  is  no  sugar  in  such  faeces,  but  a  great  deal  of  mucine.  What  has 
been  called  milk  detritus  in  the  fiieces  is  not  all  undigested  casein,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  mostly  fat,  and  very  probably  remnants  of  intestinal 
epithelium.  This  milk  detritus,  so-called  casein,  and  mainly  consisting  of 
olein,  margarin  and  stearin,  is  not  soluble  in  water,  acids,  or  alkaline,  but 
very  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 

Practically  this  fact  is  of  the  ver}^  greatest  importance.  Fat  is  ]iot 
completely  absorbed  under  the  most  normal  circumstances.  Fat-acids  are 
easily  formed,  and  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  found 
in  moderate  quantities  in  even  the  healthiest  nurslings.  Superabundance 
of  fat-acid  is  a  common  derangement  of  digestion  and  assimilation,  and  it 
impedes  the  previously  normal  secretion  of  other  digestive  fluids.  Thus, 
there  is  a,  j^las  of  fat,  even  in  the  normal  food  of  the  nursling,  the  breast- 
milk. 

The  conclusion,  then,  is  that  Ave  have  to  be  verg  careful  in  the  ])repara- 
tion  of  artificial  food.  It  is  almost  certain  that  we  give  too  much  fat ;  it 
is  scarcely  ever  prohahle  that  there  is  too  little.  Therefore  the  addition 
of  cream  is  reprehensible,  no  matter  in  what  shape.  "Whenever  cream  and 
cream  mixtures  have  been  recommended,  inventors  and  backers  have  always 
made  the  statement  that  such  mixtures  are,  "  as  a  rule,"  well  tolerated. 
It  is  a  doubtful  praise,  however,  that  food  should  be  simply  well  tolerated, 
"as  a  rule."  The  fact  alluded  to  has  probably  been  the  cause  why  Liebig" 
has,  in  his  artificial  food,  only  fortg  per  cent,  of  the  fat  contained  in 
mother's  milk. 

Fourth. — The  addition  of  water  to  cow's  milk,  boiled  or  not,  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  sugar,  has  always  been  the  first  means  of  render- 
ing cow's  milk  more  similar  to  woman's  milk.  The  thousands  of  recom- 
mendations of  measurements  and  percentages  found  in  books  and  journals- 
are  but  repetitions  of  what  women  of  all  countries  have  put  in  practice. 
There  are  many  large  institutions  in  which  children  are  not  given  any 
other  food  except  this  mixture  of  milk  and  water.  Is  this  addition  bene- 
ficial, indifferent,  or  injurious  ?  Is  it  useless  ballast,  molesting  the  skin 
and  kidneys,  and  soiling  linen,  or  does  it  mean  something  else  ? 

The  influence  of  absorption  and  elimination  of  water  has  been  thor- 
oughly studied.  Water  and  urea  stand  in  a  positive  relation  to  each 
other.  Bischoff  found  an  increase  of  urea  with  an  increase  of  elimination 
of  water  through  the  kidneys  in  man  and  in  the  dog.  Genth  experimented 
upon  himself  with  the  same  result. 

Whenever  animals  are  to  be  fattened,  water  is  refused.  The  accumu- 
lation of  fat  is  the  result  of  a  morbid  condition.  Neither  the  child  nor 
the  adult,  however  is  to  be  fattened.  Where  lively  metamorphosis  of 
tissue  is  required,  water  is  indicated. 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  113 

Not  only  is  water  necessary  as  regards  elimination,  but  also  for  diges- 
tion and  particularly  for  secretion  of  an  effective  pepsine.  The  amount  of 
secreted  pepsine  depends  to  a  great  extent  ujDon  the  nature  of  the  ingesta. 
It  is  considerably  increased  by  injections,  into  the  veins,  of  solutions  of 
sugar,  of  digested  meat,  and  particularly  of  dextrine.  Such  is  the  effect 
of  soup  taken  before  our  meals.  As  soon  as  milk  is  introduced  into  the 
stomach,  water  and  the  dissolved  sugar  and  most  of  the  salts  are  absorbed 
and  pepsin  is  secreted. 

Butter  does  not  find  its  digestive  element  in  the  stomach,  but  must 
wait  for  the  action  of  the  bile  and  the  pancreas  in  the  intestinal  tract. 
Casein,  however,  remains  in  the  stomach  to  wait  for  the  influence  of  the 
digestive  fluids,  which  require  a  large  amount  of  water.  It  is  an  old  ob- 
servation that  water  facilitates  the  digestion  of  casein. 

When,  in  experiments,  digestion  ceases,  the  digestive  process  recom- 
mences as  soon  as  water  is  added,  with  an  increased  secretion  of  pep- 
sin. Any  cavise  rendering  milk  more  concentrated  disturbs  digestion; 
therefore  condensed  milk  requires  great  dilution.  Frequency  of  nursing 
at  the  breast  of  the  mother  or  wet-nurse  renders  milk  condensed  and  in- 
digestible by  increasing  the  amount  of  casein. 

Hot  weather,  fever,  menstruation  of  nursing  women,  all  have  the  same 
effect.  While  the  secretion  of  acid  in  the  stomach  depends  mostly  upon 
the  introduction  of  solid  substances,  the  formation  of  pepsin  depends  prob- 
ably upon  the  introduction  of  liquids. 

When  adults  do  not  tolerate  liquids,  the  cause  is  to  be  sought  for  in 
the  improper  relation  of  acids  and  water,  which  should  be  about  four  parts 
in  a  thousand.  The  introduction  of  a  small  quantity  of  muriatic  acid,  or, 
perhaps  better,  of  solid  food  with  chloride  of  sodium,  will  be  the  remedy. 
This  disproportion  is  not  so  frequently  met  with  in  children.  They  have 
a  natural  tendency  to  the  formation  of  acid.  Milk-sugar  turns  into  lactic 
acid  at  once.  A  very  trifling  digestive  disorder,  resulting  from  changes  in 
the  digestive  surface  or  in  the  introduced  food,  results  in  the  secretion  of 
mucus  and  the  production  of  acid. 

The  presence  of  large  quantities  of  farinaceous  foods  is  still  more  apt 
to  give  rise  to  fermentation  and  the  formation  of  acids.  Children  who 
partake  of  them  indiscriminately  and  freely,  suffer  a  great  deal  from  a  super- 
abundance of  acid  in  the  whole  intestinal  tract,  but  scarcely  from  the  ab- 
sence of  acid.  Now,  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  a  fact  that  infants,  as  a  rule, 
are  not  given  water  to  drink.  We,  moreover,  know  that  in  the  first  few 
months  of  their  lives  but  little  liquid  is  secreted  in  the  mouth  which  might 
have  a  local  effect  in  the  stomach.  Thus  we  can  say,  positively,  that  in- 
fants are  very  much  more  liable  to  have  too  little  vmter  in  their  food  than 
too  much.  This  is  the  most  important  reason  why  the  food  of  infants 
should  be  given  in  great  dilution — in  greater  dilution,  certainly,  than  the 
usual  rules  found  in  the  books  would  permit.  At  all  events,  it  is  well  that 
children  should  have  plenty  of  water  in  their  food.  We  must  not  forget 
that,  as  a  rule,  they  obtain  it  only  in  their  milk.  No  matter  whether  it  be 
winter  or  summer,  hardly  ever  is  there  a  mother  or  a  nurse  who  imagines 
Vol.  I.— 8 


114  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

that  a  child  can  be  thirsty  without  being  hungry  at  the  same  time.  Much 
discomfort  and  a  good  deal  of  sickness  is  a  result  of  the  fact  that  in- 
fants must  eat  in  order  not  to  be  thirsty,  and  have  frequently  to  go 
thirsty  because  an  over-exerted  and  disordered  stomach  will  not  accept 
any  more  food.  That  has  been  the  reason  why  in  the  rules  and  regulations 
for  infants,  as  published  by  the  New  York  Board  of  Health  for  the  last 
half-dozen  years,  I  have  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  mothers  the  neces- 
sity of  now  and  then  giving  some  water  to  their  children. 

Fifth. — The  casein  of  cow's  milk  and  the  casein  of  woman's  milk  are 
two  different  substances.  When  isolated  by  alcohol,  by  which  both  are 
thrown  out  of  their  combinations  to  a  certain  extent,  the  chemical  proper- 
ties are  found  to  differ  widely.  Thus  obtained,  cow's  casein,  when  moist, 
is  white;  when  dry,  yellowish.  It  reddens  litmus-paper,  and  acidulates 
water,  in  which  it  is  soluble  in  the  proportion  of  1-20.  Woman's  casein, 
however,  in  its  moist  condition,  is  yellowish,  alkaline,  or  neutral,  and  dis- 
solves almost  entirel}"  in  water,  the  solution  being  of  neutral  reaction. 
Vierordt  and  Biedert  found  the  quantity  contained  in  the  two  milks  to 
differ,  there  being  less  in  woman's  milk  than  in  cow's  milk. 

When  exposed  to  artificial  gastric  juice  they  also  act  differently.  In 
a  surplus  of  it  woman's  casein  is  dissolved  in  a  short  time;  cow's  casein 
in  twenty-four  hours.  Mineral  acids,  lactic  acid,  acetic  acid,  tartaric  acid, 
Epsom  salts,  phosphate  of  lime  in  solution,  coagulate  cow's  milk  in  hard  and 
dense  masses;  not  so  human  milk.  Solutions  of  both  kinds  of  casein  in 
alkalies  show  many  similar  properties;  but  the  sediment  produced  by  the 
addition  of  lactic  acid  can  yield  essential  differences.  Thus  there  is  a  chemi- 
cal as  well  as  a  physical  difference  between  the  two  species  of  casein.  Al- 
though their  relation  to  artificial  gastric  juice  has  not  been  found  to  differ 
to  that  extent  by  Dr.  C.  P.  Putnam,  of  Boston,  it  is  upheld  by  a  number  of 
other  observers,  and  the  fact  becomes  clear  that  pure  cow's  casein  is  very 
much  less  digestible  than  human  casein.  At  all  events,  it  should  be  so 
considered,  and  infants  should  have  only  as  much  casein  as  proves  digesti- 
ble. One  of  the  alleged  means  of  combating  the  improper  effect  of 
casein,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is  to  increase  the  relative  amount  of 
fat  by  adding  it  to  the  food.  It  is  true  that  in  this  way  a  more  proper 
relation  of  the  two  can  be  obtained,  but  certainly  no  more  proper  relation 
of  the  two  to  the  insufficient  condition  of  the  infant  digestive  organs. 

Besides,  the  addition  of  cream  to  either  casein  or  fresh  milk  has  some- 
thing very  doubtful  about  it,  as  at  the  time  when  cream  has  formed 
upon  milk,  by  simply  allowing  it  to  stand,  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  is 
going  on  all  the  time.  At  all  events,  no  addition  we  know  of  can  render 
cow's  casein  more  digestible  than  Nature  made  it,  and  the  only  thing 
which  can  be  obtained  by  any  sort  of  treatment  of  the  milk  is  to  make  it 
less  injurious.  Perhaps,  however,  the  plan  upon  which  Dr.  J.  Rudisch  has 
acted  may  recommend  itself  to  the  attention  of  the  practitioner.  In  order 
to  make  cow's  milk  more  digestible,  he  has  introduced  into  my  practice  a 
mixture  which  promises  to  be  of  great  value  in  all  those  cases  in  which 
coagulability  of  the  milk  is  the  prominent  obstacle  to  its  usefulness.    The 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  115 

mixture  suggested  by  him,  and  used  by  us  up  to  this  time  mainly  in  dis- 
eases of  adults,  such  as  ana3mia,  gastric  catarrh,  ulcer  of  the  stomach, 
slow  convalescence,  etc,  is  the  following  :  to  one  pint  of  water  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  officinal  dilute  muriatic  acid  is  to  be  added.  To  this  mix- 
ture add  one  quart  of  raw  cold  milk;  mix  the  two  liquids  thoroughly  and 
then  boil  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  I  have  found  this  preparation  to  be 
very  digestible,  and  tolerated  well  by  very  feeble  digestive  organs.  Clini- 
cal experience  not  only  favors  this  preparation,  but  it  is  also  favored  by 
direct  experiments.  When  liquid  pepsine  is  added  to  common  milk,  coagu- 
lation takes  place  very  rapidly,  and  in  thick  coherent  masses.  The  same 
liquid  jjepsine,  when  added  to  the  above  mixture,  produces  so  slight 
coagulation  that  it  can  scarcely  be  observed.  The  coagula  also  are  small, 
and  do^not  adhere  firmly  to  each  other.  Essence  of  rennet  coagulates 
common  milk  speedily  and  completely;  the  above  mixture  more  slowly 
and  not  so  completely.  The  coagulation  of  common  milk  exhibits,  after 
a  certain  time,  thick,  dense,  and  firmly  coherent  masses.  The  coagula 
produced  by  the  above  mixture  are  fine,  loose,  and  are  easily  separated 
when  the  liquid  is  shaken. 

Valuable  as  this  preparation  of  cow's  milk  may  prove  in  future,  there 
is  one  method  for  m.aking  cow's  milk  more  available,  which  is  at  once 
simple  and  effective.  No  cow's  milk  ought  to  be  administered  without 
the  addition  of  chloride  of  sodium.  Not  only  cow's  milk,  but  also — and 
even  much  more  so — farinaceous  admixtures  to  cow's  milk  require  its 
presence  in  the  food. 

Chloride  of  Sodium. 

The  part  which  salt  plays  in  nutrition  is  an  exceedingly  important  one. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  animals  which  receive  a  certain  amount  of 
salt  (30-50  grms.  to  a  weight  of  1,000  lbs.)  are  disposed  to  take  a  larger 
quantity  of  fodder  than  without  it,  and  that  the  fodder  is  not  only  improved 
thereby  in  taste,  but  apparently  also  in  its  nutritive  effect.  "  But  we 
have  little  positive  knowledge  as  to  whether  the  salt  promotes  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  fodder,  or  certain  of  its  component  parts,  or  whether  it  has 
no  effect  in  this  respect  "  (E.  Wolff).  The  fact  undoubtedly  is  that  the 
presence  of  the  salt,  by  inducing  greater  activity  in  the  chemical  changes, 
causes  an  increased  demand  for  food;  the  food  already  in  the  intestines  is 
better  digested  and  absorbed,  and,  when  excreted,  it  has  undergone  greater 
modifications.  Carnivorous  animals  have  not  the  same  need  for  salt  as 
the  herbivorous.  The  food  of  the  latter,  while  containing  all  the  other 
mineral  substances  necessary  to  the  animal  organism,  and  in  more  or  less 
appropriate  combinations,  is  relatively  deficient  in  salt.  There  is  a  marked 
disproportion  between  the  sodium  and  potassium.  The  amount  of  sodium 
and  chlorine  in  the  food  of  carnivora  and  herbivora  is  about  the  same  for 
each ;  but  the  food  of  the  herbivora  contains  twice  or  four  times  as  much 
potassium  as  that  of  the  carnivora.  Hence,  an  accumulation  of  potassa 
salts   (phosphatic,   etc.)  takes  place  in  the  blood;   this  accumulation  re- 


116  II^^FANT   HYGIENE. 

quires  the  chloride  of  sodium  to  neutralize  them,  so  that  they  may  be 
eliminated.  When  Bunge '  took  large  quantities  (18.24  grms.)  of  phos- 
jjhate  and  citrate  of  potassa  for  two  days,  he  lost  half  of  his  sodium  in 
circulation.  On  the  next  day  A'ery  little  Avas  excreted,  because  he  had 
first  to  make  up  for  the  loss. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  vegetable  food  con- 
tains more  potash  (and  less  soda)  than  milk,  and  the  milk  of  herbivora 
more  than  the  milk  of  carnivora — facts  of  vast  importance  with  regard  to 
the  prejJaration  of  artificial  food  for  the  human  suckling. 

In  the  infant  body  the  physiological  effect  of  salt  is  both  immediate 
and  remote  in  its  character,  whether  it  be  supplied  directly  in  the  mother's 
milk,  of  which  it  is  an  important  component  part,  or  is  added  as  a  seasoning 
to  vegetable  food.  A  portion  of  the  salt  taken  may  be  absorbed  in  solu-« 
tion,  but  a  portion  is  unquestionably  decomposed  to  form  another  soda  salt 
and  hydrochloric  acid  (Beneke).  The  latter,  which  is  a  normal  ingredient 
of  the  gastric  fluid,  serves  directly  as  a  stimulant  to  the  secretion  of  the 
glands,  facilitates  digestion  and  excites  the  appetite.  The  superabundant 
acid  that  passes  into  the  intestinal  canal  unites  with  the  soda  of  the  bile, 
which  it  meets  in  the  duodenum,  forming  chloride  of  sodium  again,  which, 
in  turn,  is  dissolved  in  the  fluids.  Here  now  begins  its  chief  function, 
which  consists  in  the  osmosis  from  the  surface  into  the  villi  and  blood- 
vessels; from  the  villi  into  the  blood;  from  the  serum  into  the  blood- 
corpuscles;  from  the  blood  into  the  tissues,  and  back  again.  The  homo- 
geneous albuminoid  substances  do  not  penetrate  the  cellular  walls  or 
interstices,  but  the  heterogeneous,  crystallizable  substances  in  solution 
can  penetrate  them,  bearing  with  them  also  the  albuminoid  bodies,  both  into 
and  out  of  the  cells.  Everywhere  it  is  the  salt  which  renders  possible  the 
processes  of  development,  both  progressive  and  retrograde.  Moreover, 
the  effect  of  salt,  in  very  moderate  quantities,  is  apparent  to  the  chemist 
and  to  the  clinical  observer.  More  water  will  be  excreted  from  the  kid- 
neys, though  no  more  has  been  supplied  to  the  body  by  drinking.  And  with- 
out more  water  being  ins^ested  the  amount  of  urea  will  be  increased,  that  is, 
the  metamorphosis  of  albumen  will  be  increased  (by  4.7  per  cent,  when  in- 
gested in  moderate  quantity),  in  consequence  of  the  more  rapid  flow  of 
the  parenchymatous  fluids.  Of  course  rapidity  of  the  flow  will  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  salt  present.  A  large  amount  will  hasten  the  meta- 
morphosis of  albumen,  and  necessitate  the  ingestion  of  more  water,  thereby 
increasing  the  excretion  of  urea  and  carbonic  acid;  hence,  at  the  same 
time,  it  will  diminish,  on  the  one  hand,  the  amount  of  albumen  in  the  tissues 
and  in  circulation,  and,  on  the  other,  the  respiratory  material — the  carbo- 
hydrates. Further  than  this,  they  stimulate  the  surface  secretion  in  an 
enormous  degree.  In  the  Journal  filr  Kinderkrankheiten  of  the  yeai- 
1873,  an  example  of  mother's  milk  is  mentioned,  which  contained  eight  per 
cent.  (!!)  of  salt,  and,  before  the  discovery  of  the  cause,  the  suckling  had 
been  brought  by  diarrhoea  to  the  borders  of  the  grave. 

'  Zeitschr.  f.  Biol.,  IX.,  104,  1873  ;  X.,  137,  395,  1874 


INPANT   HYGIENE.  117 


An  imal  /Substitutes  for  Milk. 

Certain  writers  liave  recommended  that  when  milk  alone  or  milk 
mixed  with  water  has  failed  to  produce  a  satisfactory  state  of  nutrition, 
an  animal  diet — meat-broths,  eggs  and  milk,  etc. — should  be  resorted  to 
at  an  early  period. 

Milk  and  Meat-hrotlis. — Bretonneau  reported,  as  early  as  1818,'  that, 
when  children  in  the  hospital  at  Tours,  who  were  suffering  with  "tabes 
mesenterica,"  were  fed  with  milk  and  meat-broth,  they  got  well  of  the  dis- 
ease. Vaucquelin  found  that  a  mixture  of  cow's  milk  and  meat-broth  was 
the  next  best  thing  to  woman's  milk.  Jager  also  recommends  this  mix- 
ture, but  with  the  very  ambiguous  remark  that  the  addition  of  farinaceous 
material  to  cow's  milk  makes  "  vegetable  milk  still  more  vegetable,"  add- 
ing that  when  children  are  fed  with  meat-broth  and  milk  the  teeth  seldom 
appear  before  the  eighth  and  usually  not  before  the  twelfth  or  sixteenth 
month ;  but  we  are  finally  assured  that  the  nutrition  of  the  bones  is  not 
thereby  disturbed,  and  that  that  of  the  teeth  is  actually  improved;  for, 
though  the  eruption  of  the  permanent  teeth  is  delayed,  when  they  finally 
do  appear  they  are  all  the  better  developed. 

JBeef-tea. — In  connection  with  the  above  recommendations  to  combine 
meat-broth  with  the  child's  milk  or  with  its  food  generally,  I  deem  it  op- 
portune to  call  attention  to  an  article  of  diet  by  which  unquestionably  a 
great  deal  of  harm  has  been  done.  I  refer  to  beef-tea.  It  has  come  very 
largely  into  use  in  practice  among  children  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Great  Britain.  In  Germany,  too,  it  has  found  very  many  advocates,  and 
among  some  who  have  abandoned  the  obsolete  notion  that  when  prepared 
in  the  customary  way  it  contains  a  large  projDortion  of  protein  in  its  com- 
position. It  must  be  remembered  that  this  form  of  meat-extract  contains 
a  very  large  amount  of  salts,  and  that  the  direct  effect  of  these  upon  the 
intestinal  canal  may  be  productive  of  very  unjoleasant  consequences.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  give  it  when  the  intestines  are  irritated  or  very  suscejjtible  of 
irritation,  for  the  reason  that  diarrhoea  is  ajot  to  directly  follow  its  use. 
Nevertheless,  I  have  often  seen  beef -tea  given  under  these  very  circum- 
stances with  no  other  object  than  the  vain  one  of  furnishing  the  child 
with  a  great  amount  of  nourishing  food.  This  is  very  commonly  done 
during  the  obstinate  and  exhausting  diarrhoea  of  summer.  If  the  people 
insist  upon  giving  it,  and  there  is  no  special  contraindication  to  its  use, 
it  should  be  administered  only  in  connection  with  some  well-cooked  fari- 
naceous vehicle,  and  the  best  of  all  for  this  purpose  is  barley-water;  or 
it  may  be  mixed  with  beaten  white  of  egg,  but  no  more  salt  should  be 
added.  For  the  main  danger  in  beef-tea  is  the  concentrated  form  in 
which  its  salts  are  given.  They  must  be  expected  to  result  in  diarrhoea. 
This  "  beef -tea,"  so  common  with  us,  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  beef- 
tea  as  recommended  by  Liebig,  which  is  but  a  maceration  of  beef  in  cold 
water  with  a  small  amount  of  muriatic  acid. 

'  Nouv.  Journ.  Med.-Chir.  Pharm.,  Aout. 


118  INEANT   HYGIENE. 

A  vast  improvement  of  this  has  been  introduced  into  my  practice  by 
Dr.  Rudisch.  Some  ounces  of  tenderloin,  very  finely  cut,  are  macerated, 
and  frequently  stirred,  in  a  tumbler  full  of  water  (6  or  8  ounces)  mixed 
with  6  or  8  drops  of  diluted  muriatic  acid,  for  about  an  hour.  After  that 
the  mixture  is  boiled  ten  minutes.  Not  only  is  the  taste  pleasant,  but 
the  percentage  of  the  active  constituents  of  the  decoction  is  much  greater. 

JButtermilk. — Buttermilk  also  has  been  regarded  as  an  important  ele- 
ment of  the  infant's  diet.  While  others  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  in- 
creasing the  amount  of  butter  in  cow's  milk,  Ballot  removed  the  butter 
entirely.  To  a  litre  of  buttermilk  a  spoonful  of  fine  wheat  flour  was  added; 
the  mixture  was  then  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  until  a  thin  gruel  was  made; 
0.8-1  grm.  of  sugar  was  added.  If  diarrhoea  occurred,  rice  was  to  be  used 
in  place  of  the  flour.  It  is  not  stated  whether  diarrhoea  was  expected  as 
a  matter  of  course,  or  whether  wheat  flour  and  rice  are  to  be  taken  as  the 
equivalents  of  each  other.  This  diet  was  begun  as  early  as  the  third 
week  after  birth,  in  order  that  the  child  might  become  accustomed  to  it 
sufficiently  early.  Ballot  gave  it  to  his  own  children,  and  many  followed 
his  example.  It  is  stated  also  that  the  same  mixture  was  given  to  the 
nursing  infants  in  the  Children's  Hospital  in  Rotterdam.  A.  Van  Mans- 
veld  also  claimed  to  have  had  good  results  with  it  in  three  cases. 

Egg  ^fixtures. — Beno  Martini  gives  a  recipe  for  a  mixture  of  yolk  of 
egg  and  sugar  with  water,  which  is  intended  as  a  substitute  for  mother's 
milk,  for  a  later  period,  when  the  child's  age  would  correspond  to  breast- 
milk  of  the  following  composition,  viz. :  water,  87-90  parts;  fat,  2-4;  pro- 
tein, 1|~3.  He  proposes  another  mixture,  which  he  claims  to  have  tested. 
It  is  composed  of  one  yolk  of  egg  (15  grms.),  100  grms.  of  water,  and  6 
grms.  of  milk-sugar,  which  is  equivalent  to  water,  89;  fat,  3.7;  protein, 
2.0;  milk-sugar,  5.0.  A  little  chlorate  of  potash  should  be  included  in 
this,  inasmuch  as  the  albumen  of  .hen's  egg  contains  no  potash,  though 
doubtless  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  phosjDhates. 

A  recipe  somewhat  similar  to  the  above  is  that  of  C.  A.  Coudereau. 
It  is  as  follows:  sulphate  of  potash,  0.5;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1.0;  honey, 
100;  water,  300;  8  fresh  eggs  (  =  375  grms.).  These  ingredients  are  to  be 
well  shaken  together,  and,  finally,  250  parts  of  lime-water  are  to  be  added. 

During  the  siege  of  Paris,  Bouchut  recommended  this  mixture:  the 
yolk  of  an  egg  with  a  little  white  of  egg,  and  15  grms.  of  cocoa  butter,  to 
be  beaten  together,  and  one-half  litre  of  warm  sugar  and  water  to  be  then 
added.  At  the  same  time,  Dubrunfaut  gave  the  following  recipe:  half 
a  litre  of  water  of  a  temperature  from  50°  to  60°  C,  40-50  grms.  of  sugar, 
20-30  of  dry  albumen,  1-2  of  soda,  and  50-60  of  olive-oil.  Gelatine 
might  be  substituted  for  the  albumen  in  this  emulsion.  Tua  proposed 
horse-fat  instead  of  olive-oil.  Gaudin  recommended  the  fat  and  also  the 
gelatine  that  is  obtained  by  boiling  bone.  We  doubt,  with  Sanson, 
whether  oil  is  as  digestible  as  the  butter  of  breast-milk.  We  congratulate 
ourselves,  indeed,  that  the  circumstances  of  the  times  do  not  give  rise  to 
such  want  and  general  distress  as  to  necessitate  a  resort  to  such  extraor- 
dinary mixtures  as  these. 


INFANT   HYGIENK  119 

The  eg'g-drink  recommended  by  Hennig  consists  of  200  grms.  of  boiled 
•water,  with  which  a  fresh  white  of  egg  is  beaten  at  a  blood-heat,  and  a  little 
salt  is  added.  If  the  child  was  somewhat  advanced  in  age,  raw  yolk  of 
egg  and  milk  were  added.  The  mixture  answered  very  well  in  case  of 
diarrhoea.  Raw  white  of  egg"  was  added  advantageously  to  any  kind  of 
infant's  food  Avhere  there  was  diarrhoea.  Hennig  does  not,  however,  urge 
its  employment  in  all  cases,  and  refrains  from  promising  any  wonderful 
effects.  I  am  personally  convinced  that  his  recommendation  of  the  white 
of  an  egg  is  not  overdrawn.  For  twenty  years  I  have  often  fallen  back 
upon  it  as  a  valuable  aid  in  saving  life.  In  the  many  instances  in  which 
cow's  milk  is  not  tolerated,  the  white  of  an  egg  comes  in  as  my  sheet- 
anchor,  principally  in  the  severe  cases  of  gastro-intestinal  summer  catarrh, 
in  which  milk  is  not  tolerated  at  all,  and  must  be  discarded  entirely.  In 
such  cases  I  mix  the  white  of  one  egg  w^ith  a  cupful  of  barley-water  and  a 
little  salt,  and  usually  sugar;  on  special  indication,  with  the  required  dose 
of  brandy.  Of  this  the  baby  takes  a  teaspoonful  every  five  or  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes.  In  this  place  I  will  merely  say  that  I  know  that  I  have 
saved  many  a  baby's  life  in  this  manner. 

Vegetable  Substitutes  for  Breast-milJc. 

When  animal  substitutes  proved  unavailing,  or  could  not  be  obtained, 
vegetable  ones  were  looked  for.  Great  difSculties  arose  from  their  com- 
position and  indigestibility.  Particularly  is  it  the  starch  contained  in 
vegetable  substances  which  proved  an  obstacle  to  their  use.  We  need 
not  refer  here  to  the  history  of  the  attempts  of  proving  their  usefulness  or 
injuriousness,  nor  to  the  millions  of  infants  that  have  been,  and  are,  immo- 
lated on  the  altar  of  ignorance  and  recklessness.  What  concerns  us  here 
is  the  question,  to  what  extent — according  to  physiological  laws — starch, 
or  substances  containing  starch,  can  be  used  as  infant  food,  or  as  addi- 
tions to  infant  food. 

After  a  number  of  experiments  and  literary  statements  of  Bidder 
and  Schmidt,  Ritter  von  Rittershain,  Jorg,  and  myself,  Korowin  made 
a  number  of  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  effects  of 
the  salivary  glands  with  those  of  the  pancreas.  He  treated  starch  with 
infusions  of  both  the  pancreas  and  the  parotid  glands.  The  result  was 
this,  that  the  pancreas  obtains  the  power  of  transforming  starch  into  sugar 
at  a  later  time  than  the  parotids.  No  such  effect  was  exhibited  by  the 
pancreatic  infusion  in  the  first  month,  but  a  noticeable  one  in  the  second, 
and  a  measurable  one  in  the  third.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  dias- 
tatic  effect  of  the  pancreas  is  fully  developed.  The  parotid  infusion,  how- 
ever, is  effective  from  the  first  day  of  life,  particularly  in  well-developed 
infants.  Small  pieces  of  sponge  were  introduced  into  the  baby's  mouth, 
and  withdrawn  after  a  while.  It  took  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes  to 
collect  a  cubic  centimetre  of  saliva  in  the  mouth  of  infants  of  from  two 
to  four  weeks,  the  tenfold  time  of  what  was  required  in  infants  of  three 
months.     Now  and  then  the  secretion  would  stop,  after  having  been  dis- 


120  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

tiiictly  active,  for  a  little  ^yllile.  Seventeen  babies,  of  from  one  to  ten 
days,  yielded  a  diastatic  saliva.  The  number  of  his  quantitative  experi- 
ments amounted  to  130.  The  diastatic  effect  of  the  saliva  of  an  infant 
of  eleven  months  was  as  marked  as  that  of  his  own. 

Korowin  also  published  the  results  of  a  second  series  of  experiments 
and  observations,  with  the  same  results.  Zweifel's  conclusions  are  similar, 
and  are  besides  cajjable  of  illustrating  certain  morbid  conditions.  The 
infusion  of  the  submaxillary  gland  of  a  young  infant  yielded  no  transfor- 
mation of  starch  into  sugar  after  an  hour's  contact.  The  infusion  of  the 
parotid  of  a  baby  of  seven  days  proved  effective  after  four  minutes,  that 
of  an  infant  of  eighteen  days  who  died  of  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  and  that 
of  a  foetus  of  the  ninth  month  of  utero-gestation,  after  foi'ty-five  minutes. 
No  diastasis  was  produced  by  the  parotids  of  a  jirematurely  born  child  dead 
of  diarrhoea  and  debility,  of  a  fcetus  of  three  months,  and  of  one  of  four 
months.  Thus  it  becomes  evident  that  age,  development,  or  sickness,  with 
diminished  amount  of  fluid,  is  of  great  moment  in  changing  the  diastatic 
effect  of  the  salivary  glands.  Still  it  is  evident  that  from  the  first  days 
of  life  starch,  in  small  amounts,  can  be  digested ;  that  in  a  few  months 
after  birth  such  vegetables  as  contain  starch  in  moderate,  but  not  over- 
whelming percentage,  may  be  used  as  additional  infant  food.  At  the 
same  time,  we  must  not  forget  that  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that 
every  particle  of  ingesta  should,  in  all  instances,  be  digested  and  assimi- 
lated. That  is  impossible;  the  very  breast-milk  contains  such  amounts  of 
fat,  for  instance,  that  it  cannot  all  be  digested  and  absorbed.  The  re- 
quirement is  only  that  not  enough  should  remain  undigested  to  encumber 
and  irritate  the  intestinal  tract. 

Farinacea. 

The  selection  of  a  diet  which  is,  at  the  same  time,  glutinous  and  nutri- 
tious, will  not,  perhaps,  be  so  difficult  as  it  appears  at  first  sight.  The 
farinacea,  which  chiefly  contain  starch  in  large  quantity,  such  as  potatoes, 
rice,  and  arrow-root,  must  naturally  be  excluded.  I  have  employed  very 
few  of  the  large  number  of  these  articles,  selecting  them  for  the  great 
quantity  of  protein  substances  which  they  contain. 

Moleschott  gives  the  following  data: 

Protein  substances  in  wheat,  135;  barley,  123;  rye,  107;  oatmeal,  90 ;  maize,  79; 
rice,  51. 

Starch  in  rice,  S23  ;  maize,  637  ;  wheat,  569  ;  rye,  555  ;  oatmeal,  503 ;  barley,  483. 

Fat  in  maize,  48;   oatmeal,  40 ;  barley,  xye,  wheat,  very  little. 

Salts,  chiefly  phosphates,  in  barley,  27;  oats,  26  ;  wheat,  20;  rye,  15;  maize,  13; 
rice,  5. 

Potash  is  found  especially  in  wheat,  magnesia  in  wheat  and  maize, 
lime  in  grits  and  barley,  iron  in  barley,  phosphoric  acid  in  barley  and 
wheat.^ 


'  The  table  compiled  by  Barrett  from  Peligot.  Fresenius  and  Boussingault,  gives 

the  following  results,  which  are  quite  accurate  in  most  details : 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  121 

Maize  and  rice  must  be  excluded  from  the  list  given  below,  on  account 
of  their  large  percentage  of  starch.  Barley,  wheat,  rye,  or  oatmeal  are 
preferable  for  their  large  percentage  of  protein  substances  ;  barley,  oats, 
and  wheat,  for  their  richness  in  salts  ;  iron  is  only  present,  in  appreciable 
quantities,  in  barley  and  oatmeal. 

Wheat,  barley,  and  oatmeal  present  a  favorable  history.  Even  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  when  wheat  was  almost  unknown  in  the  north  of 
England,  barley  formed  the  ordinary  diet.  Even  at  the  present  time  these 
grains  form  the  chief  sustenance  in  many  districts  of  northern  Europe  and 
the  south  of  England,  in  Wales  and  Scotland,  and  of  ninety  per  cent,  of 
the  urban  laboring  classes  in  England.  Formerly  the  retinue  of  the  Eng- 
lish nobility,  and  almost  the  entire  agricultural  joopulation  of  England 
and  Scotland,  lived  almost  exclusively  off  oatmeal  (Letheby  on  Food,  p. 
11).  Moleschott  states  that  thirty-six  ounces  of  barley  are  sufficient  nu- 
triment for  a  hard-working  man.  Dujardin  and  Beaumetz  (and  after- 
wards Dussein)  are  enthusiastic  chamjDions  of  oatmeal  and  of  its  great 
importance  in  the  nutrition  of  infants.  They  recommend  the  use  of  the 
Scotch  cereal.  After  being  threshed,  the  grain  should  be  dried  in  a  stove, 
the  husks  removed,  and  the  grains  should  be  crushed  rather  than  ground. 
The  fine  strained  meal  is  the  part  used  for  children.  They  found  the  pro- 
portion of  the  nitrogenized  to  the  non-nitrogenized  substances  in  this 
meal  as  10  :  38  (in  woman's  milk,  10  :  35;  in  cornmeal,  10  :  50),  and  they  lay 
especial  stress  upon  the  amovmt  of  iron  in  oatmeal,  which  far  exceeds 
that  contained  in  wheat  bread  or  in  cow's  milk  (0.0131  as  oj^posed  to 
0.0048,  or  0.0018). 

The  list  of  farinaceous  articles  has  not  been  exhausted,  but  there  are 
none  others  which  conform  better  to  our  conception  of  an  ideal  nutritive  sub- 
stance (one  part  nitrogen,  three  to  four  non-nitrogenized  elements).  Wheat 
flour  has  been  employed  in  the  preparation  of  most  children's  foods.  It 
contains  more  starch  than  barley  or  oatmeal,  and  has,  therefore,  given  rise 
to  real  or  pretended  endeavors  to  convert  the  starch  into  dextrin  and  sugar 
before  its  passage  into  the  stomach.  The  smaller  quantity  of  starch  in 
barley  and  oatmeal  renders  this  superfluous,  and  they  can  be  employed  in 
commerce  without  previous  preparation.  Oatmeal  was  particularly  rec- 
ommended by  the  earlier  writers  as  a  form  of  infant  diet.  Van  Swieten 
bestows  especial  praise  upon  it,  and  T.  Herbert  Barker  placed  it  at  the 
head  of  articles  of  diet.'     I  have  always  preferred  barley  whenever  it  be- 


Wheat.  Barley.  Rice.  Uve. 

Water ..13.6  13.9  7.3  14.7 

Starch 60.8  48.06  83.0  65.1 

Dextrine,  sugar 10.5  7.63 

Gluten 13.5  13.18  7.15  13.5 

Fat 1.1  0.34    .         0.7  3.0 

Cellulose 1.5  13.34  1.0  3.3 

Salts .      ...  3.56  0.5  3.4 

'  "  In  placing  oatmeal  gruel  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  farinaceous  foods  I  am  guided  by 
my  own  observation  of  its  utility.     Such,  indeed,  is  my  confidence  in  its  value  that  if 


122  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

came  necessary  to  recommend  a  particular  article  of  diet,  because  oat- 
meal, on  account  of  its  larger  percentage  of  fat  and  mucin,  is  more  liable 
to  relax  the  bowels.  In  other  respects  the  chemical  composition  of  each  is 
so  nearly  the  same  that  it  would  be  immaterial  whether  we  chose  one  or 
the  other.  But  there  is  no  danger  to  which  little  children  are  so  liable  as 
that  which  arises  from  their  tendency  to  diarrhoea.  My  advice,  therefore, 
is  to  administer  barley  to  children  who  manifest  a  tendency  to  diarrhoea, 
and  oatmeal  to  those  having  a  tendency  to  constipation,  and,  whenever  a 
change  occurs  in  the  intestinal  functions,  to  give  one  or  the  other,  accord- 
ing as  constipation  or  diarrhoea  predominates.  Its  practical  importance 
will  sanction  the  introduction  in  this  place  of  the  remark  that  diarrhoea 
and  inilh-diet  are  inco')npatible,  and  that,  therefore,  when  barley  is  em- 
ployed on  account  of  the  presence  of  diarrhoea,  it  is  advisable  to  immedi- 
ately reduce  the  quantity  of  milk  present  in  the  nourishment,  or  to  tem- 
porarily abstain  from  its  use  altogether.  In  such  a  case  the  raw  white  of 
^^^  (with  or  without  brandy)  may  take  the  place  of  the  milk.  This  prac- 
tice has  carried  me  through  many  dangers  during  the  last  twenty  years, 
and  has  saved  the  life  of  many  a  child.  I  have  noted  with  pleasure  the 
success  which  H.  Demme  has  obtained  by  a  similar  practice  in  the  Child's 
Hospital  of  Berne. 

I  will  here  add,  also,  another  remark.  In  my  "  Infant  Diet  "  I  main- 
tained that  it  was  immaterial  whether  we  employed  the  ordinary  commer- 
cial barley  or  the  smaller  grain  which  had  been  deprived  of  the  husks. 
This  was  a  mistake.  I  had  been  led  to  believe  that  the  protein  substances 
and  the  starch  were  uniformly  distributed  in  barley.  Their  relation  is, 
however,  the  same  as  that  observed  in  other  grains,  i.  e.,  the  much  larger 
part  of  the  gluten  is  accumulated  in,  and  directly  underneath,  the  super- 
ficial layers.  According  to  Enzinger's '  latest  investigations  and  plates, 
the  body  of  the  barleycorn  immediately  adjacent  to  its  covering  mem- 
brane is  composed  of  large,  irregular  cells,  which  contain  albuminoid 
substance  and  no  starch.  Toward  the  centre  are  found  larger,  irregularly 
quadrilateral  cells,  which  contain  albumen  and  a  large  quantity  of  starch. 

I  were  restricted  to  the  use  of  any  one  article,  in  addition  to  milk,  for  bringing  up  a 
child,  it  should  be  this."  If  bad  companions  would  injure  a  good  cause  I  should  not 
refer  to  the  opinion  of  Mrs.  Baines,  who  insists  upon  the  use  of  farinaceous  articles  be- 
cause, since  the  food  of  man  and  beasts  is  different,  milk  must  differ  in  accordance 
with  that  difference.  "When  this  idea  will  be  thoroughly  understood,  and  this  great 
fact  of  natural  history  recognized,  we  will  understand  the  advantage  of  a  combination 
of  vegetable  substances  with  cow's  milk  as  the  most  suitable  article  of  infant  diet." 

^  The  membrane  covering  the  barleycorn  consists  of  small,  thick- walled  cells,  whose 
walls  are  poor  in  water  and  imbibe  it  with  difficulty.  This  imbibition  is  rendered  still 
less  by  the  presence  of  fat.  The  yellowish  color  is  due  to  the  presence  of  extractive 
matters.  The  husk  of  the  barleycorn  is  adherent  to  the  basal  bristle  at  that  end  of  the 
corn  at  which  the  root-seed  breaks  through.  The  bristle  opens  into  the  centre  of  the 
barleycorn  by  prolongations,  which  look  like  capillaries,  run  inward,  and  possess  great 
power  of  imbibition.  A  second  covering  is  devoid  of  a  thickened  layer,  and  readily 
imbibes  water ;  it  lies  within  and  parallel  to  the  first  covering,  except  at  the  place 
where  the  root-seed  makes  its  exit.  A  third  covering  is  bent  inwardly  from  the  pre- 
ceding.— Lorenz  Enzinger  :   Die  Anatomic  des  Gerstenkomes,  Leipzig,  1876. 


INFANT   HYGIENE.  123 

More  internally  are  found  even  larger  cells,  which  are  almost  entirely 
filled  with  starch.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  arrangement  is, 
therefore,  that  the  entire  barleycorn,  and  not  alone  its  inner  part,  must 
be  employed  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  prepared  commercial  barley, 
which  has  been  previously  made  ready  for  use,  is  characterized  by  its 
fineness  and  Avhiteness,  But  these  qualities  are  suspicious  characteristics; 
the  less  the  quantity  of  the  yellowish  glutinous  outer  layers  which  the 
barley  contains,  the  less  is  it  to  be  recommended.  The  prices  of  the  grain 
vary  in  such  a  manner  that  adulteration  by  refining  pays  very  well.  I 
would,  therefore,  recommend  that  the  barleycorn  which  is  employed  for 
infant  diet  should  be  ground  as  thoroughly  as  possible  in  a  coif ee-mill,  both 
in  order  to  diminish  the  period  necessary  for  cooking  it,  and  also  in  order  to 
retain  the  gluten.  It  is  even  jyreferahle,  for  very  yoimg  infants,  to  cooh 
the  barley  whole  for  hotn's,  thereby  to  burst  the  outer  layers  of  cells,  empty 
their  contents,  and  then,  by  straining,  to  get  rid  of  the  larger  part  of  the 
starch  which  is  found  toward  the  centre.  The  next  best  method  consists 
in  crushing  the  whole  grains  of  barley,  and  not  to  employ  the  so-called 
pearl  barley,  which  is  barley  minus  husk.  x\t  a  more  advanced  period  of 
life  the  latter  preparation,  with  its  greater  amount  of  starch,  will  suffice. 

The  addition  of  barley  or  oatmeal  to  properly  prepared  milk  presents 
certain  advantages  with  regard  to  the  amount  of  nourishment,  since,  if 
Moleschott  considers  the  ingestion  of  thirty-six  ounces  of  barley  as  suffi- 
cient for  an  adult  laboring  man,  the  addition  of  half  an  ounce,  or  on^ 
ounce,  of  this  article  is  not  an  insignificant  amount  for  a  young  child. 
C.  Voit  has  recently  made  an  exhaustive  study  *  of  the  nutritive  demands 
of  children  at  a  certain  age.  Semler  [UrndhrimysMlanz  der  Schioeiz, 
p.  6)  found  that  the  jjroportions  of  the  nutritive  elements  in  the  food  of  chil- 
dren up  to  the  age  of  fifteen  years  were  such  that  there  were  79  grms.  of 
albumen  to  20  grms.  of  fat  and  250  grms.  of  hydrocarbons  (nitrogenized: 
non-nitrogenized  ^  1  :  3.8).  For  children  from  the  ages  of  six  to  ten  years 
Hildesheim  found  69  grms.  albumen,  21  of  fat,  and  210  of  hydrocarbons 
(1  :  -3.6).  In  the  Munich  Orphan  Asylum,  in  which  the  children,  who  are 
subjected  to  both  bodily  and  mental  labor,  present  a  healthy  appear- 
ance, Voit  found  that  the  nutriment  contained  79  grms.  albumen,  35 
grms.  fat,  251  grms.  hydrocarbons  (1  :  3.9).  Finally,  he  has  carefully 
estimated  the  relation  which  exists  between  the  nutriment  required  by  a 
child  and  by  an  adult  (working  and  resting). 

Albumen.  Fat.        Hydrocarbons. 

A  child,  fet.  10-11  years,  23  kilogrm.,  requires .      79  35  251   =   1  :  3.9 

A  laboring  man  of  60  kilogrm.,  average 118  56  500   =   1  :  5.0 

at  work 137  173  352   =  1  :  4.7 

While  resting,  the  proportions  are  as  follows  : 

Albumen.  Fat.  Hydrocarbons. 

1,000  kilogrm.  child 343  152         1,091 

adult 228  120            586 

1  ITeber  d.  Kost  in  offentl.  Anstalten.     Zeitscbr,  f.  Biol.,  XII.,  I.,  1876. 


124 


INFANT   HYGIENE. 


We  therefore  find  that,  in  the  child,  given  weights  of  tissue  wliich  must 
carry  on  the  nutritive  processes,  and,  at  the  same  time,  appropriate  albu- 
men, fat,  and  salts,  require  a  larger  amount  of  albumen,  fat,  and  hydrocar- 
bons than  the  same  weights  in  the  adult  when  in  a  similar  condition  of 
rest.  50  per  cent,  more  of  albumen,  25  more  of  fat,  and  100  more  of  hydro- 
carbon, are  required  than  by  the  adult.  But  they  must  not  be  merely 
administered  to  the  child;  they  must  also  be  given  in  an  easily  digested 
form.  In  very  young  infants  the}'  should  be  given  in  the  same  or  similar 
condition  in  which  they  are  found  in  the  milk  of  the  human  female,  in 
which  the  projBortion  of  nitrogenized  to  non-nitrogenized  ingredients  is  as 
1 :  2.7.  We  should  not  deviate  too  far  from  these  proportions.  J.  Forster 
has  ariven  the  following-  table  : 


Age. 


7  weeks  . . . 
4-5  months 
1^  years . .  . 


Diet. 


Pap. 

Swiss  milk. 
Mixed. 


Albu- 
men. 


29 
21 
36 


Fat. 


19 
18 

27 


V      "     Proporti 


carbons, 


120 

98 

150 


1  :5.3 
1  :6.1 
1  :5.4 


The  large  proportion  of  1  :  6.1  is  undoubtedly  attributable  to  the  large 
quantity  of  sugar  which  "  Swiss  milk  "  contains.  To  what  extent  this 
sugar  is  iiseful,  immaterial,  or  injurious,  has  been  previously  referred  to. 
It  can  easily  be  shown  that,  under  certain  circumstances,  it  may  be  useful, 
that  occasionally  it  is  injurious,  and  that  it  is  rarely  an  indifferent  sub- 
stance. It  is  too  soluble  and  changeable,  and  too  readily  absorbed,  to  be 
an  indifferent  article.  It  differs  greatly  in  this  resj)ect  from  a  small  quan- 
tit}^  of  starch  Avhich  may  pass  harmlessly  through  the  intestines. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  and  with  farinaceous  foods,  or  admix- 
tures to  infant  food,  I  shall  refer  to  a  iev;  substances  the  nature  and  effect 
of  which  have  long  been  doubtful,  but  which  have  been  more  or  less  used 
among  infants  and  children  as  food,  or  as  an  addition  to  food. 


Gicni-arabic. 

Frerichs,  Lehmann,  and  Husemann  do  not  admit  that  any  change  oc- 
curs in  gum-arabic  in  the  human  body.  Gorup-Besauez  believes  in  its 
solubility,  but  not  in  its  digestibility;  hence,  if  gum-arabic  is  an  important 
aid  in  digestion,  it  is  for  one  reason  only,  namely,  that  it  acts  mechani- 
cally, and  renders  the  coagulation  of  milk  less  dense.  Of  late,  however, 
Uffelmann  has  made  some  experiments  with  a  solution  of  gum-arabic  of 
the  strength  of  eighteen  jDarts  of  the  gum  to  tico  hundred  of  water.  His 
experiments  were  made  upon  a  boy  upon  whom  gastrotomy  had  been 
performed,  thus  affording  opportunity  for  making  direct  observations. 
When  he  introduced  this  solution  into  the  boy's  stomach,  he  found  grape- 
sugar  after  some  time,  no  saliva  being  present.     The  same  transformation 


INFANT    Hl'GIENE.  125 

lias  been  observed  in  the  Muuicli  laboratory.     Tlie  experiiueiits  were  pub- 
lished in  the  Jour.  f.  Biol.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  59,  1874. 

Fifteen  grammes  of  the  above  solution  yielded  five  centigraimnes  of 
g'rape-sugar  after  forty-five  minutes;  thirty  grammes  gave  tioenty-ei(/Jit 
centigrammes  after  sixty  minutes.  The  liquid  taken  from  the  stomach  in 
the  latter  case  was  very  acid  indeed.  It  matters  not  whether  this  acid 
was  inside  of  the  stomach  previously,  or  was  developed  during  the  pres- 
ence of  the  gum-arabic  solution;  in  both  instances  it  aj^pears  that  the 
development  of  muriatic  acid  and  the  transformation  into  grape-sugar  go 
hand  in  hand.  It  is  possible,  then,  that  it  will  be  found  jDractical,  in 
those  cases  in  which  the  object  is  not  simply  to  mix  milk  with  gum-arabic, 
but  also  to  derive  benefit  from  the  digestion  of  the  gum,  to  add  a  small 
quantity  of  muriatic  acid. 

Gelatine. 

Gelatine,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  when  combined  with  milk  fulfils  two 
indications.  The  one  is  the  same  as  that  obtained  by  the  glutinous  con- 
dition and  effect  of  gum-arabic  and  farinaceovxs  articles  ;  the  other  is 
found  in  its  usefulness  as  a  tissue-building  material.  Guerard  quotes  Jean 
deLery,  who  speaks  as  follows:  "  Ayant  experimente  que  cela  (skins,  par- 
chemin)  vaut  au  besoin,  tant  que  j'aurais  des  collets  de  buffles,  habits  de 
chamois,  et  telles  choses  oil  il  y  a  sue  et  humidite,  si  j'estois  enferme  dans 
une  place  pour  une  bonne  cause,  je  ne  me  voudrois  pas  rendre  pour 
crainte  de  la  famine."  Papin  is  reported  to  have  made  the  offer  to  Charles 
II.  of  England  to  furnish  for  the  use  of  poor-houses  and  hospitals  "  un 
quintal  et  demi  de  gelee  "  with  "onze  livres  de  charbon."  This  offer  was 
refused  because  a  dog  was  paraded  before  Charles  wearing  a  sign-board 
containing  said  dog's  request  not  to  be  deprived  of  his  mess  of  bones. 

The  French  Academy  of  Medicine  has  taken  great  pains  to  discover  the 
properties  of  gelatine.  After  Magendie  in  1848,  Vrolik  in  1844,  Berard 
in  1850,  and  Edwards  and  Balzac,  had  published  their  reports  upon  the 
subject,  Guerard  comes  to  the  following  conclusions:  1.  That  gelatine  is 
very  nutritious  ;  2.  That  very  probably  it  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
process  of  building  up  cellular  tissue,  therefore  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  life.  Frerichs,  Metzger  and  de  Bary,  Schroeder, 
Kuehne,  and  Etzinger,  found  that  gastric  juice  changes  gelatine  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  loses  the  property  of  gelatinizing.  This  effect  was  not 
produced  when  it  was  treated  only  with  muriatic  acid.  On  the  other 
hand,  Imthurn  also  attributes  the  effect  to  the  influence  of  muriatic  acid. 
It  is  true  that  Meissner  and  Kirch ner  have  entirely  denied  the  change- 
ability of  gelatine  by  means  of  gastric  juice.  But  Gorup-Besanez  is  of 
the  opinion  that  gelatine  is  peptonized  in  a  similar  manner  with  the 
albuminates.  It  seems  that  Uffelmann  has  also  finally  settled  this  ques- 
tion. He  found,  in  the  gastrotomized  hoj,  first,  that  while  feverish,  and 
again  without  fever,  the  gelatine  was  speedily  dissolved  in  the  gastric 
juice.     It  was  so  modified  at  the  end  of  one  hour  that  it  would  no  longer 


126  INFAKT   HYGIENE. 

coagulate,  and  was  easily  diffused.  To  produce  this  change  by  means  of 
artificial  gastric  juice,  he  found  that  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours 
were  necessary,  and  in  both  instances  there  was  no  offensive  odor.  When 
the  experiment  was  performed  inside  of  the  stomach,  he  occasionally  ob- 
served the  presence  of  grape-sugar.  When  that  occurred  the  temperature 
of  the  body  was  elevated.  No  grape-sugar  was  ever  found  when  the  gela- 
tine was  exposed  to  the  action  of  artificial  gastric  juice.  Gelatine  digested 
in  gastric  juice  retains  its  essential  chemical  properties.  It  resembles  pep- 
tone inasmuch  as  it  is  not  precijoitated  by  acids,  and  polarization  results 
in  turning  to  the  left.  It  differs  from  peptone  inasmuch  as  its  diffusi- 
bility  is  less,  and,  when  dissolved  in  acetic  acid,  it  can  be  precipitated  by 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium.  It  is  so  much  like  peptone  that  its  digestibility 
can  hardly  be  doubted,  not  to  speak  of  the  direct  observations  made  by 
Uffelmann.  There  is  one  point,  however,  not  to  be  lost  sight  of,  and  that 
is  that  it  is  ajDt  to  putrefy,  and  therefore  requires  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  muriatic  acid.  The  latter  point  is  of  great  practical  impor- 
tance ;  for,  in  acute  diseases,  in  slow  convalescence,  in  antemia,  the  secre- 
tion of  pepsine  and  muriatic  acid  is  very  much  limited.  For  that  rea/ 
son  muriatic  acid  should  be  added  whenever  gelatine  is  given. 

Infant  Foods  offered  for  Sale. 

The  attempts  to  prepare  infant  foods  by  the  wholesale,  to  have  them 
ready  at  any  moment,  for  the  purpose  of  either  benefiting  the  young  infant 
or  the  manufacturer,  have  been  very  numerous  indeed.  If  I  give  promi- 
nence to  a  single  one,  I  do  so  only  for  the  purpose  of  making  some 
general  remarks  on  that  industry,  by  selecting  the  one  which  appears  to 
command  the  largest  sale  in  the  United  States.  Not  that  I  believe  it  to 
be  more  objectionable  than  the  rest,  but  because  it  is  impossible,  and 
useless,  to  fill  these  pages  with  the  names  and  titles  of  j^atent  articles. 

Of  all  the  number  of  "  infant  foods,"  but  a  single  one  bears  the  stamp 
of  a  scientific  name  or  object.  When  Liebig  prepared  his  food,  he  did 
not  pack  it  up  in  parcels  with  descriptive  lists  and  trade-marks,  but  he 
published  his  formula.  I  have  therefore  felt  justified  in  considering  it  in 
my  "Infant  Diet." 

Intestinal  Digestion. 

The  intestines  receive  all  the  cellulose,  all  of  the  starch  that  is  not 
transformed  into  sugar,  all  the  parapeptones  and  dyspeptones  from  pro- 
tein substances  (particularly  the  casein  of  the  milk),  all  of  the  butter, 
and  some  of  the  salts.  Some  of  these  materials  are  simply  absorbed,  some 
are  digested,  and  some,  either  changed  or  unchanged,  are  again  discharged. 
One  portion  of  the  intestines  does  not  digest;  it  merely  absorbs  water 
and  soluble  substances.  This  is  the  large  intestine.  Whatever  albumen 
or  sugar  it  takes  up  is  directly  excreted  again  by  the  kidneys.  Hence, 
when  injections  are  given  by  the  rectum  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  127 

nutriment  to  the  body,  the  sugar  and  starch  should  first  be  changed  into 
glucose,  the  milk  into  peptone,  and  the  fats  into  an  emulsion. 

The  structure  and  functions  o*f  the  infant's  intestines  present  numer- 
ous variations  from  those  of  the  adult.  The  glands  of  Lieberktlhn  are 
present,  but  fewer  in  number  and  less  developed.  The  submaxillary 
gland  and  also  the  pancreas  afford  us  examples  of  the  fact  that  organs 
may  exist  long  before  they  are  capable  of  fully  exercising  their  functions. 
The  villi  of  the  intestines  are  generally  abundant  and  large ;  it  is  said,  even, 
that  they  surpass  in  size  the  corresponding  structures  in  the  adult  (Berg). 
According  to  the  same  authority,  the  capillaries  also  should  be  larger 
(not  relatively  only,  but  absolutely)  than  in  the  adult.  Certainly,  Peyer's 
glands  are  not  numerous,  and  they  are  but  slightly  developed.  This  in- 
significant anatomical  development  answers,  indeed,  to  their  physiological, 
and  surely  also  to  their  pathological  importance;  for  that  important  form 
of  disease,  of  which  the  affection  of  Peyer's  glands  is  a  specially  marked 
feature,  is  exceedingly  rare  at  an  early  period  of  life,  and,  when  it  occurs, 
is  of  a  very  mild  character.  Abdominal  typhus  in  the  new-born  infant  is 
almost  unknown.  I  have  seen  but  a  single  case  myself,  and  scarcely  half 
a  dozen  well-authenticated  cases  occur  throughout  the  entire  periodical 
literature.  In  the  later  years,  from  the  third  year  on,  typhoid  fever  is 
common  enough,  but  usually  runs  a  mild  course.  For  the  present,  this  is 
all  that  need  be  said  of  the  intestinal  glands,  for  the  glands  of  the  large 
intestines  have  no  other  function  than  to  secrete  mucus.  The  muscular 
development  of  the  intestines  is  feeble.  The  intestinal  canal,  from  the 
stomach  (which  is  first  called  into  play  when  filled  with  air  at  the  first 
efforts  of  the  new-born  child  to  swallow)  to  the  anus,  is  not  awakened  to 
sufficient  activity  during  foetal  life  to  develop  its  muscular  system.  Ac- 
cording to  Zweifel,  the  occupation  of  the  intestines  with  meconium  takes 
place  by  slow  successive  stages.  In  a  foetus  of  three  months,  both  ileum 
and  cfecum  are  quite  empty.  At  four  months,  the  intestines  are  filled  up 
to  within  2  ctms.  of  the  cfecum.  In  the  fifth  month,  a  few  lumps  are  found 
in  the  colon.  The  imperfect  development  of  the  intestines  gives  rise  to 
a  variety  of  consequences.  Gases  develop  abundantly,  are  very  often 
neither  absorbed  nor  discharged,  and  thus  produce  colic.  Moreover,  by 
reason  of  its  feeble  development,  the  muscular  apparatus  of  the  intestines 
is  frequently  the  region  where  the  first  symptoms  of  general  disease  mani- 
fest themselves.  Rhachitis  very  often  shows  itself  in  the  muscular  layer 
of  the  intestines  earlier  than  anywhere  else,  and,  -vyhen  beginning  there, 
runs  a  very  protracted  course.  Occasionally,  too,  the  tendency  to  obsti- 
nate constipation  may  be  explained  by  this  same  muscular  weakness. 
This  affection  may  also  be  owing  to  other  peculiarities  in  the  infantile 
intestines.  There  is  a  vast  difference  in  length,  relatively,  between  the 
intestines  of  the  infant  at  birth  and  those  of  the  adult. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  intestinal  canal  is  developed  in  the  embryo  in  separate 
sections.     Until  the  fourth  or  fifth  month  there  is  no  colon  ascendens,  and  it  is  still ' 
short  even  at  the  child's  birth.     Notwithstanding  this  the  large  intestine  of  the  foetus 
at  birth  is  comparatively  longer  than  that  of  the  adult.     While  in  the  infant  it  is  always 


128  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

nearly  three  times  the  length  of  the  entire  body,  in  the  adult  it  is  but  twice  the  length 
of  the  body.  Equally  great  is  the  disproportion  in  length  between  the  small  intestines 
of  the  adult  and  those  of  the  young  child,  In  the  ninth  month  of  foetal  life  the  small 
intestine  is  twelve  times  as  long  as  the  length  of  the  body  (Meckel),  while  in  the  adult 
it  is  only  eight  times  as  long.  Inasmuch  as  the  colon  ascendens  is  very  short,  and  the 
transversum  also  not  long,  the  principal  part  of  the  excessive  length  falls  upon  the 
sigmoid  flexure,  which  Brandt  found  to  be  once  only  8  ctms.,  to  be  sure,  though  once 
it  was  24  ctms. ,  but  on  an  average  from  14  to  20  ctms.  in  length.  I  have  myself  seen 
it  as  much  as  30  ctms.  long.  The  great  length  of  the  lower  part  of  the  large  intestine 
gives  rise  to  a  number  of  convolutions,  instead  of  the  simple  sigmoid  curve,  and  this 
may  become  of  great  significance.  Concerning  the  position  of  this  portion  of  the  in- 
testines, different  opinions  have  been  expressed.  Cruveilhier  and  Sappey  regarded  the 
location  of  the  sigmoid  flexure  on  the  right  side  as  anomalous.  Huguier  declares 
that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  sigmoid  flexure  is  found  in  the  right  iliac  fossa. 
Bourcart  states  that  the  transverse  position  of  the  colon  descendens  in  the  child  at 
birth  is  exceptional  (1  in  5) ;  that  in  one  case  in  six  the  sigmoid  flexure  lies  behind 
the  abdominal  waE  on  the  right  side ;  that  in  150  cases  he  found  it  144  times  lying  in 
the  left  iliac  fossa,  and  that  in  four  per  cent,  of  the  cases  the  sigmoid  flexure  did  not 
touch  the  abdominal  wall  either  on  the  right  side  or  the  left,  but  nevertheless  was 
nearer  the  left  side  than  the  right.  Again,  Freund  believes  that  in  the  first  year  the 
flexure  passes  over  to  the  left  side,  and  that  prior  to  this  time  the  rectum,  passing  up 
along  the  median  line  of  the  sacrum,  turns  to  the  right.  My  own  observations  have 
taught  me  to  look  for  the  (or  one)  sigmoid  flexure  in  the  right  side  of  infants. 

Causes  of  Consultation. 

Naturally  the  great  length  of  the  large  intestine  and  the  manifold  char- 
acter of  its  convolutions  have  a  very  important  bearing  upon  its  function. 
First  of  all,  they  delay  the  progress  of  the  intestinal  contents,  facilitate 
the  absorption  of  fluids,  and  render  the  stools  dryer  and  harder.  Obsti- 
nate constipation  is  but  an  exaggeration  of  this  state  of  things,  and  some- 
times is  extremely  troublesome.  A  number  of  years  ago  I  reported '  a 
case  in  which  the  prolongation  of  the  colon  descendens  was  so  great  that 
the  diagnosis  of  imperforation  of  the  intestines  was  made.  In  one  case 
an  operation  was  even  undertaken  to  form  an  artificial  anus.  Though 
such  cases  and  such  mistakes  are  exceedingly  uncommon,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  there  are  certain  anatomical  conditions  which  by  this  mere 
exaggeration  may  become  of  serious  pathological  importance. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  cases  described  by  Barth 
and  Eisenschitz,  where  the  relations  of  the  abdominal  organs,  though  nor- 
mal, were  in  certain  respects  so  exaggerated  as  to  occasion  impaction  of 
faeces.  In  both  cases  obstinate  constipation  was  produced  by  the  false 
position  of  the  intestines,  owing  to  a  too  long  mesocolon.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  go  into  all  of  the  different  causes  of  constipation  in  infantile  life, 
which  are  due  to  true  pathological  conditions,  and  which  are  described  in 
the  text-books.  They  were  made  the  subject  of  an  exhaustive  treatise  by 
Monti  some  years  ago.  It  is,  therefore,  not  proper  to  speak  here  of  such 
cases  of  constipation  as  depend  upon  intestinal  diseases,  or  the  use  of 
astringents  and  opium  ;  at  the  most  we  might  refer  to  those  which  are  due 

'  Am.  Jour,  of  Obstet.,  Aug.,  1869. 


INFANT   HYGIENE.  129 

to  muscular  weakness  induced  by  rhachitis  or  general  debility.  Here  we 
are  concerned  only  with  the  cases  of  constipation  which  are  dependent 
upon  defective  nutrition  or  inappropriate  food.  Under  the  latter  may  be 
classed  an  excess  of  starch  in  the  food,  excess  of  casein  in  the  milk,  and 
above  all,  the  deficiency  of  sugar.  Insufficient  nourishment  naturally  gives 
rise  to  an  apparent  constipation,  but  may  always  be  diagnosticated  when, 
in  connection  with  scanty  stools  which  contain  little  or  no  casein,  there 
is  a  marked  general  atrophy  of  the  child's  entire  body. 

Dietetic  Cure  for  Constipation. 

That  form  of  constipation  which  is  owing  to  an  excess  of  starch  in  the 
food  will  be  readily  overcome  by  simply  withdrawing  the  starch  ;  the 
form  that  is  accompanied  with  an  excess  of  casein  in  the  composition  of 
the  fasces  will  be  removed  by  boiling  the  milk  and  mixing  it  freely  with 
some  form  of  gruel,  in  the  manner  already  explained  in  another  place;  the 
form  that  depends  \ipon  a  deficiency  of  sugar  may  be  easily  cured  by  sup- 
plying plenty  of  sugar  to  the  food.  By  this  last-named  measure  alone, 
not  unfrequently,  have  I  seen  long  protracted  constipation  cured,  both  in 
cases  where  the  food  had  consisted  simply  of  the  breast-milk,  and  also  in 
those  fed  with  cow's  milk,  either  alone  or  in  the  various  mixtures.  In  the 
latter  case  we  should  simply  add  a  larger  quantity  of  sugar  to  the  mix- 
ture; in  the  former,  a  lump  of  sugar  is  dissolved  in  warm  water,  and  just 
before  the  child  is  given  the  breast  it  is  made  to  drink  one  or  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  the  concentrated  sugar  solution. 

The  feebleness  of  the  intestinal  muscular  system  may  give  rise  to  other 
disturbances.  The  diarrhoeas,  which  are  so  common,  are  occasionally  due 
to  this  cause.  Furthermore,  passive  secretions  take  place  more  easily 
where  the  abundant  capillary  system  is  not  controlled  by  muscular  con- 
traction ;  and  when  the  muscular  layer  is  thin,  it  offers  less  resistance  to 
the  passage  of  the  secretions,  and  becomes  oedematous. 

In  this  connection,  also,  should  be  mentioned  the  great  irritability  of 
the  nervous  system  in  the  infant.  The  paralysis  of  the  terminal  nerve- 
filaments  in  the  intestines  in  consequence  of  heat,  their  irritation  through 
local  disturbing  influences,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  alarming  reflex 
manifestations  occur,  remain  to  be  discussed  in  another  place. 

The  secretion  of  mucus  is  very  copious;  it  ferments  and  becomes  sour 
very  readily.  The  alkaline  intestinal  juices  and  the  alkaline  secretions  of 
the  liver  and  pancreas  are  easily  neutralized,  and,  in  consequence  of  their 
decomposition,  the  matters  which  should  be  digested  become  so  much 
additional  material  for  the  production  of  acids. 

Mode  of  Giving  the  Food. 

How  should  the  infant  be  fed  ?     From  the  spoon,  from  the  cup,  or 
from  the  nursing-bottle  ?  By  all  means  from  the  bottle.    In  this  way  alone 
can  we  be  sure  of  having  the  food  of  proper  consistency,  without  any 
Vol.  I.— 9 


130  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

lumpy  ingredients.  By  thoroughly  mixing  and  diluting  the  food  we  sup- 
jDly  in  part  the  place  of  mastication  in  the  adult.  By  no  means  should  we 
yield  to  the  notion  so  prevalent  among  nurses  and  mothers,  that  the  food 
must  be  thick  to  be  nourishing.  But,  above  all,  it  is  necessary  to  its  proper 
digestion  that  the  food  be  introduced  into  the  stomach  slowly  and  in  small 
quantities.  The  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  taking  j^lace  a  little  at  a 
time  demands  that  the  stomach  be  filled  slowly  and  gradually.  Even  with 
adults  it  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that,  when  milk  is  taken  as  a 
drink,  it  is  ajDt  to  disagree  ;  but,  if  swallowed  more  slowly,  a  tablespoon- 
f ul  at  a  time,  like  soup,  it  is  digested  without  difficulty.  Moreover,  the  act 
of  sucking  tends  of  itself  to  excite  peristaltic  action  and  the  secretion  of 
the  digestive  fluids  (Spallanzani,  Brown-Sequard).  The  digestive  tract  is 
a  continuous  canal.  The  sucking  movements  call  into  play  the  action  of 
the  salivary  glands  and  awaken  the  various  other  functions  of  digestion. 
Twenty  years  ago,  when  Th.  Ballard  sought  to  prove  that  nearly  all  chil- 
dren's ailments  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  diseases  of  women  were  the 
consequences  of  fruitless  attempts  at  nursing  ("  fruitless  sucking  "),  his 
extravagant  assertions  were  naturally  ridiculed.  But  he  certainly  reasoned 
from  a  physiological  standpoint,  which  had  a  basis  in  clinical  truth. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  of  course  in  the  management 
and  cleaning  of  the  nursing-bottles.  The  artificial  food,  more  particularly 
the  milk,  is  liable  to  become  decomjDosed  even  before  it  is  ready  for  use. 
When  any  of  the  food  is  permitted  to  remain  in  the  bottle  or  upon  the 
mouth-j)iece,  especially  if  the  latter  be  of  rubber,  it  ferments  very  quickly, 
and  may  thus  become  a  source  of  danger.  Further  than  this,  the  kind  of 
bottle  used  is  perhaps  a  matter  of  indifference.  If  the  people  are  cleanly 
in  their  habits,  the  more  complicated  bottles  will  be  kept  clean;  while  if 
they  are  not,  the  simplest  of  them  will  be  neglected.  Those  bottles  that 
have  a  rubber  tube  from  16  to  20  ctms.  in  length,  with  the  mouth-piece  at 
the  end,  are  especially  convenient.  The  rubber  tube  connects  with  a 
glass  tube  in  the  bottle,  which  reaches  nearly  to  the  bottom. 

Daily  experience  shows  that  new-born  babies  find  little  or  no  difficulty 
in  sucking.  Those  who  are  not  able  to  nurse  owe  this  incapacity  to 
either  muscular  debility  or  to  some  other  anomaly.  Muscular  debility 
may  depend  upon  premature  birth,  or  result  from  sickness  and  insufficient 
convalescence. 

Another  cause  of  inability  to  nurse  may  exist  in  dyspnoea,  from  either 
insufficient  expansion  of  the  pulmonary  tissue,  or  from  congenital  or  ac- 
quired disease  of  the  lungs,  or  from  heart  disease. 

Inability  to  nurse  may  also  depend  upon  malformations ;  not  so  much 
upon  simple,  uncomplicated  hare-lip  as  upon  double  hare-lip,  complicated 
with  fissure  of  the  palate.  It  very  rarely  depends  upon  anchyloglosson, 
though  now  and  then  it  may  be  due  to  hypertrophy  of  the  tongue,  or  to 
ranula.  In  rare  cases  it  also  depends  upon  pseudoplasms  of  the  tongue. 
I  have  myself  described  a  case  of  congenital  sarcoma  of  the  tongue,  in 
the  American  Journal  of  Obstetrics,  etc.,  August,  1869. 

Nursing  may  also   be  interfered  with   by  either  simple  or  syphilitic 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  131 

nasal  catarrh,  giving  rise  to  an  accumulation  of  mucus,  or  blood,  or  mere 
thickening  of  the  mucous  membrane  ;  also  by  different  forms  of  stoma- 
titis— not  only  the  thrush  of  the  new-born  and  very  young  infant,  but  also 
the  erythematous  and  follicular  stomatitis  of  the  infant  of  more  ad- 
vanced age.  To  relieve  children  suffering  from  this  difficulty  of  sucking, 
a  nursing-bottle  has  been  invented  in  France,  and  brought  into  the  mar- 
ket under  the  name  of  "  Biberon  Pompe."  I  first  gave  publicity  to  this 
instrument  on  page  413  of  the  first  volume  of  Gerhardt's  Ilandbuch  der 
IvinderJcranhJieiten,  1877,  where  I  reported  that  a  specimen  of  the  appara- 
tus has  been  presented  to  me  by  Dr.  O.  Soltmann,  of  Breslau.  Since  that 
time  Dr.  Soltmann  has  modified  the  instrument  to  a  certain  extent, 
and  published  an  account  of  it  in  an  article  entitled  "  On  the  Nutrition 
of  Sick  Nurslings  by  Means  of  a  New  Nursing-Bottle,"  Jahrhilcher  far 
KinderJivanklieiten,  etc..  Vol.  XII.,  1878,  p.  406.  The  accompanying 
woodcut  shows  that  a  arlass  tube  inside  the  bottle  carries  a  small  soft-rubber 


A,  air-hole  ;  B,  mouth-piece  ;  C,  expaiaded  part  of  sucking  tube  ;  D,  funnel  valve. 

funnel,  which  is  changed  into  a  valve  by  means  of  an  oblique  cut  through 
one-half  of  its  body.  Simple  pressure  upon  the  mouthpiece,  either  by  the 
lips  or  by  the  alveolar  processes,  or  by  the  fingers,  is  sufficient  to  cause 
the  liquid  to  escape  from  the  bottle.  In  cases  in  which  the  baby  is  not 
able  to  exert  even  this  pressure,  the  slightest  pressure  upon  the  bulbous 
expansion  of  the  tube,  on  the  part  of  the  attendant,  is  sufficient  to  propel 
the  liquid  food  into  the  mouth  of  the  child.  The  apparatus  is  to  be  rec- 
ommended in  just  such  cases  as  those  enumerated  above,  not  only  upon 
theoretical  grounds,  but  from  results  derived  from  actual  trial.  About  a 
year  and  a  half  ago,  when  I  first  exhibited  the  instrument  before  the 
New  York  Obstetrical  Society,  I  had  occasion  to  direct  the  management 
of  a  prematurely -born  child  with  insufficient  muscular  development;  and 
the  infant  was  fed  for  months  from  this  bottle,  and  thrived  well. 

In  a  case  of  spinal  meningitis,  occurring  in  an  infant,  and  rendering 
it  unable  to  suck,  this  bottle  was  used  successfully,  and  the  same  can  be 
said  with  reference  to  a  serious  case  of  follicular  stomatitis,  in  which 
nursing  was  an  impossibility.' 

^  The  bottle  is  sold  by  Mr.  Eeynders,  corner  4tli  Avenue  and  33d  Street,  New  York 
city. 


132  IN-FANT   HYGIENE. 

Summary. — After  what  has  already  been  said,  it  would  be  superfluous 
to  go  into  a  critical  review  of  the  copious  literature  of  the  subject. 
Writers  have  not  always  taken  the  trouble  to  support  their  assertions  or 
theories  with  physiological  or  chemical  facts.  This  is  true  not  only  of 
those  authors  who  have  addressed  themselves  to  the  public  at  large,  but 
of  writers  whose  works,  it  is  presumed,  will  be  read  by  physicians.  The 
same  directions  concerning  the  diet  and  management  of  the  child  have 
been  handed  down  from  one  writer  to  another.  They  are  just  the  same, 
whether  the  writer  be  old  Metlinger  himself,  or  Cadogan,  or  those  modern 
authors  who  write  for  mothers  and  for  "  such  as  are  to  be."  Not  much 
more  can  be  said  of  those  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  instruct  the  gen- 
eral public  concerning  the  management  of  children.  Among  the  best 
of  this  kind  are  the  rules  issued,  five  years  ago,  by  the  Obstetrical  Society 
of  Philadelphia.  These  rules  embraced  thorough  and  judicious  advice 
about  washing  and  warm  bathing,  avoiding  too  tight  bands  and  articles  of 
clothing,  drying  the  linen  outside  the  room  occupied  by  the  child,  main- 
taining good  ventilation,  avoiding  the  danger  of  nursing  the  child  while 
sleeping,  and  about  alcoholic  drinks,  narcotics,  etc.,  etc.  But  when  it  came 
to  the  question  of  food,  it  was  quite  another  thing.  Goat's  milk  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  best. food  for  infants;  next  to  it  came  cow's  milk.  If  the 
child  thrives,  the  rule  laid  down  is,  that  during  the  hot  weather  no  other 
nourishment  than  milk  shall  be  allowed;  and  again,  nothing  shall  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  milk  until  after  the  incisor-teeth  have  come.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances is  the  milk  to  be  skimmed.  If,  however,  as  one  remarkable 
rule  puts  it,  milk  cannot  be  digested  in  any  form,  then,  instead,  pure 
cream,  diluted  with  three  or  four  jDarts  water,  shall  be  given  for  a  few 
days.  The  fallacy  of  these  rules  will  be  apparent  at  once  to  such  as  have 
been  led  to  adopt  the  views  which  I  have  already  set  forth  with  regard  to 
goat's  and  cow's  milk.  At  all  events,  the  rule  that  nothing  shall  be  used 
in  the  place  of  milk  until  the  incisor-teeth  have  appeared  is  decidedly  open 
to  objection.  Cases  of  advanced  rhachitis,  for  example,  which  have  devel- 
oped during  an  exclusive  milk  diet,  can  be  cured  only  by  an  absolute 
change  of  food.  Again,  the  delayed  appearance  of  the  teeth  would  afford 
a  contraindication  to  the  exclusive  use  of  milk,  but  not  an  indication  for 
its  continuance,  as  the  Philadelphia  rules  would  command.  The  rule,  that 
during  hot  weather  no  other  nourishment  than  milk  shall  be  given,  is  a 
positively  pernicious  one.  The  prefixed  clause,  "if  the  child  thrives," 
does  not  materially  modify  it.  During  the  hot  weather  no  food  is  more 
dangerous  than  unmixed  cow's  or  goat's  milk.  In  most  of  the  cases  of 
summer  diarrhoea,  diminishing  the  amount  of  milk  in  the  child's  food, 
occasionally  even  stopping  it  altogether,  is  the  conditio  sine  qua  non  of 
the  infant's  recovery.  Moreover,  the  paragraph  where  it  says  that  when 
the  milk  is  not  digested,  cream  shall  be  used  instead,  is  equally  objection- 
able. When  the  milk  is  not  digested,  it  is  due  to  the  excess  of  casein 
and  fat  which  it  contains,  and  to  the  influence  of  the  heat,  etc.  To  think 
of  exchanging  milk,  with  its  ingredients  in  their  natural  proportions,  for 
pure  cream,  is  surely  irrational.     In  justice,  however,  I  should  add,  that 


INFAISTT    HYGIENE.  133 

in  li  conversation  with  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Philadelphia  rules,  the 
late  Dr.  John  Parry,  that  gentleman  stated  in  explanation  that  his  signa- 
ture had  been  given  too  hastily,  and  he  was  unwilling  that  he  should  be 
held  forever  committed  to  some  of  the  points  which  the  rules  laid  down. 

After  all,  I  again  insist  upon  the  principles  set  forth  above,  and  the 
mode  of  feeding  as  advocated  by  me,  which  consists  in  diluting  the  boiled 
and  skimmed  milk  with  barley-water  or  oatmeal  gruel.  I  hold  this  mix- 
ture to  be  the  conditio  sine  quel  non  of  the  thorough  digestion  of  the 
milk.  This  only  will  insure  the  proper  nourishment  of  the  infant.  With 
this  food  alone  I  have  seen  children  endure  the  heat  of  summer  without 
any  attack  of  illness  whatever.  It  is  because  I  am  so  deeply  convinced  of 
its  importance  that  I  revert  to  the  subject  here.  In  this  climate,  so  peril- 
ous to  infant  health,  where  severe  derangements  of  digestion  belong  to 
the  most  common  of  the  daily  experiences  of  the  practitioner,  I  have  had 
occasion  again  and  again  to  be  convinced  of  the  reliability  of  my  mixture. 
It  has  this  advantage,  too,  that  it  necessitates  no  dependence  upon  the 
honesty  or  competence  of  the  apothecary  and  manufacturer,  but  this  mix- 
ture can  be  prepared  by  any  one,  however  poorly  situated.  I  conceived 
it  to  be  necessary  to  discover  a  kind  of  food,  suitable  to  the  infantile  age, 
which  could  not  he  spoiled  through  ignorance  and  fraud,  nor  he  liahle  to 
have  its  price  enhanced  hy  trade  decders.  All  of  these  indications  have 
been  fully  met  in  the  preparation  which  I  have  described. 

The  object  I  desire  to  attain  is  to  insure  a  slow  action  of  the  gastric 
juice,  or  of  the  excess  of  acid  in  the  stomach  upon  the  casein  of  the  milk, 
and  this  object  I  attain  under  all  circumstances.  Should  a  slight  diarrhoea 
occur,  or  a  little  casein  be  vomited  (a  rare  accident,  to  be  sure),  or  casein 
occur  in  the  stools,  then  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  diminish  the  proportion 
of  milk.  It  may  sometimes  be  necessary,  though  very  seldom,  to  with- 
draw the  milk  entirely  for  a  time,  but  only  in  cases  of  real  illness.  If  the 
physician  or  attendants  have  properly  apportioned  the  ingredients  of  the 
mixture,  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  child's  digestion  and  assimilation 
will  be  regular  and  normal.  Infants  that  are  partly  nourished  at  the 
breast  almost  invariably  thrive  well  with  the  addition  of  my  mixture. 
Children,  from  their  fourth  or  fifth  month  and  upward,  may  often  be  fed 
with  it  exclusively,  and  not  unfrequently  nothing  else  is  given  from  the 
day  of  the  birth.  I  can  positively  affirm  that  in  all  these  cases  assimila- 
tion and  increase  in  weight  have  proceeded  quite  normally.  Altogether, 
the  brief  form  in  which  I  laid  down  the  above  principles,  years  ago,  and  in 
which  they  have  been  published  year  after  year  by  the  New  York  Health 
Board  (See  Infant  Diet,  2d  Ed.,  187G,  p.  118)  for  the  benefit  of  the  gen- 
eral public,  rich  and  poor,  may  still  be  found  satisfactory.  They  read  as 
follows  : 

I.  Ahout  Nursing  Babies. 

Overfeeding  does  more  harm  than  anything  else.  Nurse  a  baby  of  a 
month  or  two,  every  two  or  three  hours. 


134  HS^FANT   HTGIEKE. 

Nurse  a  baby  of  six  months  and  over,  five  times  in  twenty -four  hours, 
and  no  more. 

When  a  baby  gets  thirsty  in  the  meantime,  give  it  a  drink  of  water  or 
barley-water.  No  sugar.  In  hot  weather — but  in  the  hottest  days  only — 
mix  a  few  drops  of  whiskey  with  either  water  or  food,  the  whiskey  not  to 
exceed  a  teaspoonful  in  twenty-four  hours. 

II.  About  Feeding  Babies. 

Boil  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  barley  (grind  it  in  a  coffee-grinder) 
and  a  gill  of  water,  with  a  little  salt,  for  fifteen  minutes;  strain  it,  and  mix 
it  with  half  as  much  boiled  milk  and  a  lump  of  white  sugar.  Give  it  luke- 
warm, through  a  nursing-bottle. 

Keep  bottle  and  mouth-piece  in  a  bowl  of  water  when  not  in  use. 

Babies  of  five  or  six  months,  half  baxley-water  and  half  boiled  milk, 
with  salt  and  white  sugar. 

Older  babies,  more  milk  in  proportion. 

When  babies  are  very  costive,  use  oatmeal  instead  of  barley.  Cook 
and  strain. 

When  your  breast-milk  is  half  enough,  change  ofE  between  breast-milk 
and  food. 

In  hot  summer  weather,  try  the  food  with  a  small  strip  of  blue  litmus- 
paper.  If  the  blue  paper  turns  red,  either  make  a  fresh  mess,  or  add  a 
small  pinch  of  baking-soda  to  the  food. 

Infants  of  six  months  may  have  beef-tea  or  beef -soup  once  a  day,  by 
itself,  or  mixed  with  the  other  food. 

Babies  of  ten  or  twelve  months  may  have  a  crust  of  bread  and  a  piece 
of  rare  beef  to  suck. 

No  child  under  two  years  ought  to  eat  at  your  table.  Give  no  can- 
dies ;  in  fact,  nothing  that  is  not  contained  in  these  rules,  without  a  doc- 
tor's orders. 

Care  of  the  Teeth. 

When  should  attention  be  first  directed  to  the  care  of  the  infant's 
teeth  ? 

A  lioness  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  in  London,  several  times  had  cubs 
with  cleft  palates.  Afterward,  having  been  fed  during  a  subsequent 
pregnancy,  not  only,  as  heretofore,  with  meat  from  which  the  bone  had 
been  removed,  but  with  bone  and  meat  together,  she  gave  birth  to  a  cub 
with  normal  buccal  cavity  (Berl.  kl.  Woch.,  1875,  p.  668).  By  analogy 
this  case  offers  a  wide  range  of  scientific  inquirj^  If  a  simple  change  in 
the  food  during  gestation,  other  conditions  remaining  unaltered,  can  bring 
about  so  imjDortant  a  result,  we  must  infer  that  the  state  of  joregnancy 
has  a  very  important  bearing  upon  the  development  of  the  osseous  and 
dental  systems.  Common  hereditary  influences,  of  course,  play  an  impor- 
tant part.  The  entire  osseous  system  of  the  parents  is  regenerated  in  the 
offspring.     Acquired  diseases,  such   as  syphilis,  in  the   parents  not  only 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  135 

cast  their  shadows  upon  the  development  of  the  permanent  teeth,  as 
Hutchinson  claims,  but,  as  I  have  often  observed,  affect  the  temporary 
teeth  as  well.  Congenital  traits,  constitutional  diseases  of  all  kinds,  man- 
ifest themselves  in  the  color,  structure,  thickness,  and  hardness  of  the 
teeth,  though  the  subdivision  and  classification  of  the  anomalies  be  fre- 
quently carried  to  excess.  Rudolph  declares  transparent  teeth  to  be 
rhachitic.  Duval  regards  bluish-white  teeth  as  rhachitic;  semi-transparent 
teeth  as  "herpetic";  semi-transparent  and  milk-white  teeth  as  scrofulous 
and  tuberculous.  Usually,  howevei',  such  anomalies  are  the  result  of  early 
derangements  of  health,  at  a  time  when  the  enamel  is  in  process  of  forma- 
tion. It  has  been  stated  that  acute  inflammatory  diseases  leave  furrows  in 
the  young  teeth,  and  acute  exanthemata,  such  as  variola,  give  rise  to  inden- 
tations. Rhachitis  is  indeed  often  associated  with  thinning:  of  the  enamel; 
but  when  the  process  advances  somewhat  slowly  eburnean  hardening  takes 
place  the  same  as  in  bone.  Then  the  teeth  of  those  formerly  rhachitic  are 
hard,  solid,  dense,  and  yellowish  white  ;  but  this  yellowish  white  color  is 
uniform.  Where  isolated  white  spots  appear,  scattered  here  and  there  over 
the  teeth,  a  local  trauma  is  to  be  inferred,  in  consequence  of  which  a  de- 
posit of  carbonate  of  lime  has  taken  place.  Where  yellowish  and  whitish 
spots  alternate  with  each  other,  it  is  the  result  of  long-disturbed  health. 
Not  unfrequently  it  is  possible  to  infer  antecedent  diseases  from  the  teeth, 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  may  infer  a  severe  disease  of  nutrition  in  adults 
from  certain  appearances  of  the  nails  of  the  fingers  and  toes  (so  long  as 
the  nails  have  not  yet  been  entirely  regenerated).  Furrows  upon  the  in- 
cisors and  bicuspids  imply  a  severe  illness  during  the  first  half  of  the 
second  year.  Furrows  on  the  molars  imply  such  an  attack  during  the 
fourth  or  fifth  year.  The  breadth  of  the  furrow  is  dependent  upon  the 
duration  of  the  illness,  and  different  furrows  of  varying  depths  indicate 
separate  attacks  (Nessel). 

From  what  has  now  been  said,  it  follows  that  the  normal  development 
of  the  milk-teeth  is  dependent,  in  the  first  place,  upon  the  condition  of  the 
mother  during  the  period  of  her  gestation,  and,  in  the  second  place,  upon 
the  nutrition  and  health  of  the  child.  Hence  the  care  of  the  milk-teeth 
should  begin  before  birth,  and,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the  care  of  the  per- 
manent teeth  must  begin  during  the  earliest  years  of  life.  The  teeth  of 
young  animals  are  comparatively  very  soft  and  the  enamel  thin.  Hence 
they  are  much  more  liable  to  injury  than  the  teeth  of  adults.  Portions  of 
the  food,  taken  by  the  child  at  frequent  intervals,  or  now  and  then  vomit- 
ed, may  collect  in  the  mouth  and  undergo  fermentation,  with  the  produc- 
tion of  acid.  Aphthous  sores  are  common  in  the  mouth  in  very  young 
children,  and  diphtheritic  deposits  in  those  a  little  older.  Acid  is  produced 
in  the  stomach,  with  acid  eructations  and  acid  stools.  The  young  teeth 
are  constantly  flooded  with  the  copiously  secreted  saliva.  Teeth  and 
saliva  mutually  react  upon  one  another.  The  saliva  cannot  remain  healthy 
if  the  teeth  are  carious  and  covered  with  bacteria,  nor  can  the  teeth  long 
remain  sound  with  sour  saliva.  Thus  bad  teeth,  sour  saliva,  and  sour 
stomach  may  become  a  circiclus  vitiosus. 


136  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

The  main  requirement  in  the  care  of  the  teeth  lies  in  scrupulously 
cleansing  the  mouth.  Occasionally  it  should  be  washed  out  with  very 
dilute  alkaline  solutions,  for  which  purpose  borax  may  be  used.  Strongly 
alkaline  washes  or  alkaline  tooth-powders  tend  to  do  harm  by  abstracting 
the  lime  from  the  teeth.  Another  requirement  is  proper  food.  What  that 
should  be  I  have  endeavored  to  indicate  in  another  place.  A  bad  stomach 
is  incompatible  with  good  teeth. 

Now,  is  sugar  hurtful  to  the  teeth,  or  has  it  no  effect  upon  them? 
Can  frequent  indulgence  in  sugar  cause  caries  ?  When  the  teeth  are 
much  decayed,  immoderate  indulgence  in  sugar  is  often  alleged  as  the 
chief  cause.  Sugar  is  present  in  all  children's  food;  so  the  question  can 
concern  only  its  excessive  use.  The  enamel  of  the  teeth  may  be  kept 
for  weeks  in  a  glass  of  water  in  which  sugar  has  undergone  fermentation 
without  any  effect  upon  it.  Can  it  be  otherwise  in  the  mouth  ?  Does 
the  circumstance  of  the  continual  passage  of  air  through  the  mouth  cause 
a  difference  in  the  action  ?  Will  the  effect  of  sugar  account  for  the  fact 
that  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  teeth  are  usually  the  part  first  affected,  or 
is  this  the  result  of  slight  injuries  received  from  without  ?  Reference  has 
been  made  to  the  fact  that  the  plantation  negroes,  who  are  constantly 
chewing  sugar-cane,  have  splendid  teeth.  But  the  sugar-juice  of  the  cane 
is  not  the  same  thing  as  the  lime-refined  sugar  of  commerce.  Much  of  the 
sugar  consumed  in  confectionery  and  the  candies  of  all  sorts  adheres  more 
tenaciously  to  the  mouth  than  simple  sugar,  and  is  also  adulterated  with 
other  substances,  which  make  it  more  suspicious.  But,  however  this  may 
be,  whether  any  direct  and  local  injurious  action  can  be  shown  to  pertain 
to  sugar  as  such  or  not,  the  inordinate  indulgence  of  confectionery  must 
impair  digestion,  and  thereby  become  injurious  to  the  teeth.  I  have  seen 
chronic  gastric  catarrh  precede  caries  of  the  teeth  and  coexist  with  it  too 
often  not  to  be  certain  of  their  intimate  relation  to  each  other.  The  pro- 
duction of  acid  will  render  the  saliva  sour  and  give  rise  to  a  copious 
development  of  bacteria,  thus  leading  to  caries. 

How  easily  a  moderate  amount  of  acidity  may  become  hurtful  to  the 
teeth  is  well  seen  in  the  effect  of  improper  indulgence  in  the  juices  of 
fruits.  We  should  seek  to  mitigate  their  injurious  effect  by  giving  bread 
or  water  at  the  same  time,  and  by  afterward  carefully  cleansing  the  teeth. 

When  it  is  probable  that  fermentation-  is  taking  place  in  the  mouth, 
the  indication  is  to  stop  the  use  of  nursing-bottles,  sugar-teats,  etc.,  con- 
cerning which  I  had  something  to  say  in  another  place.  Without  doubt, 
fermentation  in  the  mouth  aids  in  the  crumbling  of  the  teeth,  in  produ- 
cing the  subsequent  indigestion,  and  in  causing  the  defective  articulation 
which  betrays  itself  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  d,  t,  e,  s,  and 
st,  which,  once  having  become  a  habit,  is  not  overcome,  even  after  the 
development  of  the  permanent  teeth. 

Therefore  the  care  of  the  child's  teeth  is  mainly  preventive.  Yet  the 
list  of  preventive  measures  would  be  far  from  complete,  were  I  not  to  men- 
tion the  danger  arising  from  incising  the  gums,  whenever  the  teeth  are 
slow  in  coming,  an  operation  that  is  very  commonly  resorted  to  if  the  child 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  137 

happens  to  be  suffering'  from  some  affection  not  properly  recognized.  We 
are  all  aware  that  the  gums  seldom  require  or  justify  an  incision,  whether 
for  inflammation  or  for  unusual  thickness  or  hardness.  And  yet  we  know 
that  every  ill,  whether  of  head,  body,  or  limb,  according  to  popular  nosol- 
ogy, is  attributed  to  teething,  and  is  supposed  to  furnish  a  sufficient 
pretext  for  the  "  simple  and  safe "  operation.  The  literature  of  the 
subject,  before  any  diagnoses  were  made  of  children's  diseases,  had  grown 
to  formidable  proportions.  I  made  a  collective  report  on  it  myself  some 
years  ago.'  I  shall,  therefore,  confine  mj^self  to  simply  referring  to  the 
danger  to  which  the  milk-teeth  are  exposed  from  external  injuries  while, 
though  yet  concealed,  they  lie  quite  near  the  surface.  The  injury  once 
having  been  inflicted,  the  decay  of  the  tooth  is  a  necessary  consequence. 
This  is  conceded  even  by  J.  Foster-Flagg,  who  lately  not  only  recom- 
mended incisions  and  scarifications,  but  insisted  upon  very  free  incisions, 
sometimes  crucial  and  sometimes  curved,  so  as  to  extend  entirely  around 
the  tooth.     He  even  gives  drawings  of  these  incisions.^ 

When  the  teeth  are  healthy,  some  strict  measures  of  precaution 
should  be  taken.  These  measures  will  vary  somewhat,  depending  upon 
the  age  of  the  child,  inasmuch  as  children  several  years  old  are  able  to 
carry  out  many  of  the  regulations  for  themselves.  After  every  meal  the 
mouth  should  be  rinsed  out  with  pure  water.  The  same  should  be  done 
after  eating  fruit,  or  after  taking  medicines  or  mineral-waters  containing 
iron  or  tannin.  The  only  addition  to  the  mouth-wash  should  be  alcohol. 
In  exceptional  cases,  as  where  the  gums  and  mucous  membrane  are  liable 
to  become  spongy  and  relaxed,  veiy  dilute  alkaline  solutions  may  be  used; 
concerning  strong  solutions  I  have  already  expressed  a  caution.  When  a 
brush  is  used  for  cleansing  the  teeth  (a  coarse  cloth  is  better),  this  should 
be  soft,  and  should  be  used  not  only  in  a  horizontal  direction,  but  also 
vertically,  so  as  to  make  sure  that  no  jDarticles  of  food  remain  lodged  be- 
tween the  teeth.  Tooth-powders  that  contain  wood,  coal,  or  other  hard 
substances  had  better  be  avoided;  and  the  same  with  regard  to  all  soaps 
[see  above],  with  the  exception  of  the  sapo  medicatus,  in  which  the 
caustic  soda  has  been  completely  neutralized.  Patent  preparations  should 
not  be  used,  for  obvious  reasons.  Any  sudden  change  of  temperature  in 
the  food  must  be  carefully  avoided.  Even  water  of  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture must  not  be  too  freely  drunk  with  a  warm  meal.  The  custom  of 
drinking  ice-water,  common  in  the  large  cities  of  America,  is  the  most 
pernicious  enemy  of  the  teeth.  Under  the  sudden  change  of  tempera- 
ture they  are  liable  to  crack. 

Care  of  diseased  teeth. — With  regard  to  carious  milk-teeth,  a  few  sim- 
ple rules  are  applicable,  of  which  the  best  is,  whenever  the  case  is  at  all 
serious,  to  consult  a  competent  dentist.  It  is  certainly  better  to  have  a 
tooth  filled  than  to  lose  it  entirely,  but  it  is  better  to  lose  it  than  that  its 
neighbor  should  become  affected  by  contiguity.     In  general,  milk-teeth 

'  Dentition  and  its  Derangements,  New  York,  1862. 
-  Dental  Cosmos,  Feb. -March,  1873. 


138  INFANT    HYGIENE. 

should  not  be  extracted  till  it  is  absolutely  necessary;  otherwise  the  alve- 
olar border  sinks  away,  the  jaw  does  not  develop  properly,  and  insufficient 
room  is  left  for  the  permanent  teeth.  These  appear  in  the  following 
order  :  the  middle  lower  incisors  in  the  sixth  year,  the  middle  upper  in 
the  seventh,  the  lateral  tijjper  and  lower  incisors  in  the  eighth,  the  upper 
and  lower  two  bicuspids  from  the  ninth  to  the  tenth,  the  canines  from  the 
tenth  to  the  eleventh,  the  first  molars  from  the  eleventh  to  the  twelfth, 
and  the  second  molars  from  the  twelfth  to  the  thirteenth.  When  these 
teeth  are  robbed  of  their  natural  sjjace  they  are  very  apt  to  grow  irregu- 
larly, often  in  a  double  row. 

The  germs  of  the  permanent  teeth  are  formed  at  the  same  time  that 
the  temporary  teeth  are  developed,  though  they  do  not  become  ossified 
before  the  sixth  year.  As  they  gradually  become  larger,  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  bony  partitions,  and  those  supplied  to  the  roots  of  the  deciduous 
teeth,  waste  away,  the  nerves  disappear,  and  the  roots  atrophy.  The  par- 
tition between  the  milk-tooth  and  the  sac  of  the  permanent  tooth  gradu- 
ally becomes  thinner.  If  the  milk-teeth,  especially  the  canines,  are  ex- 
tracted prematurely,  the  permanent  teeth  are  extremely  liable  to  injury, 
as  they  lie  embedded  between  the  roots  of  the  milk-teeth.  The  harm  done 
in  this  way  is  often  greater  than  that  caused  by  the  delayed  detachment 
of  the  temporary  teeth.  This  latter,  however,  may  act  injuriously  wpon 
the  permanent  teeth,  affecting  their  beauty,  shape,  or  number,  and  under 
such  circumstances  the  advice  of  a  dentist  becomes  desirable.  There  is 
but  one  event  which  imperatively  demands  the  early  extraction  of  a  milk- 
tooth,  and  that  is  periostitis,  or  osteitis  of  the  jaw,  due  to  inflammation  of 
the  tooth-root. 

So  far  as  the  period  of  the  second  dentition  is  concerned,  I  have  nothing 
to  add,  with  the  exception  of  a  caution  to  my  younger  colleagues  not  to 
accept  too  implicitly  all  that  has  been  written  and  said  concerning  the 
frequency  of  dentition  diseases.  I  have  already  said  that  the  alleged  re- 
lation between  teething  and  disease  in  the  first  dentition  is,  to  say  the 
least,  a  very  doubtful  one  ;  likewise  in  the  second  dentition;  for  if  we 
eliminate  all  the  false  and  imperfect  diagnoses,  we  shall  find  this  relation 
between  it  and  the  numerous  diseases  of  childhood  equally  dubious. 

Age  of  Schooling.^ 

The  period  of  life  in  which  children  ought  to  be  sent  to  school,  or, 
rather,  the  age  which  allows  of  additional  physical  efforts  and  intellectual 
labor,  depends  greatly  on  individual  development.  Still  there  are  land- 
marks which  positively  indicate  the  minimum  of  years  required  for  under- 
going unwonted  strain.     The  functions  of  all  the  organs  depend  on  their 

'  This  brief  chapter  may  tind  a  place  here,  though  not  referring  to  infancy  proper. 
In  my  treatment  of  the  subject  of  the  hygiene  of  the  infant  body  I  have  endeavored  to 
base  my  views  and  recommendations  upon  anatomical  and  physiological  data  ;  and  so 
here  I  will  endeavor  to  find  accurate  scientific  indications  for  the  first  artificial  food  of 
the  mind. 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  139 

anatomical,  chemical,  and  physical  development.  Thus  cerebral  action 
relies  to  a  great  extent  on  fat  and  phosphorus  in  the  brain  substance. 
In  the  adult  they  are  mainly  found  in  the  white  substance  of  the  cere- 
brum; in  the  foetus  and  infant,  however,  in  the  medulla  oblongata.  Thus 
it  is  that  the  functions  of  the  latter  predominate  at  an  early  age.  Of 
equal  importance  is  the  percentage  of  water  contained  in  that  organ.  Its 
prevalence  is  in  an  inverse  proportion  to  normal  labor.  The  more  water, 
the  less  function,  and  vice  versa.  Now,  the  medulla  oblongata  contains, 
in  the  infant,  the  smallest  percentage  of  water  (84.38),  and  possesses  func- 
tional superiority.  The  high  percentages  of  86.77  in  the  white,  and  of 
87.76  in  the  gray  substance  of  the  brain  of  the  nursling  correspond  with 
the  inferior  qualities  of  these  parts  of  the  nerve-centres.  The  increasing 
percentage  of  water  in  the  brain  of  old  age,  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
adult,  is  the  anatomical  basis  of  the  "  second  childhood  "  ( Weissbach). 

The  differences  between  the  gray  and  white  cerebral  substances  are 
but  trifling  in  the  very  young;  the  brain  is  soft,  uniform,  grayish,  its 
ventricles  smooth,  the  convolutions  not  variegated.  In  more  advanced 
age  those  differences  are  well  marked  :  the  brain  is  harder,  the  ventricles 
more  irregular,  the  convolutions  more  numerous  and  various.  With  these 
differences  correspond  the  more  elaborate  functions  and  capacities  for 
labor. 

In  the  child  the  peripheric  nerves  are  comparatively  larg-er  than  the 
centres;  the  sympathetic  ganglia  being  the  only  exception  to  this  rule. 
The  spinal  cord  predominates  over  the  brain,  the  centres  of  motion  and 
circulation  in  the  anterior  horns  over  those  of  sensation;  therefore  we  find 
more  vascular  and  reflex  function,  and  less  intellectual  capacity.  The 
former  are  direct  outgro\vths  of  early  and  complete  development;  the 
latter  requires  time  for  growth. 

The  organs,  moreover,  do  not  develop  uniformly  in  all  their  parts.  It 
takes  time  before  the  several  parts  assume  their  normal  proportion  to  each 
other.  Originally  the  occipital  cavity  amounts  to  5,  the  parietal  portions 
to  81.11,  the  frontal  portion  to  13.89,  per  cent,  of  the  whole  capacity  of 
the  cranium.  The  first  grows  very  fast,  the  second  slowly,  the  third  but 
very  little.  The  increase  in  size  or  weight  is  by  no  means  any  more 
regular.  The  cerebellum  of  the  new-born  (25  grms.)  weighs  6.7  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  brain;  at  the  age  of  two  months  it  weighs  9.1;  at 
ten  or  fifteen  years,  12  or  13;  in  the  adult,  from  12  to  14.  Thus  a  nearly 
normal  proportion  is  developed  no  sooner  than  at  the  age  of  ten  or  over. 

Rapid  growth  in  the  first  few  years  is  the  rule  for  the  totality  of  the 
body,  and  for  its  several  parts;  its  ratio  is  not  the  same,  but  shows  a  re- 
markable resemblance  to  that  which  holds  good  in  a  great  many  organs  or 
regions.  Schadow  states  the  length  of  the  newly-born  to  be  18  inches; 
that  of  the  adult  66.  The  increase  amounts  to  10  inches  in  the  first  year, 
4  in  the  second,  4  in  the  third,  3  in  the  fourth,  3  in  the  fifth,  2  in  the  sixth, 
1  each  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  years.  Thus  the  retarda- 
tion commences  with  the  seventh  year. 

The  relation  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  trunk  (chest)  to  the  lower  is 


140  INFANT   HYGIENE. 

1  :  2  in  the  newly-born  ;  1  :  1.618  in  the  adult.  This  normal  proportion 
is  attained  with  the  eighth  year. 

The  lumbar  portion  grows  mainly  until  the  ninth  year  is  reached; 
then  again  between  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth,  about  the  time  of  puberty. 
Surely  it  ought  to  be  moderately  developed  before  children  are  kept  for  a 
long  time  in  a  sitting  posture.  About  the  same  time,  between  the  seventh 
and  ninth  years,  the  growth  of  the  lower  extremities  and  the  whole  body 
is  retarded. 

The  relation  of  the  height  of  the  cranium  to  the  face  is  1  :  1  in  the 
newly -born,  1  :  .618  in  the  adult.  This  stationary  proportion  is  attained 
about  the  eighth  year.  About  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  the  base  of  the 
brain  grows  rapidly,  and  the  frontal  bone  extends  forward  and  upward. 
The  anterior  portion  of  the  brain  grows  considerably;  but  the  white  sub- 
stance and  large  ganglia  still  preponderate.  Therefore  reception  and  re- 
tention are  the  main  cerebral  qualities.  At  that  time  memory  only  ought 
to  be  trained;  complicated  intellectual  labor  ought  not  to  be  enforced 
before  the  seventh  or  eighth  year,  in  conformity  with  the  above  anatomi- 
cal data,  which  show  a  certain  amount  of  consolidation — and  interrupted 
increase — of  all  the  organs  of  the  body. 

This  result  of  anatomical  and  physiological  facts  corresponds  fully  with 
the  demand  of  Friedrich  Froebel,  whose  experience  and  intuition  both  led 
him  to  postulate  the  eighth  year  as  the  period  in  life  in  which  children 
were  to  be  sent  to  school  regularly.  Until  that  time  they  are  to  be  enter- 
tained and  gradually  developed  in  the  Kindergarten.  Here  their  activity 
is  regulated,  their  attention  exercised,  and  their  muscles  invigorated. 
Both  imagination  and  memory  are  taxed  to  a  slight  degree  only.  With 
increasing  years,  the  young,  gray  substance  becoming  more  and  more 
developed,  their  thinking  powers  are  gradually  evolved.  As  soon  as 
there  is  a  sufficient  anatomical  basis  for  them,  it  will  not  do  to  neglect  any 
jDossibility.  The  secret  of  a  thorough  education  lies  in  the  uniform  de- 
velojDment  of  all  powers.  To  develop  one  at  the  expense  of  the  others  is 
apt  to  cripple  all.  In  the  same  manner  as  the  apparently  simple  muscular 
action  of  standing  in  an  erect  posture  is  fatiguing  and  exhausting  when 
compared  with  the  more  complicated  labor  of  walking,  the  exertion  or 
over-exertion  of  one  mental  faculty  over  the  rest  injures  all,  either  by  direct 
exhaustion,  or  by  gross  neglect  of  the  rest.  The  body  is  a  cosmos — a  re- 
publican world  in  itself — the  separate  parts,  small  and  large,  owing  alle- 
giance and  support  to  each  other.  Exercising  one  single  faculty  is  a  hard 
and  thankless  task.  Learning  by  heart  is  not  understanding;  cramming- 
is  not  knowing.  Our  school-books,  with  their  questions  and  answers,  and 
with  no  pretension  to  practise  thinking,  exhaust  our  children,  by  exercis- 
ing one  function  only,  while  neglecting  to  evolve  their  reflection.  What 
has  been  learned  by  heart,  without  being  understood  and  reflected  upon, 
is  soon  forgotten;  meanwhile  the  mind  has  not  even  been  sufficiently 
trained  during  childhood  and  youth  to  resist  in  later  years  the  gross  em- 
piricism we  are  suffering  from  in  politics,  social  life,  and  religion. 

Moreover,  the  injurious  influences  of  school-life,  such  as  it  is  at  present, 


INFANT    HYGIENE.  141 

take  hold  of  younger  children  more  easily  than  of  those  more  fully  de- 
veloped. Improper  or  changing  temperature,  bad  air,  dust,  contagion, 
insufficient  respiratory  action  and  muscular  exercise  in  general,  compres- 
sion of  abdominal  viscera,  endanger  young  children  very  much.  Nose- 
bleeding,  headaches,  aniemia,  and  scoliosis,  brought  on  by  muscular 
fatigue  through  the  raising  of  the  writing-arm,  by  improper  chairs,  by 
the  resting  on  one  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis,  date  from  early  years.  Ex- 
haustion of  the  brain,  when  brought  on  by  too  early  exercise,  will  increase 
the  tendency  to  brain  disease,  epilepsy,  chorea.  I  know  of  cases  in  which 
fatal  meningo-encephalitis  was  surely  brought  on  by  mental  overwork. 
But  these  are  subjects  which  will  be  treated  of  in  another  part  of  this 
work. 

The  time  I  recommended  above  as  the  proper  one  for  sending  children 
to  school,  is,  moreover,  that  in  which  morbility  and  mortality  are  no  longer 
great.  Contagious  diseases  and  affections  of  the  nerve-centres  are  no 
longer  frequent  about  the  eighth  year.  The  excessive  mortality  of  in- 
fancy and  childhood  is  exhausted  about  the  sixth  year.  Of  100  deaths  in 
one  year  in  New  York  city,  29.63  occurred  in  the  first;  10.03  in  the  sec- 
ond; 4.37  in  the  third;  2.40  in  the  fourth;  1.64  in  the  fifth;  3.20  in  the 
sixth — altogether  51.28  in  the  first  six  years;  in  the  period  between  the 
sixth  and  eleventh  years,  but  1.50  per  cent,  of  all  deaths  take  place,  ex- 
hibiting a  great  power  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  organism  at  that 
age.  Even  boarding-schools  and  orphan-asylums  show  but  a  slight  mor- 
tality among  children  during  that  period. 

No  rule,  however,  is  without  its  exception,  and  the  time  for  sending  a 
child  to  school  requires  individual  modifications.  There  may  be  reasons 
for  postponing  or  absolute  contraindications  to  the  sending  of  a  child  to 
school  at  all.  Contagious  diseases,  insufficient  cerebral  development, 
epilepsy,  chorea,  physical  debility,  some  malformations,  may  render  a 
child's  going  to  school  impossible  or  inadvisable.  But  the  parents  ought 
not  to  be  left  to  decide  independently  a  question  of  so  much  importance 
to  the  welfare  of  those  who  are  to  be  future  citizens.  The  state  or  the 
municipality  should  exercise  the  right  to  prevent  children  from  being- 
sent  to  school  at  a  premature  age. 


FOOD  AND  DRIITK. 


JAMES  TYSON,   M.D., 

PBOPESSOE  OF  GENEEAL  PATHOLOGY  AND  MOEBU)  ANATOMY  IN  THE  UNIVEESITY  OF  PENStSYLTANIA. 


FOOD  AND  DRINK. 


The  consideration  of  the  subject  of  Food  and  Drink  naturally  divides 
itself  into  two  parts — the  first  of  which  includes  their  classification  and 
physiological  uses,  based  upon  chemical  composition  ;  and  the  second, 
special  foods,  or  alimentary  substances,  their  qualities  in  the  pure,  sound, 
or  wholesome  state,  with  their  adulterations  and  inspection. 

All  intimate  knowledge  of  the  operations  of  food  and  of  the  require- 
ments of  a  wholesome  and  sufficient  diet  is  necessarily  based  upon  an 
accurate  notion  of  its  chemical  composition  and  physiological  action.  To 
the  consideration  of  these  we  will  therefore  devote  ourselves  with  some 
care,  describing  the  various  proximate  principles  which  by  their  union 
make  up  the  different  articles  of  diet,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  their 
office  in  force  or  tissue  production,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  their  course 
through  the  economy;  then  the  articles  of  the  so-called  Accessory  Diet 
(alcohol,  tobacco,  tea,  coffee,  etc.)  will  be  considered,  and  the  physiological 
action  peculiar  to  them  especially  indicated.  This  will  be  followed  by 
the  argument  showing  the  necessity  of  a  mixed  food,  in  which  will  be- 
pointed  out  the  derangements  which  follow  the  use  of  an  exclusive  or  re- 
stricted diet,  and  the  modifications  demanded  by  differences  in  temperature 
and  climate.  Then  will  be  considered  the  effects  of  cooking  upon  food, 
the  true  position  of  soups,  and  beef-teas,  and  essences,  so  called;  also  the 
proper  daily  amount  of  food,  as  determined  by  experience  and  experiment, 
for  different  occupations  and  surroundings,  with  the  dietaries  of  armies 
and  navies.  Finally,  the  most  important  diseases  caused  by  use  of  defi- 
cient, excessive,  diseased  or  unwholesome  food,  so  far  as  untouched  under 
the  argument  for  the  necessity  of  a  proper  mixed  diet,  will  obtain  a  place 
in  our  chapter. 

The  subject  of  special  foods,  their  adulteration  and  inspection,  will 
form  the  subject  of  another  chapter,  by  a  different  writer. 

In  food  are  included  all  substances  which,  after  ingestion,  contrib- 
ute to  the  structural,  chemical,  and  functional  integrity  of  the  organism, 
whether  they  be  directly  converted  into  its  tissues,  contribute  by  their 
oxidation  to  its  heat  and  other  forces,  or  simply  furnish  conditions  favor- 
able to  these  operations.  According  to  such  definition,  water  and  other 
inorganic  substances  which  contribute  in  the  latter  way,  by  facilitating 
solution,  osinosis  ("  molecular  currents  "),  and  tissue  metamorphosis,  are 
Yoh.  I.— 10 


146  FOOD    AISTD    DRINK. 

as  truly  food  as  the  flesh  and  vegetable  matter  which  are  directly  con- 
verted into  tissue,  or  serve  to  produce  the  forces  of  the  economy.  That 
they  are  as  indispensable,  has  been  abundantly  proven  by  observation  and 
experiment.  But  this  difference  in  the  mode  of  operation  of  these  two 
kinds  of  aliment  suggests  its  division  into  two  classes,  the  direct  and  the 
indirect :  the  former  including  substances  directly  convertible  into  the 
elements  of  the  blood  and  solid  tissues,  or  contributing  to  force  produc- 
tion; and  the  latter,  substances  which  influence  the  phenomena  of  nutri- 
tion in  various  waj^s. 

According  to  such  a  definition,  it  is  evident,  also,  that  what  in  ordi- 
nary language  is  known  as  "  drink,"  becomes  a  subdivision  of  food,  and, 
as  such,  the  various  substances  constituting  "  drink  "  will  be  considered  in 
this  article. 

Classification  of  Food. 

Food  is  further  divided  into  "  alimentary  substances  "  and  "  alimen- 
tary principles."  The  former  include  the  articles  of  food  as  supplied  us 
by  nature,  as  meat,  fish,  milk,  vegetables,  etc. ;  the  latter  include  the 
definite  compounds  into  which  these  alimentary  substances  are  resolvable 
by  proximate  analysis,  as  the  albuminous  principles,  oily  principles,  starchy 
principles. 

Numerous  classifications  of  "  alimentary  principles "  have  been  at 
different  times  suggested,  some  of  which  are  exceedingly  elaborate  and 
proportionately  cumbersome.  There  are  two,  however,  which  demand 
attention,  both  being  recommended  by  their  simplicity,  while  one  will  be 
made  the  basis  of  our  study  of  the  subject.  These  are  the  classifications 
of  Liebig  and  Prout. 

The  classification  of  Liebig  divides  food  into:  I.  Organic  nitrogenous 
or  plastic  elements  of  nutrition  or  histogenetic  food : — including  the  albu- 
men, fibrin,  casein,  musculin,  globulin,  etc.,  of  eggs,  flesh,  blood,  and 
milk;  gluten  or  vegetable  albumen  from  the  various  grains;  and  legumine, 
a  similar  substance,  comparable  to  animal  casein,  found  in  peas,  beans, 
lentils,  and  other  leguminous  plants.  These  j)rinciples  are  made  up  of 
the  elements  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  sulphur,  and  occasion- 
ally phosphorus,  combined  in  different  proportions.  II.  Non-nitroge- 
oious  or  calorifacient  food — respiratory  food,  or  elements  of  respiration — 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  only.  These  include,  1st, 
the  carbohydrates,  or  substances  in  which  hydrogen  and  oxygen  exist  in 
the  proportion  to  form  water  (sugars,  gums,  starches,  etc.);  and,  2d,  hy- 
drocarbons, or  fats  and  oils,  with  their  derivatives  and  allies.  These 
are  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  combination  with  only  a  small 
proportion  of  oxygen.  III.  Inorganic  ])rinciples,  including  water  and 
salts. 

To  the  first  of  these  groups  Liebig  ascribed  the  exclusive  function  of 
histogenesis  or  tissue  formation  /  to  the  second,  that  of  heat  production 
solely,  by  the  oxidation  throughout  the  body  of  the  carbon  and  hydro- 


FOOD    AND    DEINK.  147 

gen,  which  enter  so  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  substances  in- 
cluded under  it.  Liebig  erred  in  the  exclusiveness  of  the  function 
assigned  to  each  of  the  two  kinds  of  organic  food.  For  it  is  now  well 
understood  that  the  unceasing  and  innumerable  molecular  changes  which 
constitute  the  nitrogenous  metabolism  of  the  body  are  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  its  heat;  while  the  nitrogenized,  or  albuminoid  principles,  under- 
go metamorphosis  into  fatty  and  even  starch-like  substances.  Long  ago 
Liebio-  himself  showed  that  the  butter  present  in  the  milk  of  a  cow  is 
much  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  scanty  fat  found  in  the 
grass  or  fodder  she  consumes ;  and  that  the  wax  produced  by  bees  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  fat  contained  in  their  food,  which  is  chiefly  sugar. 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  have  also  shown  that  for  every  100  parts  of  fat  in  the 
food  of  a  fattening  pig,  472  parts  were  stored  up  as  fat  during  the  fatten- 
ing period.  Further  examples  of  this  transformation  are  seen  in — 1st,  the 
formation  of  adipocere^  or  the  peculiar  fatty  substance  into  which  the  albu- 
minoid tissues  of  dead  bodies  are  sometimes  converted  after  burial;'  2d, 
the  transformation  of  casein  into  fat  in  standing  milk;  3d,  a  similar  trans- 
formation in  the  ripening  of  cheese;  4th,  the  appearance  of  stearin  in  the 
body,  when  a  stearin-free  fat,  as  palm-oil,  is  added  to  albuminous  food 
(Subbotin).  These  phenomena  are  independent  of  the  fatty  degenera- 
tions in  which,  along  with  numerous  other  molecular  changes,  fat  is 
formed  by  the  breaking  up  of  proteid  amalgams. 

In  the  second  place,  fatty  matter  undoubtedly  plays,  in  certain  situa- 
tions, the  role  of  a  "  tissue,"  and  as  such  is  indispensable  to  the  integrity 
of  the  structure  in  wdiich  it  is  found.  This  is  the  case  with  muscular  tissue, 
gland-tissue,  and  brain  substance,  in  all  of  which  fatty  matter  is  essential; 
and  to  the  formation  of  the  so-called  adipose  tissue  it  contributes  largely. 

The  general  uses  of  these  principles  are,  however,  undoubtedly  cor- 
rectly assigned  by  Liebig,  ample  proof  of  which  is  seen  in  the  well-known 
large  consumption  of  fat  by  the  inhabitants  of  frigid  zones,  and  the  in- 
creased desire  for  fatty  food  in  those  native  to  temperate  climates  during 
a  temporary  residence  in  cold  latitudes.  If,  then,  this  exclusiveness  of 
function  assigned  by  Liebig  to  the  two  divisions  of  organic  food  be  thrown 
aside,  his  classification  becomes  sufficiently  accurate,  simple,  and  easily  re- 
membered. 

Equally  simple,  however,  and  more  easy  of  comprehension  by  all,  is  a 
slight  modification  of  the  classification  of  Dr.  Prout,  which  is  based  upon 


^  It  should  be  stated  that  some  chemists,  as  Gay-Ltissac,  Chevreul,  and  Berzelins, 
claimed  that  adipocere  is  not  the  result  of  the  metamorphosis  of  albuminous  matter, 
but  simj)ly  represents  the  fat  originally  present  in  the  body,  and  that  the  nitrogenous 
tissues  have  disintegrated  and  disappeared.  This  view  would  seem  to  be  sustained  by 
the  statement  sometimes  made  that  these  bodies  are  shrunk  and  flattened ;  but  this  is 
far  from  the  case  in  an  admirable  example  of  an  adipocere  body  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Medical  Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  is  as  rounded  in  con- 
tour as  it  woiild  be  possible  to  be  in  health,  while,  instead  of  being  lighter  than  a 
body  of  corresponding  size  which  had  lost  its  nitrogenous  constituents,  its  weight  is  at 
least  as  great. 


148  FOOD    AISTD    DEIISTK. 

the  proximate  composition  of  milk — the  typical  form  of  animal  food,* 
The  classification,  which  we  Avill  adopt  as  the  basis  of  our  study,  divides 
food  into 

I. — Direct  Aliment. 

1.  Nitrogenous  or  albuminoiis  alimentary  principles,  or  proteids. 

2.  Oleaginous  principles — hydrocarbons  or  fats. 

3.  Saccharine  and  amylaceous  principles,  or  amyloids;  also  called  car- 
bohydrates. 

II. — IxBiEECT  Aliment. 

1.  Inorganic  principles. 

2.  Certain  organic  principles. 

3.  Accessory  principles. 

I. — Direct  Aliment. 

Nitrogenous  or  Albuminous  Principles — Proteids. 

Under  these  are  included  the  albumen  of  eggs,  or  egg-albumen;  the 
albumen,  fibrin,  globulin,  myosin,  syntonin,  and  other  albuminoid  princi- 
ples of  animal  flesh  and  blood;  the  vitellin  of  the  yolk  of  eggs;  the  casein 
and  albumen  of  milk;  the  gluten,  vegetable  albumen  and  fibrin  of  grains, 
viz.,  wheat,  rye,  corn  (maize),  and  oats;  and  the  legumin  or  vegetable 
casein  of  peas,  beans,  lentils,  and  other  leguminous  plants,  together  with 
such  albuminoid  substances  as  are  contained  in  the  juices  of  the  green  and 
soft  parts  of  edible  plants  and  fruits  (cabbage,  cauliflower,  lettuce,  apples, 
pears,  etc.).  Here,  too,  belongs  gelatin,  the  peculiar  principle  produced 
by  boiling  the  so-called  gelatin-producing  or  connective  substances,  i.  e., 
connective  or  areolar  tissue,  tendon,  bone,  cartilage,  and  horn.  Notwith- 
standing the  low  nutritive  value  of  gelatin,  as  determined  by  the  French 
and  Dutch  Commissions,^  and  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  Voit  and 

'  Dr.  Front's  classification,  as  presented  in  the  fourth  edition,  p.  448,  of  his  treatise 
"On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Stomach  and  Renal  Diseases,"  London,  1843,  is  as 
follows  :  Aqueous,  saccharine,  oleaginous,  and  albuminous.  The  inorganic  elements  of 
food  are  only  alluded  to  by  him  when  treating,  p.  479,  of  what  be  describes  as  secondary 
assimilation,  or  that  which  takes  place  subsequent  to  sanguification,  including  also 
destructive  assimilation.  These  ' '  mineral  incidental  principles  of  organized  beings,"  he 
says,  may,  "under  certain  extraordinary  circumstances,"  be  generated  "during  the 
vital  processes,"  but  ordinarily  "  such  elements  are  chiefly  derived  ah  externo.  in  con- 
junction with  the  alimentary  principles."  In  substituting  the  term  inorganic  for 
aqueous,  we  include  the  latter  substances,  while  the  additional  importance  assigned  by 
modern  physiology  to  other  inorganic  food  is  also  acknowledged.  The  ir^odification  of 
Front's  classification,  adopted  by  Dr.  Carpenter  in  his  edition  of  1855  and  previous 
ones,  and  which  consisted  in  the  addition  of  a  group  of  gelatinous  food  to  the  other 
divisions  of  Frout,  is  dropped  in  the  seventh  and  later  editions,  where  he  practically 
returns  to  the  original  classification  of  Prout. 

^Report  of  the  Fren'.-h  Gelatin  Commission  in  the  Comp.  Rend.,  Tome  XIII.,  p. 
254,  Aout,  1841,  and  the  Amsterdam  Com.  in  Heb.  Instit.,  No.  2,  1843,  and  Gazette 
Medicale,  Mars  IG,  1844. 


FOOD    AND    DEINK.  149 

Bischoff,'  its  proj^er  position  is  ainong-  the  nitrogenous  principles  of  food. 
The  term  chondrin  is  a23plied  to  the  gelatinous  principle  produced  by  boil- 
ing: cartilage. 

Albumen. — Albumen  may  be  considered  the  typical  proteid  substance. 
Its  percentage  composition,  according  to  Hoiope-Seyler,-  is  as  follows: 


0. 

H. 

N. 

C. 

S. 

From  20.9 

G.9 

15.4 

52.7 

0.8 

to     23.5 

to 

7.3 

to 

l(j.5     to 

54.0 

to 

2.0 

which  may  serve  for  that  of  all  the  proteids. 

Notwithstanding  their  similarity  of  composition,  there  are  some  dif- 
ferences in  the  albumens  derived  from  diiferent  sources,  which  justify 
a  separate  consideration.  Thus  we  have,  first,  native  albumens  and  de- 
rived albumens,  or  albuminates.  By  the  former  are  meant  albumens  in 
their  natural  condition  in  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the  body.  They  are 
soluble  in  water,  not  precipitated  by  dilute  acids,  by  carbonates  of  the 
alkalies,  or  by  sodium  chloride.  They  coagulate  at  a  temperature  of 
158°  F.  (70°  C),  and  when  dried  at  a  temperature  of  104°  F.  (40°  C.)  a 
pale  yellow,  friable,  tasteless,  inodorous  mass  results.  Albumens  are 
generally  intimately  united  with  a  small  amount  of  saline  matter  and  also 
•of  fat. 

I.  Of  native  albumens  there  are  two,  egg-albumen  and  serum-albumen. 

1.  Egg-albumen  is  familiar  to  all  in  its  viscid,  yellowish,  transj^arent 
state,  known  as  the  white  of  e,gg.  It  is  precipitated  vdthout  coagulation 
by  excess  of  strong  alcohol;  and  at  first  the  precipitate  may  be  redissolved, 
but  by  continued  action  of  the  alcohol  the  albumen  is  coagulated  and  can- 
not be  redissolved.  It  is  coagulated  by  strong  acids,  as  nitric,  and  by 
■ether;  and  precipitated,  but  not  coagulated,  by  mercuric  chloride,  silver 
nitrate,  and  lead  acetate.  Strong  acetic  acid  and  strong  caustic  potash 
Avhen  added  to  a  concentrated  solution  convert  it  into  a  transparent  jelly. 

2.  Serum-albumen  is  found  in  blood-serum,  lymph,  chyle,  milk,  transu- 
dations from  the  blood,  and  many  pathological  fluids,  among  which  is 
albuminous  urine.  Although  similar  to  egg-albumen,  it  differs  from  it  in 
these  respects: — it  is  not  coagulated  by  ether  or  readily  precipitated  by 
.strong  hydrochloric  acid,  while  the  precipitate  finally  obtained  by  the  lat- 
ter is  redissolved  on  the  addition  of  more  acid;  finally,  precipitated  or  co- 
agulated serum-albumen  is  soluble  in  strong  nitric  acid,  egg-albumen  not. 

II.  Of  derived  albumens  there  are  also  two,  acid-albumen  and  alkali- 
albumen. 

1.  Acid-albumen  is  produced  by  the  action  of  a  dilute  or  strong  acid 
upon  a  native  albumen  in  solution,  be  it  serum-  or  egg-albumen.  Its  prop- 
■erties  are  thus  completely  altered,  but  most  striking  are  these:  its  solu- 
tion is  no  longer  coagulated  by  heat,  but,  on  neutralization,  all  of  the  albu- 
men is  precipitated;  it  is  readily  soluble  in  dilute  acids  or  alkalis,  and  these 

'  Gesetze  der  Emahrung-,  1860,  p.  215. 

''■  Handbuch  der  phys.,  path.,  chem.  Anal.,  p.  233. 


150  FOOD    AND    DEmK. 

solutions  are  not  coagulated  hy  boiling .  When  suspended  in  an  undis- 
solved state  in  water,  and  heated  to  158°  F.  (70°  C),  it  is  coagulated,  and 
cannot  then  be  distinguished  from  coagulated  serum-albumen. 

2.  Alhali-alhuinen  is  produced  by  the  action  of  a  dilute  or  strong 
alkali  upon  serum-  or  egg-albumen  or  washed  muscle.  The  product  thus 
obtained,  like  acid-albumen,  is  not  coagulable  by  heat,  and  like  it  is  pre- 
cipitated on  neutralization;  and  the  precipitate,  quite  insoluble  in  water 
and  neutral  sodium  chloride  solutions,  is  easily  soluble  in  weak  acids  or 
alkalis. 

A  similar  result  is  therefore  produced  by  the  action  of  acid  or  alkali 
upon  a  native  albumen.  There  are  still,  however,  differences.  Thus,  acid- 
albumen  contains  sulphur;  alkali-albumen  does  not.  Alkali-albumen  is 
not  precipitated  when  its  alkaline  solutions  are  neutralized  in  the  presence 
of  alkaline  phosj^hates;  the  acid  solutions  are  precipitated  when  neutral- 
ized under  these  circumstances.  Both  alkali-  and  acid-albumen  are  pre- 
cipitated with  difficulty  from  their  acid  or  alkaline  solutions  by  alcohol, 
but  the  neutralization  precipitate  becomes  coagulated  under  the  prolonged 
action  of  alcohol.  Dr.  Foster  prefers  to  regard  acid-  and  alkali-albumen 
as  acid  and  alkali  compounds  of  the  neutralization  precipitate,  since  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that,  when  the  precipitate  is  dissolved  in  either  an 
acid  or  an  alkali,  it  enters  into  combination  with  them.  The  neutraliza- 
tion precipitate,  which  is,  itself,  neither  acid-  nor  alkali-albumen,  but  may 
become  either,  may  be  considered  an  albuminate.' 

Fibrin. — It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  fibrin  as  such  is  not  pres- 
ent in  the  living  blood,  one  of  the  constituents  of  which  it  was  so  long 
acknowledged  to  be.  The  researches  of  A.  Schmidt  ^  have  shown  that  it 
is  the  result  of  the  interaction  between  two  substances  contained  in  the 
\AoodL,  fibrinogemxidL  jibrino-plastin  or  paraglobulin,  in  the  presence  of  a 
third,  fibrin -ferment.  The  most  recent  researches  of  Schmidt  show  that, 
while  the  fibrinogen  is  a  normal  constituent  of  the  blood-plasma,  fibrino- 
plastin  and  fibrin-ferment  are  both  derived  from  the  colorless  corpuscles.  It 
is  only  at  the  death  and  disintegration  of  the  latter  that  the  fibrino-plastin 
and  fibrin-ferment  are  liberated,  and  produce  their  effect  upon  fibrinogen,, 
the  result  of  which  is  fibrin. 

Fibrin  thus  formed  is  a  fibrillated  proteid,  containing  the  same  ele- 
ments as  albumen,  but  a  larger  amount  of  sulphur. 

Globulin. — Globulin  is  the  albuminoid  constituent  of  the  fluid  part  of 
the  red  blood-discs,  in  which  it  is  united  with  hsematin,  forming  hfemo- 
globin.  It  also  exists  in  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye.  It  differs  from  al- 
bumen in  not  being  soluble  in  distilled  water,  requiring,  to  effect  this,  the 
presence  of  a  small  quantity  of  a  neutral  saline  solution,  as  of  sodium  chlo- 
rin.  It  is  also  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and  alkalis,  by  which  it  is  converted 
into  acid-  and  alkali-albumen  respectively. 

Myosin. — This  is  the  proteid  constituent  of  dead  muscle.    In  its  moist 

'  Foster  :  Physiology,  1st  ed.,  London,  1877,  p.  500. 

-  Schmidt:  Pfliiger's  Arch.,  vi.,  1873,  p.  413  ;  xi.,  1875,  pp.  291  and  515  ;  xiii.,  pp.. 
93  and  14(3. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  151 

state  it  is  a  gelatinous,  elastic  mass;  when  dry,  it  is  brittle  and  semi- 
transparent.  It  is  soluble  in  dilute  saline  solutions,  as  of  sodium  chloride, 
whence  it  is  precipitated  by  further  dilution  or  adding-  an  excess  of  the 
same  chloride.  In  such  solutions  it  is  also  coagulated  by  boiling,  and  is 
precipitated  by  the  prolonged  action  of  alcohol.  It  is  described  as  inter- 
mediate between  globulin  and  fibrin. 

Syntonin  is  simply  the  acid-albumen  of  myosin,  into  which  the  latter 
is  converted  by  the  action  of  dilute  acids,  while  it  is  converted  into  alkali- 
albumen  by  the  action  of  dilute  alkalis.  Syntonin  is  obtained  by  treating 
finely  chopped  muscle,  whence  the  soluble  albumens  have  been  removed, 
by  repeated  washing  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  This  dissolves  most 
of  the  muscle.  The  syntonin  (acid-albumen)  thus  obtained  is  in  no  way 
distinguishable  from  the  acid-albumen  prepared  from  egg-  or  serum- 
albumen. 

Vitellin. — This  is  the  modified  albumen  contained  in  the  yolk  of  eggs, 
where  it  is  intimately  united  with  a  complex  substance  known  as  lecithin, 
from  which,  indeed,  it  cannot  be  freed  without  coagulation  and  consequent 
alteration.  The  altered  product  thus  obtained  is  a  white  granular  body, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  dilute  sodium  chloride  solutions. 
It  is  not  again  precipitated  from  such  solution  by  saturation,  as  is  myosin. 
When  pure,  it  contains  .75  of  one  per  ceTit.  of  sulphur,  but  no  phosphorus. 
It  is  also  converted  into  acid-  or  alkali-albumen  by  the  respective  action  of 
dilute  acids  and  alkalis. 

Casein. — Casein  is  the  proteid  of  milk,  and  is  the  chief  constituent  of 
cheese.  Freed  from  fat  and  moist,  it  is  friable  and  opaque  white.  In  its 
reactions  it  is  similar  to  alkali-albumen,  being  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and 
alkalis,  and  reprecipitated  on  neutralization  ;  though,  if  sodium  phos- 
phate is  present,  as  in  milk,  much  acid  is  required  to  precipitate  it.  It 
differs  from  artificially  prepared  alkali -albumen  in  yielding  a  sulphide  of 
potassium  when  heated  with  caustic  potash;  and  when  digested  in  arti- 
ficial gastric  juice,  it  furnishes  a  body  containing  phosphorus,  whereas  the 
alkali-albumen  made  from  white  of  egg  contains  none.  Casein  differs 
from  fibrin  in  not  coagulating 'spontaneously,  and  from  albumen  in  not 
coagulating  by  heat.  It  is  thrown  down  by  organic  acids  which  do  not 
precipitate  albumen.  In  addition  to  the  four  elements,  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  it  contains  sulphur,  but  there  is  some  uncertainty 
as  to  its  exact  chemical  composition.  It  unites  readily  with  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  tenacity  with  which  it  retains  a  large 
quantity  of  that  substance. 

It  is  prepared  by  Hoppe-Seyler's  method,  as  follows:  Dilute  milk  with 
several  times  its  bulk  of  water;  add,  drop  by  drop,  dilute  acetic  acid  until 
a  precipitate  is  obtained;  filter  and  wash  the  coagulum  with  water,  alco- 
hol, and  ether.  Magnesium  sulphate  added  to  saturation  also  precipitates 
casein  from  milk.' 


^  Grorup-Bessanez,  Lehrbuch  der  physiologischen  Chemie,  1874,  p.  135 ;  also  Foster, 

op.  cit.,  p.  501. 


152  FOOD    AND    DRINK. 

Vegetable  albumen  -and  fibrin. — ^Vegetable  albumen  is  contained  in 
wheat  and  other  cereals;  also  in  the  juices  of  most  vegetables,  as  turnips, 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  carrots,  lettuce,  etc.,  whence  it  may  be  precipitated 
by  heat.  It  is  also  found  associated  with  vegetable  casein  in  the  oil-con- 
taining seeds,  as  almonds,  walnuts,  hickory-nuts,  etc. 

Vegetable  albumen  is  that  portion  of  flour  soluble  in  water  and  pre- 
cipitable  from  its  solution  by  heat.     Its  proportion  is  not  large. 

Vegetable ^/fJri'rt  remains  behind  when  flour  is  washed  with  a  stream  of 
water  for  the  extraction  of  gluten.  The  albumen,  starch,  mucilage,  sugar, 
and  some  other  soluble  matters,  are  carried  away  with  the  water,  and  a 
tenacious  mass  is  left,  known  as  crude  gluten.  This  is  the  substance 
which  results  when  flour  is  kneaded  with  water.  This  crude  gluten^  which 
makes  up  10  to  35  per  cent,  of  wheat,  but  is  sjoarsely  present  in  other  grains, 
is  a  complex  bod}'^  composed  of  vegetable  fibrin,  casein,  and  pure  gluten. 
By  the  action  of  boiling  alcohol  the  inire  gluten  and  casein  are  dissolved 
out,  and  the  vegetable  fibrin  remains.  Vegetable  fibrin  also  exists  in  the 
juice  of  the  grape  and  most  vegetables.  Of  the  two  substances,  gluten 
and  vegetable  fibrin,  which  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  nitrogenous  portion 
of  the  wheat -grain,  gluten  preponderates  in  the  central  farinaceous  portion, 
and  the  vegetable  fibrin  in  the  exterior. 

Vegetable  casein  or  legumin. — Vegetable  casein  is  contained  in  peas, 
beans,  lentils,  and  other  leguminous  seeds.  It  also  exists  Avith  casein  in 
the  almond,  walnut,  and  other  oil-containing  seeds. 

Gelatin  and  chondrin. — The  special  sources  of  these  have  already 
been  sufficienth^  referred  to  (p.  148).  They  are  derived  only  from  ani- 
mal tissues,  ihe.  jelly  of  fruits  being  something  very  different.  The  latter 
contains  the  three  elements  only,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  while 
gelatin  contains,  in  addition  to  these,  nitrogen  and  also  sulphur. 

The  striking  peculiarity  of  these  substances  is  the  gelatinization  of 
their  watery  solutions  on  cooling,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  the  pecu- 
liar transparent  "  trembling  "  substance  with  which  all  are  familiar  under 
the  name  ccdveifoot  jelly.  Gelatin  and  chondrin  also  form  the  basis  of 
most  soups. 

The  course  and  destination  of  the  cdbuminous  principles. — What- 
ever the  differences  in  these  proteid  substances — and  it  is  evident  they 
are  not  great — or,  however  varied  their  sources  in  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdom,  their  course  when  taken  as  food  is  one  and  the  same. 
After  ingestion  and  mastication,  when  this  is  required,  they  are  all  con- 
verted in  the  stomach,  through  the  agency  of  the  gastric  juice  and  to  a 
certain  extent  by  the  pancreatic  juice  in  the  small  intestine,  into  albu- 
minose  or  peptones  and  a  small  but  variable  quantity  oi  p>arapeptones. 

Albuminose  or  peptone  is  itself  a  proteid  not  differing  essentially  in 
chemical  composition  from  the  undigested  proteids.  It  differs  from  acid- 
albumen  in  not  being  precipitated  from  its  acid  or  alkaline  solutions  by 
neutralization;  and  from  the  other  proteids  in  not  being  coagulated  by  heat, 
nor  precipitated  by  potassium  ferrocyanide  and  acetic  acid;  and  in  being 
highly  diffusible,  jDassing  through  animal  membranes  with  the  greatest 


rOOD    AXD    DKIXK.  153 

facility.  It  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol,  but  is  precipitated  by  absolute. 
The  second  jDroduct  of  digestion  of  albuminoid  substances,  para  peptones, 
which  is  smaller  in  quantity  the  more  perfect  is  digestion,  is  really  acid 
albumen  or  syntonin,  and  possesses  the  same  properties. 

The  albuminose  or  peptone  is  absorbed,  chiefly  by  the  capillary  blood- 
vessels of  the  small  intestine,  and  to  a  very  slight  extent,  if  at  all,  by  those 
of  the  stomach;  thence  it  passes  into  those  veins,  which  by  their  union 
form  the  portal  vein,  by  which  it  is  carried  through  the  liver. 

Until  recently  it  was  supposed  that  albuminose  was  the  sole  product 
of  the  digestion  of  proteids.  It  is  now,  however,  definitely  known  that 
during  the  pancreatic  digestion  of  these  substances  there  appear,  in  ad- 
dition to  peptone,  two  other  nitrogenous  crystalline  jjrinciples,  leucin  and 
tyrosine  and,  as  the  proportion  of  these  increases,  that  of  peptone  dimin- 
ishes. The  proteid  substances,  therefore,  absorbed  from  the  small  intes- 
tine, include  peptone,  leucin,  and  tyrosin. 

At  this  point,  however,  our  precise  knowledge  of  the  course  and  fate 
■of  proteids,  how  far  and  how  they  are  converted  into  the  tissues  of  the 
body,  consumed  in  joroducing  its  heat  and  energy,  or  thrown  off  among 
the  excreta  as  urea,  carbonic  acid  and  salts,  ceases.  Speculation,  aided, 
of  course,  by  chemical  analysis  of  the  fluids  and  secretions  of  the  body  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  ingesta,  aided  also  by  the  laws  of  physics  and 
chemistry  applied  to  the  phenomena  of  the  organism,  determines  our 
knowledge  of  these  matters.  It  must  be  admitted  that  great  strides  have 
recently  been  made  in  this  direction  concurrent  with  the  advances  in 
modern  organic  chemistry.  For  this  we  are  indebted  to  such  chemists  as 
Ktihne,  Hoppe-Seyler,  Gorup-Bessanez,  Yoit,  Bischoff,  Pettenkofer,  and 
others.  But  much  uncertainty  still  overhangs  the  subject,  and  what  is  now 
written  may  have  to  be  materially  changed  in  the  course  of  future  prog- 
ress. There  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  peptones  are  converted 
into  the  albumen  of  the  blood  very  soon  after  their  introduction  into  that 
fluid,  and  that  the  liver  is  the  probable  seat  of  this  conversion.  But  the 
precise  changes  which  subsequently  occur  are  not  known. 

The  Uses  in  the  Economy  of  Albuminous  or  Proteid  Food. 

The  uses  of  the  nitrogenous  elements  of  food  are  two:  first,  to  build 
lip  and  maintain  the  nitrogenous  tissues;  second,  the  production  of 
force — force  being  here  manifested  in  the  shape  of  heat  and  muscular  and 
nervous  power.  The  former  is  primarily  essential,  as  are  essential  the 
materials  of  the  machine,  both  for  its  first  construction  and  its  repair. 
But  as  the  amount  of  material  required  after  such  primary  construction  is 
completed,  is  undoubtedly  trifling  compared  with  what  is  consumed  for 
the  generation  of  the  force  of  which  it  is  capable,  so  with  the  human  organ- 
ism, the  chief  use  of  proteid  food  is  the  production  of  force. 

Liebig  originally  held,  and  it  was  long  admitted,  that  the  nitrogenous 
food  in  all  instances  was  first  converted  into  the  nitrogenous  tissues  of 
the  body,  and  that,  from  the  wear  and  tear,  and  consequent  disintegration 


154  rOOD    AND    DEINK. 

of  these,  there  resulted,  on  the  one  hand,  urea,  which  was  excreted  with 
the  urine,  and,  on  the  other,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  which  were  oxidized. 
Now  the  reverse  is  held.  Nitrogenous  food  does  not  first  pass  into  nitro- 
genous tissues;  and  it  is  not  through  their  disintegration  that  the  forces 
of  the  oro-anism  are  generated,  any  more  than  by  the  direct  consumption 
of  the  material  of  the  machine.  They  result  from  the  oxidation  of  the 
carbon  and  hydrogen  as  they  exist  in  the  various  foods;  just  as  the  forces 
of  the  machine  are  due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  its 
fuel.  The  chief  object,  then,  of  food,  and  especially  of  nitrogenous  food, 
is  to  act  as  fuel  for  the  production  of  muscular  and  nervous  force,  a  cer- 
tain small  amount  being  also  required  for  the  repair  of  the  tissues  of  the 
organism,  which  are  slowly  consumed,  just  as  the  parts  of  the  machine 
are  consumed  by  its  action,  and  the  more  rapidly,  the  more  constant  and 
violent  its  action. 

The  old  view  of  Liebig,  that  muscular  action  is  due  to  the  oxida- 
tion of  muscular  tissue,  was  first  eifectually  ojDposed  by  Drs.  Fick  and 
Wislicenus,  of  Zurich,  in  1866.  These  experimenters  proved  that  in- 
creased muscular  exertion,  such  as  was  made  in  an  ascent  of  the  Faul- 
horn,  was  not  attended  by  increased  urea-elimination, — which  is  admitted 
by  all  to  be  the  measure  of  nitrogenous  excretion.  Not  only  this,  but 
further  calculations,  made  by  Fick  and  Wislicenus,  showed  that  the 
amount  of  work  performed  in  this  ascent  exceeded  by  one-half  in  the 
case  of  the  former,  and  three-fourths  in  that  of  the  latter,  the  amount  oi 
force  which  could  possibly  be  generated  by  the  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen 
eliminated.  Their  results  have  been  amply  confirmed  by  the  more  recent 
observations  of  Dr.  Parkes,  in  1867  and  1871;  while  Liebig  himself,  in 
1869,  admitted  that  muscular  work  and  urea-elimination  bear  no  relation 
to  each  other,  and  that  among  the  products  of  muscular  disintegration 
urea  is  not  one.'  The  opposite  results,  arrived  at  by  Prof.  Austin  Flint, 
Jr.,  in  experimental  observations  on  the  pedestrian  Weston,  in  1870  and 
1871,  are  not  generally  accepted  by  modern  physiologists. 

The  method  and  situation  in  which  this  force-production  takes  place 
must  now  claim  our  attention.  As  early  as  1854,  Lawes  and  Gilbert 
proved  that  the  nitrogen  eliminated  in  the  urine  varied  as  that  intro- 
duced in  the  food,  being  increased  by  a  nitrogenous  diet,  intermediate  in 
a  mixed,  and  reduced  to  a  minimum  with  non-nitrogenous  food.  This 
observation  was  confirmed  by  Lehmann,  Schmidt,  Fick  and  Weslicenus, 
Dr.  Parkes,  and  Mr.  Mahomed  in  careful  experiments  upon  himself  in 

1871. 

The  great  bvilk  of  the  urea,  then,  may  be  considered  as  coming  from 
the  excess  of  nitrogenous  food  ingested  over  and  above  that  required  to 
repair  the  waste  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues.  According  to  Bidder  and 
Schmidt,  Voit,  and  others,  this  extra  albuminous  food  enters  the  blood, 
and  constitutes  there  an  excess,  which  they  term  a  "floating  capital," 
upon  which  the  tissues  may  draw  for  their  repair.     That  which  is  not  re- 


Proceedings  of  the  Koyal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences,  1869. 


rOOD    AND    DKINK.  155 

quired  for  such  repair  is  broken  up  into  a  urea-moiety  and  a  force-moiety, 
the  former  of  which  is  excrementitious,  and  the  latter  is  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  force  in  one  of  two  methods  to  be  considered. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  formation  of  urea  takes  place  in 
the  liver,  whence  it  is  carried  by  the  blood  tc^  the  kidneys.  In  these 
organs  it  is  removed  by  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  uriniferous  tubules  by 
a  selective  power  characteristic  of  all  glandular  tissues.  Meissner  and 
Cyon  have  shown  that  urea  is  always  present  in  large  quantity  in  the 
liver  of  mammals  ;  but  in  grave  organic  disease  of  this  organ,  in  which  its 
function  is  arrested,  as  in  acute  yellow  atrophy,  urea  disappears  from  the 
liver  as  well  as  from  the  urine,  in  which  it  is  replaced  by  leucin  and 
tyrosin. 

According  to  a  second  view,  ably  presented  by  Foster  in  his  recent 
Text-Book  of  Physiology,'  but  regarded  by  him  as  probable  rather  than 
fully  established,  this  splitting  up  of  the  excess  of  nitrogenous  food  at  least 
begins  in  the  small  intestine.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  among  the 
products  of  the  pancreatic  digestion  of  proteid  substances  in  the  small  in- 
testines, are  leucin  and  tyrosin,  and  that  these  substances  are  carried  along 
with  the  peptones  by  the  portal  vessels  to  the  liver.  Now,  the  larger  the 
amount  of  nitrogenous  food,  the  larger  is  the  proportion  of  leucin  and  tyro- 
sin produced,  and  the  larger  the  amount  of  urea  eliminated.  Again,  if  leucin 
and  tyrosin  are  introduced  into  the  alimentary  canal,  they  appear  in  the 
urine  in  the  shape  of  urea.  Leucin  and  tyrosin  themselves  never  appear  in 
the  urine  in  health,  but  in  the  grave  diseases  of  the  liver  alluded  to  they 
are  found  in  the  urine  in  large  amount,  while  urea  is  wanting.  There  would 
seem  to  be  good  reason  to  suppose,  therefore,  that  urea  is  formed  in  the 
liver  from  the  leucin  and  tyrosin  which  are  produced  by  a  chemolysis,  in 
the  alimentary  canal,  of  albuminoid  substances.  These  break  up  into  a  urea- 
moiety — leucin  and  tyrosin — readily  converted  into  urea,  and  peptone 
which  is  promptly  changed  into  the  albvimen  of  the  blood.  The  latter,  so 
far  as  is  not  required  for  the  repair  of  the  tissues,  is  again  split  up  into 
urea  and  a  force-moiety,  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  In 
either  event  the  result  is  the  same. 

As  already  stated,  this  extra  albuminous  food  was  termed  by  Bidder 
and  Schmidt  "  floating  capital,"  and  its  metabolism  a  luxus  consumption, 
which,  according  to  their  view,  takes  place  wholly  in  the  blood,  while,  ac- 
cording to  the  second  view,  it  occurs  partly,  at  least,  in  the  alimentary 
canal. 

Other  probable  sources  of  urea  are  the  kreatin,  xanthin,  hypoxanthin, 
etc.,  which  are  constantly  produced  in  the  muscles,  and  to  a  less  extent  in 
the  glands,  and  which  may,  in  like  manner,  be  converted  into  urea  in  the 
liver,  and  possibly  also  in  the  spleen.  This  is  the  probable  source  of  the 
urea  which  is  always  found  in  the  urine,  even  on  a  non-nitrogenous  diet, 
and  may  be  referred  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  muscle. 

Dr.  Pavy,  in  his  excellent  treatise  on  "  Food  and  Dietetics,"  Philadel- 

*  1st  Edition,  1877,  p.  3CG. 


156  FOOD    AND    DEIJSTK. 

plaia,  1874,  thus  calculates  the  force  which  is  rendered  available  by  the 
inetabolism  of  proteids,  taking  the  percentage  composition  of  albumen  as: 

Carbon 53.5 

Hydrogen a  .... 7.0 

Nitrogen 15.5 

Oxygen 22.0 

Sul]3hur 1.6 

Phosphorus 4 


100.00 


Supposing,  as  is  not  far  from  the  case,  that  all  of  the  nitrogen  of  the 
ingoing  albumen  escapes  under  the  form  of  urea,  the  nitrogen  will  carry 
with  it  a  certain  amount  of  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  to  form  the 
xirea.     The  percentage  composition  of  urea  is: 

Carbon 20.000 

Hydrogen 6.666 

Nitrogen 46.667 

Oxygen 26.667 


100.000 


Now,  to  give  to  the  15.5  parts  of  nitrogen  contained  in  100  parts  of 
•albumen  their  j)roper  proportion  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  to  form 
iirea,  the  albumen  must  give  up  6.64  parts  of  the  first,  2.21  of  the  second, 
and  8.85  of  the  third,  leaving  46.86  parts  of  carbon,  4.79  of  hydrogen,  and 
13.15  of  oxygen,  in  addition  to  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus  for  oxidation 
and  force-production. 

With  regard  to  the  further  fate  of  the  46.86  parts  of  carbon,  4.79  of 
liydrogen,  and  13.15  of  oxygen  remaining  out  of  100  parts  of  albumen 
after  the  removal  of  urea,  the  13.15  parts  of  oxygen  will  appropriate  1.64 
parts  of  hydrogen  to  exhaust  its  oxidizing  capacity  to  form  water,  leaving 
3.15  parts  of  hydrogen  and  46.86  parts  of  carbon  in  a  free  state  for  oxida- 
tion. These  will  require  for  their  conversion  into  carbonic  acid  and 
Avater  150  parts  of  oxygen;  that  is,  100  parts  of  albumen  will  be  capable 
of  consuming  this  amount  of  oxygen  in  undergoing  oxidation.  This,  of 
course,  enters  the  blood  in  the  act  of  respiration,  and  the  products  of  oxi- 
dation are  carbonic  acid  and  -water,  which  are  always  increased  by  mus- 
cular activity. 

The  force  or  energy  thus  resulting  is  manifested  in  one  of  two  ways: 
oneclianical  labor  and  heat.  The  first  of  these  includes  muscular  action  in 
all  its  various  modes  of  manifestation,  locomotion,  respiration,  speech,  etc. 
All  such  mechanical  labor,  including  that  of  the  heart  and  bowels,  the 
molecular  phenomena  of  the  nervous  tissues  in  the  activity  of  thought  and 
jnental  energy,  and  the  metabolism  of  secretion,  are  converted  into  heat, 


FOOD    AJSTD    DRINK.  loT 

■whicli   is  given  off  from  the  body  by  radiation,  respiration,  perspiration,, 
and  the  warming-  of  the  egesta.' 

Now,  if  the  force-demands  of  the  organism,  in  the  shape  of  muscular 
and  nervous  energy  and  heat,  are  exactly  balanced  by  the  force  resulting 
from  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  food,  the  weight  of 
the  body  remains  the  same.  If  these  are  insufficient,  it  emaciates.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  these  are  more  than  sufficient,  they  are  stored  up  in  the 
shape  of  fat  or  adipose  tissue,  which  subserves  the  double  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  body  warm,  and  of  storing  up  carbo-hydrogenous  material  to  meet 
future  demands  beyond  those  met  by  the  immediate  food-supply.  In  this 
manner,  as  has  been  frequently  stated  in  this  paper,  and  as  has  been  shown 
over  and  over  again,  by  experiment  and  observation,  the  body  may  gain 
in  weight  by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  food  alone. 

Oleagiis^ous  Pkinciples  of  Food — Fats — Hyurocarbonts. 

These  include  the  whole  category  of  oils  and  fats  and  their  derivatives, 
the  so-called  hydrocarbons,  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  a  small 
proportion  of  oxygen.  They  are  therefore  non-nitrogenous.  The  chief 
are  olein,  stearin,  palmatin,  and  margarin.  Some  one  or  more  of  these 
make  up  the  chief  bulk  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  including  beef-  and 

'  The  exact  seat  in  which,  these  changes  take  place  is  still  undetermined.  Voit 
and  others  contend  that  these  oxidations  take  place  in  the  blood,  the  "  blood-"  or  the 
"  circulating-albumen  "  being  the  seat  of  a  direct  oxidative  metabolism;  while  Foster 
(Text-Book  of  Physiology,  1st  ed.,  p.  317),  who  has  investigated  this  question  closely, 
claims  that  they  take  place  in  the  muscles,  admitting,  also,  that  "of  the  exact 
nature  of  the  chemical  changes  we  know  nothing  "  (p.  69).  Such  changes  are  addi- 
tional to  those  resulting  in  such  nitrogenous  crystalline  bodies  as  kreatin,  etc.,  which, 
are  present  in  muscle,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  results  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  the 
machine,  and  not  as  products  of  the  material  consumed  in  work.  By  these  observers 
the  phenomena  of  muscular  contraction  are  regarded  as  "an  explosive  decomposition 
of  certain  parts  of  the  muscular  substance,"  resulting  in  the  production  of  carbonic 
and  lactic  acids,  while  heat  is  set  free  as  well  as  specific  muscular  energy.  This  ex- 
plosion involves  the  decomposition  of  some  nitrogenous  products,  which  are,  however, 
retained  within  the  tissue  and  again  consumed.  Foster  says  (op.  cit. ,  p.  70),  "  It  may 
be  worth  while  to  point  out  that,  during  even  the  most  complete  repose,  muscle  is 
undergoing  chemical  changes,  which,  so  far  as  we  know,  are  the  same  m  kind,  and 
only  different  in  degree,  from  those  characteristic  of  a  contraction.  Thus,  carbonic 
acid  is  constantly  being  produced,  and  x'l'obably  lactic  acid,  both  being  got  rid  of  as. 
they  form,  just  as  they  are  got  rid  of  in  larger  quantities  during  the  repose  which  fol- 
lows contraction.  Supposing  the  existence  of  a  substance  which  splits  up  into  these 
various  products,  and  which  we  may  speak  of  as  the  true  contractile  material,  it  is 
evident  that  this  material,  being  thus  constantly  used  up,  must  be  as  constantly  re- 
paired. Thus,  a  stream  of  chemical  substances  may  be  conceived  of  as  floicing  thi'ougJi 
muscle,  the  raio  material  brought  by  the  blood  {together  loith  the  nitrogenous  elements 
still  remaining  in  the  mjiscle)  being  gradually  converted  into  trite  contractile  stuff,  ichicJi 
as  gradually  breaks  down  again,  while  tlie  muscle  is  at  rest;  tcJien  a  contraction  takes 
lilace,  the  decomposition  is  excessive  and  violent.''''  It  will  be  observed  that  the  explana- 
tion presented  in  the  text  of  the  phenomena  of  nutrition,  is  based  upon  Voit's  views 
as  to  the  seat  of  the  oxidations,  since  it  seems  to  the  writer  that  they  afford  the 
simplest  explanation  of  these  phenomena. 


158  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

mutton-suets,  butter,  the  oil  of  milk,  of  the  yolk  of  eggs,  and  the  fatty 
matters  of  the  bile  and  brain;  also  the  fatty  acids,  butyric,  capric,  and 
caproic;  and  the  vegetable  oils,  including  those  contained  in  corn  and  oats 
and  other  seeds  and  fruits. 

The  percentage  composition  of  the  principal  fats  is,  carbon,  79 ;  hydro- 
gen, 11;  oxygen,  10,     The  chemical  formula  is  CioHieO. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  enumeration  that  they  are  contained  in 
both  animal  and  vegetable  food. 

The  chief  fats,  olein,  stearin,  margarin,  and  palmatin  (neutral  fats),  are 
compounds  of  a  fatty  acid,  oleic,  stearic,  margaric,  and  palmatic,  com- 
bined vpith  a  hypothetical  radical  called  the  oxide  of  lipyl.  On  decomposi- 
tion of  any  one  of  these  fats  by  contact  vs^ith  alkalis — that  is,  by  saponifi- 
cation— this  principle  takes  up  an  equivalent  of  water,  and  becomes  the 
well-known  substance  glycerin,  which,  according  to  the  old  chemistry,  was 
regarded  as  a  hj-drated  oxide  of  lipyl.  According  to  the  new  nomencla- 
ture, it  is  a  propenyl  alcohol,  and  its  formula  is  CsHgOs. 

Stearin  is  the  hardest  of  the  fats.  It  is  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
and  is  the  chief  constituent  of  fats  thus  solid;  but  it  exists  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  in  most,  if  not  all  animal,  though  not  in  vegetable  fats.  It 
melts  at  a  temperature  of  145°  F.  (62-71°  C). 

Olein  is  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  being  the  chief  constituent  of 
the  fluid  fats  or  oils,  most  of  which  are  derived  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, as  olive-oil,  linseed-oil,  etc. ;  but  it  is  also  found  in  animal  fats, 

JPahnatin  is  a  fat,  also  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  melting  above 
113°  F.  (45°  C).  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  vegetable  fat,  being  best  made 
from  palm-oil. 

Margarin  is  now  believed  to  be  a  mixture  of  olein  and  stearin.  It  is 
intermediate  to  them  in  consistency. 

The  Uses  of  Fats. 

Fats  are  digested  in  the  small  intestine,  chiefly  by  the  agency  of  the 
2oancreatic  juice,  by  which  they  are  emulsified,  or  reduced  to  a  minute 
state  of  subdivision.  Thus  emulsified,  they  are  absorbed  by  the  lacteals 
in  the  villi  and  carried  through  the  mesentery  into  the  pancreatic  duct,  and 
thence  into  the  venous  system. 

The  uses  of  the  fats  are  two:  first,  force-production  (heat  and  me- 
chanical energy) ;  second,  the  formation  of  fatty  or  adipose  tissue.  First, 
in  the  role  of  a  force-producer,  the  process  is  jDrecisely  similar  to  that  in 
which  the  force-moiety  of  nitrogenous  food  is  worked  up,  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  its  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  the  blood.  It  is,  therefore,  unneces- 
sary to  go  into  any  details  farther  than  to  show  that  for  these  purposes 
fats  are  the  most  efficient  of  all  the  foods. 

It  has  already  been  shown,  in  estimating  the  force-value  of  nitroge- 
nous foodj^that  after  the  removal  of  the  elements  to  form  urea,  and  the  de- 
duction of  the  hydrogen  required  to  convert  the  remaining  oxygen  into 
water,  there  remained  4G.86  parts  of  carbon  and  3.15  of  hydrogen  free  to 


FOOD    AND    DEIISTK.  159 

be  oxidized  by  oxygen  supplied  in  respiration,  and  that  these  amounts  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen  would  require  150  parts  of  oxygen  to  convert  them 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water.  Now,  fat  contains  79  parts  of  carbon,  11 
of  hydrogen,  and  10  of  oxygen.  The  10  parts  of  oxygen  will  take  1.24 
parts  of  the  hydrogen  to  form  water,  leaving  79  parts  of  carbon  and  9.76 
of  hydrogen  to  be  oxidized  by  oxygen  from  without.  The  amount  re- 
quired to  convert  this  into  carbonic  acid  and  water  is  293  parts  of  oxygen, 
or  nearly  twice  as  much  as  100  parts  of  albumen  require. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  this  is  an  exact  measure  of  the 
heat-producing  power  of  fats.  And  thus  we  have  shown,  by  calculation, 
why  the  natives  of  frigid  climates,  as  the  Esquimaux,  Icelanders,  etc., 
consume  such  enormous  quantities  of  fat  as  food,  and  why  we  ourselves, 
during  the  winter  season,  are  enabled  to  take  more  fatty  food  without 
discomfort  than  in  summer. 

This,  according  to  Liebig,  was  the  sole  object  of  fatty  food — the  pro- 
duction of  heat;  force  being,  according  to  him,  due  to  the  disintegration 
of  nitrogenous  tissues,  into  which  all  nitrogenous  food  was  first  converted. 
But  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  of  Pettenkofer  and  Voit, 
with  their  delicate  apparatus  for  the  measurement  of  carbonic  acid,  have 
shown  conclusively  that  the  effect  of  increased  muscular  exertion  is  not 
in  increased  urea-elimination,  as  was  supposed  by  Liebig,  but  in  increased 
carbonic-acid  elimination,  the  measure  of  carbon  oxidation. 

The  second  purpose  of  fatty  food,  the  formation  of  adipose  tissue, 
takes  place  when  tho  amount  ingested  is  more  than  sufficient  to  subserve 
the  heat  and  mechanical  force-demands  of  the  economy.  Adipose  tissue 
is  more  or  less  present  in  all  persons,  filling  up  the  interstices,  and  round- 
ing the  outlines  of  the  form,  while  it  is  excessive  in  fat  persons.  It  is 
also  intimately  incorporated  with  the  protoplasm  of  many  nitrogenous 
tissues  of  the  body,  in  which  the  condition  in  which  it  exists  is  aptly  com- 
pared to  an  amalgam,  whence  again  it  is  sometimes  separated  in  the  well- 
known  pathological  phenomenon  of  fatty  metamorphosis.  Thus  present,  it 
performs  the  double  role  of  maintaining,  by  its  non-conducting  properties, 
the  warmth  of  the  body,  and  of  serving  the  purpose  of  a  store-house  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  whence  it  is  absorbed  when  the  amount  supplied  by 
the  food  is  insufficient  to  supply  the  force-demands  of  the  economy.  It 
is  well  known  that  when  man  and  the  lower  animals  are  deprived  of  food, 
those  endure  the  longest  which  are  fattest. 

The  same  question  as  to  the  exact  seat  of  the  oxidation,  whether  in  the 
blood  or  in  the  tissues,  may  also  be  raised  with  regard  to  the  hydrocarbo- 
naceous  as  with  regard  to  proteid  food.  It  has  been  stated  that  hydro- 
carbonaceous  matter  is  intimately  commingled  with  nitrogenous  matter  in 
muscular  tissue,  and  it  may  be  in  this  situation  that  it  is  oxidized,  or  it 
may  be  while  floating  in  the  blood.  The  question  must,  for  the  present, 
remain  unanswered. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  fatty  food  can  only  be  made 
available  when  used  in  connection  with  nitrogenous  food.  An  animal 
fed  upon  fat  alone  soon  ceases  to  digest,  loses  its  appetite,  and  dies  of 


160 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


starvation.  Fats  themselves  do  not  incite  metabolism;  indeed,  they  check 
proteid  metabolism,  while  proteid  food  increases  non-nitrogenous  as  well 
as  nitrogenous  metabolism.  Hence,  by  the  use  of  a  pure  nitrogenous 
diet,  the  fat  of  the  body  may  be  gradually  reduced.  Advantage  of  this 
fact  is  taken  in  the  Banting  system  of  diet,  which  has  for  its  object  the 
diminution  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  by  the  use  of  a  pure  nitrogenous 
diet,  and  the  omission  of  all  fats,  starches,  and  sugars. 

Sacchaehste  and  Amylaceous  Peinciples — Amyloids. 

These  include — 1st,  the  starches  (of  potatoes,  rice,  sago,  tapioca,  of  the 
seeds  of  leguminous  plants,  of  the  grains  and  of  the  green,  succulent  parts 
of  vegetables),  and  dextrin  ;  2d,  the  sugars,  including  cane-,  honey-, 
grape-,  and  beet-sugars,  sugar  of  milk,  liver-sugar,  inosite  or  the  sugar  of 
muscle;  3d,  the  gums  and  mucilages  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  cellulose, 
lignin  or  woody  fibre. 

These  are  also  called  carbohydrates,  being  composed  of  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  oxygen,  with  the  latter  two  in  the  proportion  to  form  water. 
It  is  evident,  also,  that  their  chief  source  is  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

The  Starches. 

Starch  (CeHmOs)  is  an  ingredient  of  most  edible  vegetables  and  fruits^ 
and  makes  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  various  grains,  seeds,  and  roots 
which  are  used  as  food  for  men  and  animals.  It  exists  in  the  shape  of 
minute  granules  from  y q^o  o"  ^°  ¥W  °^  ^^  ^^^^  ^"^  diameter,  the  largest  of 


Arrow-root. 


(See  note  on  page  207. ) 


Potato. 


which  are  characterized  by  their  peculiar,  laminated,  concentric  arrange- 
ment, with  slightly  excentric  depression  or  hilum.  The  granules  are  de- 
cidedly different  as  derived  from  different  sources.  Thus,  in  the  potato, 
their  range  in  size  is  greatest,  covering  the  limits  named  above.  They 
are  irregularly  pear-shaped,  and  their  concentric  markings  are  very  dis- 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


161 


tinct.  Those  from  arroio-root  are  smaller  and  more  uniform  in  size,  rang- 
ing, generally,  between  2-oVu  ^^^  Thi  °^  ^^  inch.  They  are  more  oval  in 
shape,  and  their  concentric  markings,  though  distinct,  are  less  so  than 
in  the  potato;  and  the  hilum  sometimes  has  the  shape  of  a  transverse  slit. 


Wheat. 


Corn. 


The  granules  of  wheat-starcJi  are  still  smaller,  from  yxtottu  '^°  toTT  °^  ^^ 
inch  in  diameter,  nearly  circular  in  outline,  often  flattened,  and  very  sel- 
dom present  a  hilum.  There  is  no  distinct  concentric  marking.  The 
starch-grains  of  indlan-corn  are  similar,  but  more  distinctive,  and  instead 
of  the  usual  hilum,  sometimes  present  a  crossed  or  radiating  marking. 


E,ice. 


Oats. 


The  starch  granules  of  vice  are  very  small,  the  smallest  of  all  commercial 
starches;  being  about  -^-^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  irregularly 
polygonal  in  shape.  Oat-starch  granules  are  quite  variable  in  size,  six 
measurements  by  Mr.  Geo.  Jackson  giving  a  range  in  diameter  of  from 
loooo  ^o  To^TTo  °^  ^"^  inch.  They  are  triangular  and  polyhedral,  present 
no  evident  concentric  markings,  and  by  no  means  always  a  hilum. 
Vol.  I.— 11 


162  FOOD  AND  deixe:. 

Starch  granules  are  readily  recognized  by  the  bright-blue  color  they 
prom^Dtly  strike  on  the  addition  of  iodine.  They  are  insoluble  in  cold  water; 
but  in  hot  water  they  swell  up,  jDromptly  lose  their  morphological  peculi- 
arities, finally  burst  and  fuse,  forming  a  homogeneous  mass,  which  varies 
in  consistence  with  the  quantity  of  water  present.  In  this  shape  starch 
may  still  be  recognized  by  the  iodine  reaction. 

Starch,  as  a  food  princijjle,  is  derived  solely  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. The  chief  articles  of  food  which  contain  it  are  indian-corn,  wheat, 
rye,  oats,  rice,  potatoes,  beans,  peas,  arrow-root,  sago,  tapioca.  None  of 
them,  of  course,  are  jDurely  made  up  of  starch.  The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  projDortion  of  starch  in  100  psLvts  of  each  of  the  articles  named. 

Rice ■ 85.07  I  Wheat-flour 72.00 

Maize , 80.92   I  Iceland  moss 44.60 

Barley-meal 67.18   !  Kidney-bean 35.94 


Rye-meal 61.07 

Oatmeal 59.00 


Peas 32.45 

Potato 15.70 


Starch,  in  its  unchanged  state,  is  a  colloid,  totally  incapable  of  ab- 
sorption, even  in  thin  mixtures  with  warm  water.  In  the  act  of  diges- 
tion, therefore,  it  is  converted,  first,  into  dextrin,  and  then  into  grape- 
sugar.  There  are  at  least  two  digestive  fluids  which  possess  this  power — 
the  saliva  and  pancreatic  juice.  It  is  generally  thought  that  starch  is  too 
short  a  time  in  contact  with  the  saliva  during  its  passage  through  the 
mouth  to  be  much  influenced  by  such  contact ;  but,  although  this  is  probably 
true  of  uncooked  starch,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  to  introduce 
boiled  starch  in  the  mouth  and  remove  it  sufficiently  soon  to  avoid  the 
conversion  of  much  of  it  into  grape-sugar.  It  seems,  therefore,  not 
unlikely  that  in  the  few  minutes  during  which  the  starch  of  cooked  articles 
of  food  is  subjected  to  the  saliva  in  the  act  of  mastication,  a  consider- 
able portion  is  thus  converted.  It  is  also  jDrobable,  however,  that  the  con- 
version takes  place  chiefly  through  the  action  of  the  pancreatic  juice,  after 
the  food  has  passed  from  the  stomach  into  the  small  intestine.  Thus  con- 
verted, the  grape-sugar  is  promptly  absorbed  by  the  capillaries  of  the 
villi,  and  passed  thence  into  the  portal  vein  and  liver. 

Dextrin  (CeHjoOs)  is  a  sweet  substance,  very  adhesive  in  its  solutions, 
identical  in  composition  with  starch,  whence  it  is  derived  by  the  action  of 
heat,  mineral  acids,  and  diastase,  a  ferment  which  is  developed  during  the 
germination  of  barley  and  other  grains.  Dextrin  does  not  exist  as  such  in 
nature,  but  all  starch  in  its  transition  into  grape-sugar  or  dextrose  first 
becomes  dextrin.  Although,  artificially,  dextrin  may  be  produced  and  re- 
tained as  such,  it  is  not  likely  that  in  the  process  of  digestion  it  maintains 
itself  as  dextrin  for  any  length  of  time,  but  passes  quickly  into  grape- 
sugar. 

The  Sugars. 

Of  these  there  are  several,  some  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom, 
but  mainly  they  are  found  in  the  vegetable.     Among  the  vegetable  sugars 


rOOD    AXD    BKINK.  168 

are  cane-sugar,  grape-sugar,  beet-sugar,  glucose  or  sugar  of  starch,  and 
honey.  The  latter  is  a  mixture  of  several  varieties  of  sugar  collected 
from  the  sweet  juices  of  flowering  plants,  and  includes  among  them  cane- 
and  grape- sugar.  These  are  mingled  with  a  small  amount  of  animal  mat- 
ter. Among  animal  sucjars  are  sugar  of  milk,  liver-sugar,  and  inosite, 
or  muscle-sugar. 

Cane  sugar  (CiaH.ioO,,)  is  contained  in  solution  in  the  juices  of  the 
stem,  roots,  and  other  parts  of  various  plants,  particularly  the  so-called 
sugar-cane,  which  is  cultivated  for  the  sugar  it  contains.  It  is  crystalliz- 
able,  and  is  the  form  of  sugar  most  used  as  food.  Although  not  a  neces- 
sary condition  of  its  absorption,  cane-sugar  is  probably  almost  totally 
converted  into  grape-sugar  in  the  alimentary  canal  jjrevious  to  absorp- 
tion. Evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  when  cane-sugar  is  in- 
jected into  the  blood,  it  is  excreted  as  such  by  the  kidneys;  whereas  if 
an  excess  of  sugar  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  it  is  excreted  as  grape-sugar. 
This  change  in  cane-sugar  is  most  likely  wrought,  partly  by  the  action  of 
tlie  pancreatic  juice,  and  is  partly  the  result  of  the  metabolism  always 
taking  place  among  organic  substances  in  the  small  intestine.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  admixture  of  sugar  with  decomposing  animal  matters, 
outside  of  the  economy,  results  similarly.  Cane-sugar  is  readily  converted 
into  grape-sugar  by  boiling  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  It  does  not  reduce 
the  oxide  of  copper. 

Grape-sugar  or  dextrose  (CbHi.,Os,  H^,0)  is  contained  in  the  juice 
of  grapes  and  other  fruits,  while  it  is  also  the  form  of  sugar  into  which 
starch  and  cane-sugar  are  converted  by  natural  and  chemical  means.  It 
is  the  sugar  of  preserved  fruits  and  jellies  used  as  food.  It  requires  no 
special  preparation  to  fit  it  for  absorption,  but  it  sometimes  undergoes 
conversion  during  digestion  into  lactic  acid.  This  change  is  perhaps  path- 
ological rather  than  physiological,  and  probably  gives  rise  to  one  form  of 
•acid-dyspepsia;  it  is  readily  accomjolished,  since  grape-sugar  has  only  to 
lose  its  water  to  acquire  the  same  elements  in  the  same  relative  propor- 
tions as  lactic  acid. 

Meetroot-sugar  is  similar  to  cane-sugar,  except  that  it  is  harder  and 
more  insoluble  than  cane-sugar.  Large  quantities  of  beautiful  white  loaf- 
sugar  are  made  in  France  from  the  juice  of  beet-roots,  and  its  production 
is  now  claiming  considerable  attention  in  some  sections  of  the  United 
■States. 

Glucose,  it  has  already  been  said,  is  the  sugar  into  which  starch  is 
•capable  of  conversion,  and  is  identical  with  grape-sugar.  Honey,  as  has 
been  stated,  is  a  mixture  of  grape-  and  cane-sugar  with  a  small  amount  of 
organic  matter. 

Of  the  animal  sugars,  sugar  of  milk,  or  lactine,  is  the  best  known. 
Its  formula  is  CjsHs.^Oi,,  H^O.  Its  name  indicates  its  source — the  milk  of 
animals,  whence  alone  it  is  derived.  It  is  similar  to  grape-sugar  in  some 
of  its  properties,  but  is  more  difficult  of  solution,  and  harder. 

Liver-sugar  (Cg  Hi.^Og  or  CeHioOs  +  H.O)  is  found,  after  death  in  the 
substance  of  the  liver  in  consideraVjle  quantities.      It  was  first  discovered 


164  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

by  Bernard,  in  1853.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
sugar  exists  as  such  in  the  living-  liver.  Pavy,  MacDonnell,  and  others, 
deny  that  it  exists  during  life,  as  such,  but  contend  that  there  exists  in 
its  stead  the  amyloid  substance,  also  discovered  by  Bernard  and  named  by 
him  glycogen.  It  has  also  been  called  zoamylin  or  animal  dextrin.'  This 
is  promptly  converted  into  glycogen  by  the  presence  of  any  dead  organic 
matter;  so  that  immediately  after  death  the  conversion  takes  place.  Re- 
cent rejDetitions  of  the  experiments  on  the  subject  by  Flint,  Jr.,  Lusk,  and 
Dalton,  of  this  country,  reaffirm  the  original  position  of  Bernard,  that 
sugar  is  produced  in  the  liver  during  life,  independently  of  the  food  con- 
sumed, although  the  use  of  starchy  matters  and  of  sugar  as  food,  greatly 
increases  the  quantity  produced.  Still  more  recently  (1877),  Dr.  Pavy 
has  re-examined  the  entire  question  with  the  aid  of  improved  methods  of 
testing  for  sugar,  and  reaffirmed  his  position.  These  studies  are  published 
in  the  treatise  referred  to  in  the  foot-note.  That,  when  present,  the 
sugar  is  produced  in  the  cells  of  the  liver,  and  not  in  the  blood,  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  the  blood  of  the  organ  may  be  thoroughly  washed  out 
and  subsequently  a  stream  of  water  passed  through  until  no  sugar  is  longer 
present;  then,  after  a  short  time,  sugar  again  makes  its  appearance  in  the- 
liver,  as  may  be  proved  by  applying  Ti'ommer's  test  to  a  decoction  of  the 
organ.  It  also  exists,  to  a  slighter  degree,  in  muscle,  white  blood-corpus- 
cles, the  testes,  brain,  and  placenta,  while  the  tissues  of  the  embryo  at  an 
early  stage  contain  a  large  proportion. 

Liver-sugar  is  identical  in  chemical  composition  and  properties  to- 
grape-sugar  and  glucose. 

Inosite,  or  muscle-sugar,  is  another  sugar  usually  termed  animal,  al- 
though it  is  found  in  very  small  quantities  in  animal  tissues,  and  abun- 
dantly in  vegetables.  Its  formula  is  put  down  as  CeHi206-f2H20.  It  was- 
first  discovered  by  Scherer  in  heart-muscle;  but  Cloetta  also  found  it  in 
the  lungs,  kidneys,  spleen,  and  liver,  and  Miiller  in  the  brain.  It  also 
occurs  in  diabetic  urine  and  that  of  Bright's  disease. 

Gum  (CisHogOu)  is  familiar  to  all  as  the  transparent  exudation  often 
seen  on  the  bark  of  trees.  It  is  found,  however,  in  the  juices  of  nearly  all 
plants.  When  pure,  it  is  tasteless  and  colorless,  and  when  mixed  with 
water  produces  an  adhesive  fluid,  or  mucilage.  It  is  converted  into  sugar 
by  boiling  with  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  a  colloid  substance,  of  extremely  low 
osmotic  position,  and  therefore  necessarily  low  in  nutritive  qualities,  un- 
less it  be  converted  during  digestion  into  a  more  diffusible  substance,  as- 
sugar,  as  to  which  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence. 

Cellulose  (CiaHaoOis)  is  the  substance  forming  the  basis  of  the  cell-walls, 
fibres,  and  vessels  of  plants.  Cotton,  linen,  and  elder-pith  are  nearly  pure 
cellulose.  It  is  quite  insoluble  in  digestive  fluids,  and,  when  taken  into  th& 
alimentary  canal  with  food,  is  passed  out  with  the  faeces  unchanged.    It  is. 


'  In  his  recent  work,  entitled  Points  connected  with  Diabetes,  London,  1878,  Dr. 
Pavy  suggests  the  name  ''Bernardin"  for  this  substance,  out  of  consideration  to  th& 
great  physiologist  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  its  existence. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  165 

soluble  in  the  more  powerful  chemical  agents,  as  potash  and  the  mineral 
acids  ;  and  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  and  heat  it  is  converted,  first, 
into  dextrin,  and  then  into  grape-sugar. 

Lignin  or  looody  fibre  {GJl^^O-^  is  the  chief  solid  matter  deposited 
•within  the  woody  fibre,  and  is  the  element  which  gives  it  its  firmness.  It 
is  similar  to  cellulose  in  its  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

Pectin  is  the  basis  of  vegetable  jellies.  It  is  found  in  most  fruits  and 
many  vegetables,  but  in  quantity  too  small  to  be  of  much  importance  as 
an  alimentary  principle. 

Uses  of  the   Carhohydrates. 

It  is,  evident,  from  the  above  considerations,  that  the  most  important 
members  of  this  group  of  carbohydrates  reach  the  circulation  in  the 
shape  of  grape-sugar.  The  study  of  their  fate,  therefore,  becomes  the 
study  of  the  fate  of  grape-sugar  after  absorption.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  an  abundance  of  such  sugar  is  found  in  the  liver  after  death, 
that  it  is  even  found  there  when  the  animal  is  fed  upon  a  non-nitrogenous 
diet,  but  that  it  is  very  much  increased  by  the  use  of  amylaceous  and 
saccharine  food.  It  has  also  been  said  that,  in  the  living  liver,  the  sugar  is 
not  stored  up  as  such,  but  escapes  in  the  shape  of  a  starch-like  substance 
called  by  Bernard  glycogen,  into  which,  according  to  this  experimenter,  the 
saccharine  and  amylaceous  principles  must  be  converted  before  they  become 
liver-sugar.^  This  glycogen,  again,  according  to  Bernard,  is  being  constantly 
converted  into  sugar,  which  is  passed  into  the  blood  and  out  of  the  liver 
by  the  hepatic  vein.  According  to  Pavy,  on  the  other  hand,  the  glycogen 
thus  resulting  is  not  converted  into  liver-sugar  during  life,  but  is  there 
converted  into  fat^  of  which  it  is  a  preliminary  stage  intermediate  between 
sugar  and  fat.  Certain  it  is  that  animals  fed  upon  saccharine  and  amyla- 
ceous food,  together  with  fatty  food,  increase  the  amount  of  their  fat  over 
and  above  that  which  could  be  supplied  by  the  fat  alone.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  no  proof  that  sugar  can  be  oxidized  in  the  blood,  either  in 
the  lungs  or  systemic  capillaries,  although  this  was  at  one  time  supposed 
to  be  the  case.  But  the  view  of  Bernard,  which,  to  say  the  least,  has  not 
been  sufficiently  disproved,  may  still  be  correct.  For,  as  Dr.  Foster  says, 
there  may  be  a  certain  percentage  of  sugar  necessary  to  a  proper  com- 
position of  blood.  This  may  be  drawn  upon  by  the  tissues,  and  especially 
muscular  tissue,  which  is  known  to  contain  sugar,  and  which  it  may  require 
as  an  essential  element  of  its  contractile  substance.  In  either  event,  the 
glycogen  of  the  liver  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  reserve  fund  of  carbohy- 
drate material,  a  view  which  is  supported  by  the  analogous  migration  of 
starch  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  well  known  that  the  starch  of  the 
leaves  of  the  plant,  whether  having  passed  through  a  glucose  stage  or  not, 
is  converted  into  sugar,  carried  down  to  the  roots  and  other  parts,  where 
it  is  again   converted  into  starch.     So  the  grape-sugar,  into  which  the 

'  It  must  be  remembered  that  sugar  requires  only  to  be  dehydrated  to  be  converted 
into  starch,  as  starch  requires  but  to  be  hydrated  to  be  converted  into  sugar. 


166  FOOD    AND    DEIISTK. 

starchy  and  saccharine  principles  are  converted  before  absorption,  may  be 
converted  in  the  liver  into  glycogen,  in  the  shape  of  which  it  maybe  there 
stored  up,  and,  little  by  little,  reconverted  into  sugar,  j^assed  into  the  cir- 
culation and  taken  up  by  the  muscular  and  other  tissues  which  require  it. 

According  to  either  view,  the  measure  of  the  ultimate  amount  of  force 
produced  is  the  same.  If  the  view  of  Bernard  be  correct,  and  the  sugar 
passed  into  the  blood  is  taken  up  by  the  muscles  to  form  their  contrac- 
tile tissue,  it  is  used  up,  oxidized,  in  the  metabolism  of  muscular  con- 
traction. If  Pavy  be  right  in  stating  that  the  glycogen  of  the  liver  is 
converted  into  fat,  the  force  resulting  will  be  represented  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  fat;  and  as  only  the  amount  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  contained 
in  the  carbohydrates  can  become  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  result- 
ing fat,  the  force  produced  will  be  represented  by  the  oxidation  of  these 
elements.  But  the  peculiarity  of  the  carbohydrates  is  that  the  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  exist  in  the  proportion  to  form  water,  so  that  the  carbon  alone 
remains  to  be  oxidized.  Hence,  the  maximum  force  which  can  possibly 
result  from  the  oxidation  of  the  carbohydrates  must  be  considerably  less 
than  that  from  the  fats,  because  in  the  latter,  in  addition  to  the  carbon, 
there  remains  also  some  hydrogen  to  be  oxidized. 

The  following  table,  from  Pavy,'  vnll  show  the  relative  value,  as  force- 
producers,  of  the  carbohydrates,  compared  with  iiitrogenous  and  fatty 
principles : 

A.mount  of  oxj'gen  Units  of  heat  pro- 

required    to    oxi-  duced  by  oxidation 

,  dize  100  parts,  as  of   one   gramme 

oxidation    occurs  (15.432  grains),  as 

within  the  body.  oxidation  occurs 

within  the  body. 

Grape-sugar 106  32?7 

Starch 120  3912 

Albumen 150  4263 

Fat 293  9069 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  repeat  that  experiment  and  observation  have 
abundantly  shown  that  amyloid  substances  alone  are  incapable  of  sustain- 
ing life.  Even  when  mixed  with  other  principles,  any  excess  of  them  is 
found  to  appear  in  the  urine  in  the  shape  of  grape-sugar. 

II. — Indirect  Aliment. 

Under  this  head  are  included  substances  chiefly  inorganic,  but  includ- 
ing also  some  organic,  which  are  not  chemically  changed  in  their  course 
through  the  body,  but  pass  out  dissolved  in  the  secretions  in  the  same 
chemical  condition  and  in  nearly  the  same  quantities  in  which  they  are 
ingested.  They  cannot,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  producers  of  force.  At 
the  same  time,  many  of  them  become  important  constituents  of  various 
tissues  of  the  body,  both  solid  and  fluid.  This  division  includes,  also, 
certain  organic  substances,  which  contain  a  principle,  either  alone  or  in 

'  On  Food  and  Dietetics,  Philadelphia,  1874,  p.  13(3. 


FOOD    AND    DKINK.  167 

addition  to  other  alimentary  matters,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  diminish  the 
wastes  of  the  economy.  These  substances,  although  not  indispensable 
as  food,  are  used  by  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  as 
to  become  a  most  important  article  of  commerce.  They  have  received 
the  name  of  accessory  food,  or  accessory  articles  of  diet. 

1.  Inorganic  Food. 

This  is,  at  least,  the  most  indispensable  division  of  indirect  aliment. 
Under  it  are  included  water  and  watery  solutions  of  certain  inorganic 
principles,  viz.,  sodic  and  potassic  chlorides,  sodic,  potassic,  and  calcic 
phosphate,  calcic  carbonate,  etc.,  together  with  iron,  sulphur,  silica,  and 
other  elements  entering  into  the  composition  of  some  of  the  more  com- 
plex principles  of  food  already  considered.  These,  except  water  and  sodic 
chlorides,  are  contained  in  ordinary  articles  of  food  in  requisite  proportion, 
and  therefore  do  not,  as  a  rule,  require  to  be  especially  provided. 

The  precise  mode  in  which  these  substances  become  useful  and  indis- 
pensable is  not  known.  It  requires  no  reasoning  to  show  that  water  is  an 
absolutely  essential  article  of  food.  Sodic  chloride,  or  common  salt,  pre- 
sents us  with  one  of  the  most  familiar  illustrations  of  an  indispensable 
saline  substance,  the  necessity  of  which  has  been  over  and  over  again 
demonstrated.  Its  importance  might  be  inferred  from  its  well-known 
solvent  properties  over  albuminous  substances,  with  which  we  became 
familiar  in  our  study  of  these.  Experiment  has  also  been  brought  to  bear 
on  this  question;  and  among  the  best-known  results  are  those  of  Bous- 
singault,  who  fed  six  bullocks  with  an  abundance  of  nutritious  food,  but 
to  three  of  them  (lot  No.  1)  gave  also  500  grains  of  salt  per  day,  while 
the  remainder  (lot  No.  2)  received  no  salt.  "  Until  the  end  of  March 
(the  experiment  began  in  October)  the  two  lots  experimented  on  did  not 
present  any  marked  difference  in  their  appearance;  but,  in  the  course  of 
the  following  April,  this  difference  became  quite  manifest,  even  to  an  un- 
practised eye.  The  lot  No.  2  had  then  been  without  salt  for  six  months. 
In  the  animals  of  both  lots,  the  skin  had  a  fine  and  substantial  texture, 
easily  stretched  and  separated  from  the  ribs;  but  the  hair,  which  was- 
tarnished  and  disordered  in  the  bullocks  of  the  second  lot,  was  smooth 
and  glistening  in  those  of  the  first.  As  the  experiment  went  on,  these 
characters  became  more  marked;  and  at  the  beginning  of  October  the 
animals  of  lot  No.  2,  after  going  without  salt  for  an  entire  year,  presented 
a  rough  and  tangled  hide,  with  patches  here  and  there  where  the  skin  was- 
entirely  uncovered.  The  bullocks  of  lot  No.  1  retained,  on  the  contrary, 
the  ordinary  aspect  of  stall-fed  animals.  Their  vivacity  and  their  frequent 
attempts  at  mounting  contrasted  strongly  with  the  dull  and  iinexcitable 
aspect  presented  by  the  others." ' 

It  is  also  well  known  that  animals  will  travel  lona-  distances  in  search 


^   Dalton:  Physiology,  oth  Ed.,  Philadelphia,  1871,   p.  57,  from  Chimie  Agricole, 
Paris,  1854,  p.  271. 


168  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

of  salt,  striking  illustration  of  which  is  found  at  the  "  salt  licks  "  of  our 
"Western  country.  Dr.  Letheby '  has  collected  many  facts  bearing  on  this 
subject,  of  which  the  following  are  among  the  more  striking:  "  iVmong 
the  Gallas,  and  on  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  brothers  will  sell  their  sisters, 
husbands  their  wives,  and  parents  their  children,  for  salt.  In  the  district 
of  Accra,  on  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa,  a  handful  of  salt  is  the  most  valu- 
able thing  on  earth  after  gold,  and  will  purchase  a  slave  or  two.  Mungo 
Park  tells  us  that  with  the  Mundingas  and  Bambaras  the  use  of  salt  is 
such  a  luxury  that  to  say  of  a  man,  '  he  flavors  his  food  with  salt,'  is  to 
imply  that  he  is  rich,  and  children  will  suck  a  piece  of  salt  as  if  it  were 
sugar.  No  stronger  mark  of  respect  or  affection  can  be  shown  in  Muscovy 
than  the  sending  of  salt  from  the  tables  of  the  rich  to  their  poorer  friends." 
All  of  these  instinctive  demands  are  decided  indices  of  the  position  of  salt 
as  well  as  of  other  similarly  constant  inorganic  matters  as  food. 

One  of  the  effects  of  salt  would  seem  to  be  to  increase  the  rapidity  of 
tissue  metamorphosis;  while  the  free  use  of  water,  both  externally  and  in- 
ternally, seems  likewise  to  increase  the  tissue  changes  in  the  economy. 
At  least  such  is  the  result  of  Dr.  L.  Lehmann's "  observations  on  hip-baths; 
from  which  he  concluded  that,  first,  they  lessen  the  action  of  the  pulse; 
secondly,  that  they  increase  the  amount  of  urine  generally,  and  especially 
of  its  water,  urea,  uric  acid,  and  fixed  salts;  thirdly,  that  they  increase  the 
insensible  persjDiration ;  and,  fourthly,  as  a  consequence  of  these  effects, 
that  they  promote  the  metamorphosis  of  tissue.  And  although  the  obser- 
vations of  Bocker^  and  Lampe  failed  to  confirm  Lehmann's  results,  yet 
the  former  are  simply  negative,  and  prove  nothing  to  the  contrary;  while 
those  of  Virchow*  and  Wundt  ^  tend  to  confirm  them. 

From  these  facts  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  the  free  use  of  water, 
if  accompanied  by  an  abundance  of  nutritious  food,  would  result  in  the 
production  of  a  most  perfect  state  of  the  organism,  while  its  excessive 
use,  especially  when  attended  by  insufficient  and  non-nutritious  food, 
might  impair  the  health  of  the  individual. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  uses  of  this  form  of  indirect  aliment,  we 
may  refer  to  the  alkaline  or  hasic  sodic  phosphate,  and  the  acid  potassic 
phosphate — the  former  of  which  is  invariably  found  in  the  blood,  while  the 
latter  is  the  chief  constituent  of  the  juice  of  flesh.     As  suggested  by  Dr. 

'Letheby:  On  Food;  its  Varieties,  Chemical  Composition,  etc.,  Am.  Ed,  New 
York,  1872,  p.  80. 

2  Lehmann,  Dr.  L. :  On  the  Action  of  Baths,  in  Archiv  des  Vereins  f  iir  gemeinschaf  t. 
Arbeit,  Band  I.,  S.  515,  and  Band  II.,  S.  1. 

^  Booker :  Ueber  die  Wirkung  der  Sifcz-Bader,  der  Brause,  nnd  der  nassen  Ein- 
wickelung'  anf  den  Ausscheidungsprocess,  in  Molesehott's  Untersuchungen  zur  Natur- 
lehre,  Band  VI.,  Heft  1,  1859.     Lampe's  observations  were  published  with  Booker's. 

**  Virchow  ;  Physiologische  Bemerkungen  iiber  das  See-Baden,  mit  besonderer  Riick- 
sicht  auf  Misdroy,  in  Vrrchow's  Arch,  der  path.  Anat. ,  Band  XV. ,  S.  70. 

^  Wundt  :  Observations  on  the  Influence  of  the  Wet  Sheet  on  Excretion,  in  Archiv 
fur  wissen.  Heilk.,  Band  III.,  S.  35. 

See  also  a  review  of  the  above  authors  in  the  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurg. 
Review,  Vol.  XXX.,  1862. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  169 

Letheby/  the  former  is  probably  concerned  in  preserving  the  liquid 
colloidal  condition  of  albumen  and  fibrin,  and  so  keeping-  them  from  being 
lost  in  secretion,  while  the  latter  is  engaged  in  an  oj^posite  duty  in  con- 
verting the  colloidal  liquid  into  the  solid  tissues  of  the  body.  The  basic 
sodic  phosphate,  like  an  alkaline  carbonate,  also  possesses  the  property  of 
absorbing  carbonic  acid,  which  it  discharges  when  the  blood  reaches  the 
lungs,  and  it  thus  becomes  an  important  agent  in  the  removal  of  this  acid 
from  the  body. 

The  effect  of  a  diminished  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  the  phos- 
phates upon  the  proper  firmness  of  bone,  as  well  as  the  effect  of  their  ad- 
ministration when  the  bones  are  deficient  in  them,  is' well  known. 

2.    Organic  Indirect  Aliment. 

A  second  division  of  indirect  aliment  includes  certain  organic  acids 
of  animal  origin,  as  lactic  acid,  acetic  acid,  derived  from  both  animal  and 
vegetable  sources,  and  the  vegetable  acids,  citric,  tartaric  and  malic. 
Acetic  and  lactic  acids  belong,  chemically,  to  the  carbohydrates,  but 
behave  differently.  The  vegetable  acids  contain  oxygen  in  excess  of 
that  required  with  hydrogen  to  form  water.  All  of  this  group,  when 
ingested  m  the  free  state,  according  to  Wohler,  pass  through  the  sys- 
tem unchanged,  reappearing  in  the  urine.  When  introduced  in  com- 
bination with  alkalis,  however,  they  undergo  oxidation,  and  appear  in  the 
urine  as  carbonates.  In  consequence  of  this  fact,  they  are  constantly  used 
in  medicine  to  alkalize  the  urine. 

Their  importance  as  food  is  amply  illustrated  in  the  effects  of  their 
long  absence  from  dietaries,  which  is  a  well-known  cause  of  scurvy,  pur- 
pura, and  other  blood  dyscrasi^e,  while  they  are  among  our  best  remedies 
for  these  affections. 

Acetic  acid  (HC2H3O2)  is  contained  in  the  juice  of  many  plants  and 
in  some  animal  secretions.  It  is  the  important  constituent  of  vinegar;  but 
the  strongest  sold  in  commerce  does  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent, 
of  real  acetic  acid.  ^Yhat  should  alone  be  called  vinegar  is  derived  from 
the  oxidation  of  cider  and  wines,  and  is  a  dilute  aqueous  solution  of  acetic 
acid,  in  which  the  coloring  matter,  salts,  and  other  constituents  of  the 
cider  and  wine,  are  also  present.  Pure  acetic  acid  is  obtained  from  the 
distillation  of  wood,  by  a  process  which  need  not  be  here  described;  and 
much  of  the  vinegar  of  commerce  is  such  acetic  acid  diluted  with  water.   ' 

JjCictic  acid  (HCsHsOa)  exists  in  muscles,  is  a  possible  constituent  of 
gastric  juice,  is  contained  in  sour  but  not  in  sweet  milk,  and  in  the  prep- 
aration of  white  cabbage  known  as  sauerkraut.  In  the  last  two  situa- 
tions it  is  the  result  of  a  fermentation  of  sugar.  It  is  also  one  of  the 
acids  of  sour  bread,  where,  along  w^ith  butyric  and  acetic  acids,  it  is  the 
result  of  permitting  fermentation  to  go  too  far.  The  lactic-acid  fermen- 
.tation  of  sugar  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  decomposing  nitrogenous 

^  Letlieby :  Op.  cit.,  p.  SO. 


170  rOOD    AND    DUINK, 

substances,  especially  casein.  Wheat-flour,  made  into  a  paste  with  water, 
and  left  to  stand  for  a  few  days  in  a  warm  place,  becomes  a  true  lactic- 
acid  ferment,  the  gluten  of  the  flour  being  the  special  ferment. 

Citric  acid  (HsCgHsOt),  tartaric  acid  (H2C4H4O6),  and  malic  acid 
(H2C4H4O6)  are  found  in  numerous  acid  fruits,  as  lemons,  grapes,  apples, 
oranges,  etc. 

3.  Accessory  Foods. 

A  third  group  of  articles,  which  belong  properly  to  indirect  food, 
though  less  essential  than  the  inorganic  indirect,  is  that  to  which  the 
name  accessory  diet  has  been  applied.  In  this  are  included  alcohol,  tea, 
coffee,  chiccory,  chocolate,  coca,  tobacco,  opium,  spices,  etc. — articles  which, 
though  evidently  not  indispensable  to  nutrition  or  to  life,  have  yet  been  so 
generally  used  by  men  throughout  all  historic  time,  and  are  so  rapidly  ex- 
tending their  use,  that  they  have  become  an  acknowledged  part  of  our 
food.  As  such,  they  have  attracted  the  earnest  attention  of  physiologists 
and  physiological  chemists  who  have  laboriously  sought  to  determine  their 
influence. 

The  late  Dr.  Anstie,  in  the  Introduction  to  his  "  Stimulants  and  Nar- 
cotics," quoting  Von  Bibra,^  says  that — 

"  Coffee-leaves  are  taken,  in  the  form  of  infusion,  by  two  millions  of 
the  world's  inhabitants. 

"  Paraguay  tea  is  taken  by  ten  millions. 

"  Coca  by  as  many. 

"  Chiccory,  either  pure  or  mixed  with  coffee,  by  forty  millions. 

"  Cacao,  either  as  chocolate  or  in  some  other  form,  by  fifty  millions. 

"Haschisch  is  eaten  and  smoked  by  three  hundred  millions. 

"  Opium  by  four  hundred  millions. 

"  Chinese  tea  is  drunk  by  five  hundred  millions. 

"  Finally,  all  the  known  nations  of  the  world  are  addicted  to  the  use 
of  tobacco,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  smoke,  others  by  snuffing  and  chewing." 

Prof.  Johnston  -  has  further  illustrated  the  universal  use  of  these  sub- 
stances in  three  maps,  from  which  it  appears  that  no  extensive  portion  of 
the  earth's  surface  exists  without  some  special  indigenous  narcotic  plant, 
of  which  the  natives  freely  avail  themselves,  not  only  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, but  also  for  every-day  use.  And  Dr.  Anstie  further  adds:  "Nor  i& 
the  use  in  every-day  life  of  these  substances  an  outgrowth  of  modern  cor- 
ruption; on  the  contrary,  it  is  consecrated  by  whatever  sanction  immemorial 
custom  can  confer.  There  is  absolutely  no  period  in  history,  as  there  is 
absolutely  no  nation  upon  earth,  in  which  we  do  not  find  evidence  of  this 
custom." 

It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  still  considerable  uncertainty  as  to 
the  precise  mode  of  action  of  these  substances.  It  seems,  however, 
highly  probable  that,  so  far  as  their  distinctive,  active  principles  are  cou- 

'  Von  Bibra  :  Die  narkotischen  Genussmittel  und  der  Mensch,  1855,  Preface 
'  Johnston's  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  Vol.  I.,  London,  1859. 


FOOD    AND    DEINK.  l7l 

cerned,  they  are  not  converted  into  tissue.  And  it  is  to  these  princi- 
ples, in  whicli  the  peculiar  projjerty  of  the  substance  resides,  that  we  now 
devote  our  consideration,  and  not  to  other  alimentary  matters,  in  which 
some  abound. 

Alcohol. 

The  ordinary  alcohol,  to  which  reference  is  here  made,  whether  in  its 
purest  form  of  so-called  absolute  alcohol,  or  variously  diluted  in  the  shape 
of  common  alcohol,  brandy,  whiskey,  rums,  wine,  ales,  beers,  etc.,  is 
ethylic  alcohol.  It  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  is. 
represented  by  the  formula  CjHeO.  In  consequence  of  its  strong  affinity 
for  water,  alcohol  cannot  remain  pure  when  in  the  least  degree  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere,  and  even  the  so-called  absolute  alcohol  in  the  purest 
state  attainable  after  repeated  distillations,  probably  contains  from  2  to  5 
per  cent,  of  water,  and,  immediately  on  exposure  to  air.  increases  this 
percentage,  and  becomes  90  per  cent,  alcohol. 

Wherever  present,  and  however  obtained,  alcohol  is  always  a  product 
of  fermentation  of  substances  containing  sugar,  which  is  mainly  converted 
by  this  process  into  carbonic  acid  and  alcohol.  The  alcohol  thus  formed 
exists  in  combination  with  water  and  such  other  bodies  as  may  have  been 
present,  together  with  small  amounts  of  substances  allied  to  alcohol,  also 
formed  in  fermentation,  and  called  "  ethers."  From  any  of  its  solutions 
it  is  obtained  in  a  purer  state  by  distillation.  Other  matters  with  which 
it  is  combined  in  the  different  fluids  and  beverages  will  be  named  when 
these  are  separately  considered. 

With  regard  to  the  physiological  action  of  alcohol,  it  was  held  by  Lie- 
big,'  Bouchardat,  Sandras,  and  Duchek,-that  it  undergoes  conversion  into 
hydrocarbons  (fat),  which,  in  their  oxidation,  develop  heat,  thus  perform- 
ing  the  special  office  of  this  class  of  food. 

More  recent  observations,  by  Dr.  E.  Smith, ^  in  England,  and  MM.. 
Lallemand,  Duroy,  and  Perrin,*  in  France,  failed  to  confirm  this  view,  but 
went  to  show,  on  the  other  hand,  that  alcohol  is  partly  eliminated  by  the 
lungs,  skin,  bowels,  and  kidneys,  while  a  considerable  quantity  is  found  in 
the  tissue  of  the  brain  many  hours  after  the  dose  has  been  taken,  as  was 
shown  some  years  earlier  by  Dr.  Percy.*  According  to  these  experimen- 
ters, very  little  alcohol  is  destroyed  in  the  body.     Still  more  recently,  M, 


'  Liebig :  Animal  Chemistry  in  its  Relation  to  Physiology  and  Pathology,  translated 
by  Dr.  Gregory,  London,  1846. 

^  Duchek :  TJeber  das  Verhalten  des  Alcohols  im  thierischen  Organismus,  Prag. 
Vierteljahrschrift,  X.,  3,  1853. 

^Edw.  Smith,  M.D.  :  Cyclical  Changes,  London,  about  1861 ;  also,  by  the  same 
author :  Foods,  New  York,  1873,  p.  420. 

^  Lallemand,  Perrin  et  Duroy :  Du  role  de  I'alcool  et  des  anesthetiques  dans  I'or- 
ganisme,  1860. 

^ Percy:  Prize  Thesis;  An  Experimental  Inquiry  concerning  the  Presence  of  Alco- 
hol in  the  Ventricles  of  the  Brain,  London,  1839. 


172  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

Baudot '  in  France,  Schulinus  in  Germany,^  and  Drs,  Anstie,^  Dupre,* 
and  Thudichum  in  England/  have  shown  that  the  quantity  eliminated  by 
these  channels  is  so  small,  that  it  is  insufficient  to  account  for  the  entire 
bulk  which  disappears,  and  which,  they  contend,  is  consumed  in  some  way 
in  the  economy,  though  precisely  how  they  do  not  pretend  to  show.  Dr. 
Anstie  ®  suggests  that  more  careful  and  extended  research  may  some  day 
show  that  alcohol  is  transformed  into  aldehyde  and  thence  into  acetic  acid, 
as  Bouchardat,  Sandras  and  Duchek  first  attempted  to  prove  ; ''  or  into 
acetic  acid,  of  which  there  is  trifling  evidence  in  the  increased  acidity 
of  the  urine  during  the  use  of  alcohol.  But,  with  regard  to  these  results, 
Subbotin**  says,  even  supposing  it  true  that  so  small  a  quantity  of  alcohol 
is  eliminated  by  the  channels  referred  to,  it  does  not  follow  from  this  that 
the  remaining  alcohol  is  transformed  in  the  body  and  acts  as  food  in  the 
sense  claimed  for  it  by  Liebig. 

Subbotin  experimented  upon  rabbits  enclosed  in  apparatus  in  which 
the  exhalations  of  the  lungs  and  skin  could  be  collected  and  examined  for 
alcohol.  The  urine  was  also  examined  for  the  same  substance.  The 
experiments  showed  that  in  the  first  five  hours  after  the  introduction  of 
3.45  grammes  of  alcohol  into  the  stomach  of  a  rabbit,  about  2  per  cent, 
was  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  5  per  cent,  by  the  lungs  and  skin;  and 
experiments,  extending  over  a  greater  length  of  time,  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  usually,  during  twenty-four  hours,  at  least  16  per  cent,  of  the  in- 
gested alcohol  leaves  the  body  in  an  unchanged  condition  (or  perhaps 
as  aldehyde),  and  that  besides  this  elimination  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and 
kidney,  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  is  oxidized  in  the  organism.  Although, 
by  this  oxidation,  force  must  be  set  free  in  the  organism.  Dr.  Subbotin 
does  not  consider  that  alcohol  is  on  that  account  to  be  regarded  as  nutri- 
ment, for  the  functions  of  the  animal  body  depend,  according  to  him,  upon 
the  transformation  of  living  material,  i.  e.,  of  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  body,  and  not  upon  the  oxidation  and  decomposition  of  matter  foreign 
to  the  body. 

'  Baudot :  Union  medicale,  Septembre  et  Novembre,  1863. 

^  Scbulinus  :  Archiv  der  Heilk. ,  1866. 

°  Anstie,  Francis  E.,  M.D.  :  Stimulants  and  Narcotics;  their  Mutual  Relations, 
London,  1864,  p.  419  etseq. 

■*  Dupre,  A.:  On  the  Eliinination  of  Alcohol;  a  paper  to  the  Eoyal  Society,  ab- 
stracted iji  the  Medical  Times  and  G-az.,  Vol.  I.,  1873,  p.  196. 

5  Thudichum  :  In  Letheby  on  Food,  New  York,  1872,  p.  93. 

^  Anstie  :  Op.  cit.,  pp.  431  and  417. 

'  In  the  paper  referred  to,  Dr.  Dupre  not  only  states  that  "the  amount  of  alcohol 
eliminated  in  both  breath  and  urine  is  a  minute  fraction  of  the  amount  of  alcohol 
taken,"  but  also  confirms  certain  observations  of  M.  Lieben,  who  has  shown  that  a  sub- 
stance exists  in  the  urine  of  man  and  animals  which  is  not  alcohol,  though  it  yields 
iodoform,  and  gives  the  green  reaction  tcith  potassic  bichromate  and  sulphuric  acid.  Biit 
the  recent  experiments  of  Subbotin,  related  in  the  text,  reaffirm  the  original  position, 
that  at  least  some  alcohol  is  eliminated. 

*  Subbotin  :  On  the  Physiological  Importance  of  Alcohol  for  the  Animal  Organism, 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  VII.,  361.  See,  also,  a  paper  read  by  Prof.  H.  P.  Bowditch, 
M.D. ,  before  the  Boston  Society  of  Medical  Sciences  in  the  early  part  of  1873. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK,  l7i> 

But  whatever  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  admitting  alcohol  among- 
tissue-producing  food,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  comes  within  the  limits 
of  our  definition,  which,  it  will  be  recollected,  includes  all  substances  'which 
directly  or  indirectly  contribute  to  the  2))'ocesses  of  nutrition,  'whether  they 
he  directly  converted  into  tissue,  produce  force  by  oxidation,  or  prevent 
the  destruction  of  necessary  elenioits}  For  although  the  testimony  as 
to  the  effect  of  the  ingestion  of  alcohol  upon  the  amount  of  carbonic 
acid  exhaled  from  the  lungs  is  somewhat  conflicting,  yet  the  most  con- 
stant result  would  seem  to  be  to  decidedly  diminish  such  exhalation,  as 
well  as  the  discharge  of  urea  and  excrementitious  substances  generally^ 
thus  diminishing  the  waste  of  the  tissues.  Among  the  earliest  observa- 
tions in  this  direction  were  those  of  Dr.  William  A.  Hammond,  of  New 
York,  who  proved  in  experiments  upon  himself,  made  in  1856,  1st,  that  if 
the  system  be  so  nourished  that  its  weight  is  stationary,  the  ingestion  of 
twelve  drachms  of  alcohol  for  five  days  resulted  in  an  increase  of  weight 
corresponding  with  the  decrease  in  the  quantity  of  excretion,  though  this 
was  attended  by  some  disturbance  of  the  general  health  and  mental 
faculties ;  2d,  that  the  loss  of  weight  consequent  upon  insufficiency  of 
food  may  be  temporarily  arrested,  and  even  more  than  compensated  by 
the  use  of  the  above  quantity,  twelve  drachms  for  the  same  period,  while 
the  unpleasant  symptoms  present,  when  an  undiminished  food  was  taken, 
did  not  appear;  od,  that  the  increase  in  weight,  due  to  the  use  of  more 
than  sufficient  food,  is  further  augmented  by  the  use  of  the  same  amount 
for  the  same  period,  while  the  unpleasant  symptoms  are  also  increased.^ 
Further  experiments  by  E.  Smith  ^  and  others  are  not  uniform  in  their 
results,  but  all  show  that  there  is  at  least  no  increase  in  the  carbonic  acid 
eliminated,  while  many  prove  a  diminution  in  tissue  metamorphosis.  It  is 
true  the  late  Dr.  Parkes  says  :  "  This  is  usually  stated  to  be  lessened,, 
and  it  has  been  said  that  there  is  a  diminution  in  the  elimination  of  nitro- 
gen (as  urea)  and  of  carbon  (as  carbonic  acid).  But  the  experiments- 
already  referred  to  by  Count  Wollowicz  and  myself  prove  that  the  meta- 
morphosis of  nitrogenous  tissues  is  in  no  way  interfered  with  by  dietetic 

'  This  is  practically  also  the  definition  of  Prof.  Voit,  given  in  a  note  appended  tO' 
Dr.  Subbotin's  essay,  and  is  that  now  generally  received.  That  of  the  last-named, 
writer  is  much  more  limited,  and  would  exclude  alcohol  even  from  indirect  food,  in 
which  we  place  it.  Prof.  Voit,  on  the  other  hand,  would  regard  alcohol  as  nutriment, 
"since  under  its  influence  fewer  substances  are  decomposed  in  the  body."  But  he 
says  further  that,  "  since  alcohol,  when  taken  in  considerable  amount,  causes  disturb- 
ance in  the  processes  of  the  animal  economy,  we  cannot  introduce  it  in  quantities 
sufficient  for  nourishment  as  we  do  other  nutriments,  and  in  the  amount  which  we  can 
take  without  injury  its  importance  as  a  nutriment  is  too  small  to  be  considered."  On 
this  point  he  says  he  agrees  entirely  with  Dr.  Subbottn — "we  use  alcohol,  not  on 
account  of  its  importance  as  a  nutriment,  but  on  account  of  its  effects  as  a  stimulant 
or  relish." 

=  Hammond,  W.  A.,  M.D.  :  The  Physiological  Effects  of  Alcohol  and  Tobacco  upon 
the  Human  System,  in  Physiological  Memoirs,  Phila. ,  1863,  p.  48. 

Also  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  New  Series,  Vol.  XXXII.,  Oct.;,, 
1856,  p.  306. 

2  Binz  :  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  1874. 


174  FOOD    AND    DKINK. 

doses.     Whether  the  carbonic  acid  excretion  is  really  lessened  may  also 
be  questioned." ' 

But  most  of  the  evidence  favors  the  conclusion  that  alcohol  diminishes 
the  waste  of  the  tissues  and  renders  a  less  amount  of  food  necessary. 
Of  this  there  is  now  ample  confirmation  in  clinical  and  every-day  experi- 
ence. That  alcohol,  in  the  treatment  of  fever  and  wasting  diseases,  in 
some  way  supplies  the  place  of  deficient  aliment,  is  now  an  admitted  fact, 
while  the  experience  of  those  who  are  compelled,  in  civil  or  military  life, 
to  temporarily  undergo  privations  in  which  insufficient  food  is  an  element, 
attests  the  conservative  power  of  alcohol.  This  is,  however,  not  to  bo 
interpreted  as  implying  any  efficiency  in  alcohol  to  protect  against  the 
effects  of  extreme  cold. 

As  to  the  mode  in  which  this  effect  of  alcohol  is  accomplished,  although 
not  fully  established,  it  has  perhajDs  been  placed  outside  the  limits  of  pure 
speculation.  It  would  seem  that  Prof.  Lionel  Beale,  Dr.  James  Ross,  and 
Prof.  Binz  arrived,  independently  of  each  other,  at  practically  the  same 
conclusion,  that  alcohol  restrains  the  rajyid  groioth  of  young  cells,"  stand- 
ing in  the  same  rank  with  quinine,  which  has  been  shown  by  Binz  ^  and 
others  to  possess  the  remarkable  property  of  checking  the  multiplication 
of  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood  and  the  low  organisms  developed  in 
23utrefactive  processes. 

Caution  should,  however,  be  exercised  to  restrict  alcohol  to  its  legiti- 
mate position,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  has  acquired  a  reputation 
in  certain  directions  which  is  fictitious.  One  of  these  is  that  of  enabling 
the  consumer  to  endure  extreme  cold  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  an 
office  which  an  increased  quantity  of  direct  aliment  can  alone  fulfil.  To 
this  end  we  have  the  testimony  of  numerous  arctic  explorers,  among  whom 
Dr.  Hayes  is  very  explicit.  He  says:  "While  fresh  animal  food,  and 
especially  fat,  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  travellers  and  inhabitants  in 
arctic  countries,  alcohol  is,  in  almost  any  shape,  not  only  completely  use- 
less, but  positively  injurious."  He  admits  that  it  may  be  of  temporary 
advantage  in  cases  of  great  exhaustion  from  cold  and  exposure,  but  only  if 
more  substantial  succor  be  near  at  hand;  while  he  has  known  the  most  un- 
pleasant consequences  result  from  the  injudicious  use  of  whiskey  for  the 
23urpose  of  temporary  stimulation,  and  has  known  strong,  able-bodied  men 
to  become  utterly  incapable  of  resisting  cold  in  consequence  of  the  long- 
continued  use  of  alcoholic  drinks." 

To  a  similar  end  is  the  experience  of  the  leaders  of  the  great  Napo- 

1  Parkes  :  Practical  Hygiene,  5th  Ed.,  1878,  p.  296. 

^  Anstie  :  Remarks  on  certain  recent  Papers  on  the  Action  of  Alcohol,  Practitioner, 
No.  LXV.,  Nov.,  1873. 

"  Binz :  Experimentelle  Untersuchungen  liber  das  Wesen  der  Chininwirkung,  Ber- 
lin, 18G8. 

Baxter,  E.  Buchanan  :  The  Action  of  the  Cinchona  Alkaloids  and  some  of  their 
Congeners  on  Bacteria  and  Colorless  Blood-Corpuscles,  The  Practitioner,  No.  LXV., 
Nov.,  1873. 

^  Hayes :  Observations  upon  the  Relations  Existing  between  Food  and  the  Capa- 
Ibilities  of  Men  to  Resist  Low  Temperatures,  Amer.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  July,  1859,  p.  117. 


FOOD    AI^D    DRINK.  175 

Iconic  campaign  in  Russia,  and  the  monks  of  St.  Bernard,'  all  of  whom 
assert  that  death  from  cold  is  accelerated  by  alcohol,  which  reduces,  in 
truth,  the  animal  temperature  ;  a  fact  which  has  been  amply  confirmed, 
first,  by  the  clinical  experience  of  the  late  Dr.  Todd,  of  London,  as  well 
as  by  recent  observations  on  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  high  tempera- 
ture of  fever.  ^ 

Add  to  this  the  well-known  baneful  effects  of  an  excessive  indulgence 
in  alcohol — and  it  seems  to  us  quite  impossible  to  separate  entirely  the 
consideration  of  the  abuse  from  the  use  of  so  important  a  substance — 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  propriety  of  restricting  its  use,  except 
at  least  in  a  very  dilute  form,  to  those  occasions  where  wasting  disease  or 
temporary  causes  of  fatigue  and  prostration  demand  its  conservative  and 
stimulating  properties.  These  remarks  apply  to  pure  alcohol,  and  such 
alcoholic  liquors  as  contain  it  in  large  amounts,  as  whiskey,  brandy,  gin, 
rum,  and  other  liquors  containing  a  large  proportion  of  alcohol,  which 
receive  different  names  according  to  their  source  or  the  language  of  the 
country  in  which  they  happen  to  be  especially  produced  or  consumed. 

In  addition  to  the  ethylic  alcohol,  which  is  the  chief  alcohol  of  these 
liquors,  other  alcohols,  differing  in  composition,  but  similar  in  projoerties, 
are  also  formed  in  some  fermentations.  Among  these  are  methylic  and 
amylic  alcohol.  The  latter  is  the  well-known  fusel-oil,  which  is  present 
in  larger  proportion  in  the  more  common  forms  of  whiskey,  especially  that 
obtained  from  potatoes,  whence  the  name.  It  is,  however,  an  impurity 
which  is  to  be  watched  for  in  all  whiskeys,  as  it  greatly  increases  their 
intoxicating  and  other  pernicious  effects. 

Wines. 

Wines  which,  when  pure,  are  derived  from  the  fermented  juice  of  the 
grape,  contain  from  8  to  25  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  together  with  other  sub- 


'  Richardson,  B.  W.  :  Popular  Science  Rev. ,  April,  1872. 

-  Bouvier,  Cuny :  Effect  of  Alcohol  on  Reducing  the  Temperature  of  the  Body, 
Phila.  Medical  Times,  Vol.  II.,  1872,  p.  198,  from  Centralblatt,  No.  ol.  Also,  by  the 
same  author :  Studien  liber  Alcohol,  Bonn,  1872. 

Binz  :  Ueber  die  antipyretische  Wirkung  von  Chinin  und  Alcohol,  Yirchow's  Ar- 
chly, B.  51,  1870.  Effects  of  Alcohol  in  Reducing  the  Temperature  of  the  Body. 
Oct.  4,  1873. 

For  Results  of  the  Researches  of  Ringer  and  Rickards,  see  London  Lancet,  Yol.  II., 
1866. 

Godfrin  :  De  I'Alcohol,  Paris,  1869. 

Socin  :  Kriegschirurgische  Erfahrungen,  gesammelt  in  Carlsruhe,  1870  und  1871. 

And  for  a  very  complete  history  of  the  entire  subject  from  the  first  observations 
of  Lichtenfelt  and  Frohlich  in  1852,  to  the  present  time,  see  Anstie,  in  the  Practi- 
tioner, Nos.  LXV.  and  LXVI.,  November  and  December,  1873.  The  opposite  results  of 
Dr.  Parkes,  published  in  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society,  1871,  which,  from  the  high 
position  of  their  author,  must  not  be  overlooked,  are  here  also  discussed  by  Dr.  Anstie, 
who  says  that  these  matters  are  not  to  be  decided  in  healthy  individuals  or  in  ephem- 
eral pyrexias.  In  recent  editions  of  his  work  on  Hygiene,  Dr.  Parkes  admits  a  slight 
reduction  of  temperature  in  some  cases. 


176  FOOD    AND    DRINK. 

stances  wliich  materially  modify  or  add  to  the  effect  o£  pure  alcohol, 
making  them  tonics,  and  to  a  certain  extent  direct  nutrients.  Among' 
these  principles  are  sugar,  gum,  extractives,  gluten,  or,  in  its  absence, 
tannin,  acetic  acid,  salts  of  potash  and  alumina,  sodic  and  potassic  chlo- 
rides, and  carbonic  acid.  In  addition,  wines  also  contain  bodies  allied 
to  alcohol  and  formed  during  fermentation  or  in  subsequent  chemical 
changes,  called  "  ethers."  These  are  very  numerous — according  to  Dr. 
Dupre,  there  are  twenty-five  or  more — although  some  are  in  very  small 
quantity.  Some  of  them  are  oenanthic,  citric,  malic,  tartaric,  acetic,  etc. 
It  is  to  these,  and  especially  to  oenanthic  ether,  that  the  "  bouquet "  of 
wines  is  due. 

When  the  quantity  of  sugar  which  is  present  in  the  juice  of  the  grape 
is  not  large,  all  of  it  is  converted  into  alcohol,  producing  a  dry  wine;  but 
if  the  amount  is  large,  about  20  per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  produced,  which  is 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  further  conversion  of  sugar,  and  the  product  is, 
therefore,  a  sioeet  wine.^ 

Malt  Liquors. 

The  various  malt  liquors,  beer,"  ale,  porter,  brown  stout,  etc.,  are  pre- 
pared from  malted  or  germinated  barley  and  flavored  with  hops.  They 
co-ntain  a  very  large  proportion  of  nutrient  matter  and  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  alcohol.  Of  the  latter  they  contain  1  to  8  per  cent.,  but  may 
reach  10  ]Der  cent,  in  the  strong  East  India  pale  ale,  or  even  15  per  cent. 
in  certain  English  home-brewed  ales,  stored  for  private  use.^  The  ordi- 
nary German  lager  hier,  now  so  largely  consumed  in  this  country,  con- 
tains about  2  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  is  the  weakest  and  most  harmless  of 
the  alcoholic  drinks.  The  nutrient  matters,  which  are  abundant,  include 
a  large  proportion  of  saccharine  and  nitrogenous  substances — sugar, 
starch,  gum,  gluten,  lupulin,  vegetable  fibre,  coagulated  albumen — together 
with  phosphate  of  lime,  water,  and  a  peculiar  volatile  oil  produced  on  dis- 
tillation, which  gives  the  aroma  to  beer.  These  constituents  give  a  tonic 
and  nutrient  property  to  the  malt  liquors,  which  make  them  most  valu- 

'  The  following  table,  containing  the  approximate  amount  of  alcohol  in  various 
liquors,  is  introduced  from  the  useful  little  work  on  Alcohol :  its  Use  and  Abuse, 
by  Dr.  W.  S.  Greenfield,  1879  : 


Whiskey 50  to  60 

Brandy 50  to  60 

Eum 60  to  77 

Gm 49  to  60 

Port-wine,  strongest 25 

Port-wine,  ordinary 23 

Port-wine,  weakest 16.5 

Madeira 16  to  22 

Sherry,  strongest 25 

Sherry,  weakest 16 

Burgundy 10  to  14 

Claret,  strongest  Bordeaux  17 


Claret,  mean 15 

Claret,  vin  ordinaire 8  or  9 

Champagne 5  to  13 

Hock 9  to  12 

Sauterne 14 

Cider 5  to  10 

Ale,  Burton 9 

Ale,  ordinary 3  to  5 

Perry 7 

Brown  stout 6  to  7 

London  porter 4.2 

London  small  beer 1.28 


"  Smith,  Edw.,  M.D.  :  Foods,  New  York,  1873,  p.  412. 


FOOD    AND    DllUSTK.  177 

able  adjuvants  in  the  treatment  of  enfeebled  states  of  the  system  from 
whatever  cause  induced,  as  well  as  comparatively  harmless  beverages. 

Cider  and  Perry  are  derived,  the  first  from  the  fermented  juice  of  the 
apple,  and  the  second  from  that  of  the  pear.  Containing'  at  first  but  a 
small  quantity  of  alcohol,  this  may  become  increased  to  from  5  to  10  per 
cent.  In  addition  to  alcohol,  they  contain  carbonic  acid,  saccharine  mat- 
ter, and  the  various  organic  acids  and  salts  of  the  fruit  whence  derived 
and  by  which  they  are  flavored.  When  properly  prepared  and  bottled, 
ciders  are  not  unlike  champagne  in  flavor  and  effect. 

The  further  fermentation  of  cider  results  in  vinegar  or  acetic  acid. 

/  Tea  and  Coffee. 

Tea  is  the  dried  leaves  of  a  number  of  tea-plants  grown  in  China, 
Japan,  and  lately  also  with  some  success  in  Ceylon,  Australia,  in  Cali- 
fornia and  other  Western  States  of  this  country,  as  well  as  in  North  and 
South  Carolina.  The  green  and  hlack  teas  are  varieties  due  to  different 
methods  of  preparation,  the  color  of  the  former  being  retained  by  the 
rapidity  of  the  drying  process  ;  while  the  tea,  to  become  black,  is  exposed 
to  atmospheric  changes  for  a  longer  time  until  the  process  of  fermentation 
is  set  up. 

Coffee  is  the  bean  of  the  coffee-plant  (Coffea  Arabica),  originally  a 
native  of  Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  but  now  naturalized  in  many  tropical 
countries.  The  beans  are  in  pairs,  placed  face  to  face,  and  enclosed  in  a 
hard  coreacious  membrane,  further  surrounded  by  a  pulpy  pericarp. 

Both  tea  and  coffee  are  used  in  the  shape  of  infusions  ;  but  the  latter 
is  almost  universally  first  roasted,  in  the  process  of  which  it  develops  de- 
sirable aromatic  qualities,  becomes  more  friable,  and  loses  about  20  per 
cent,  in  weight  when  it  reaches  the  proper  stage,  indicated  by  a  chestnut- 
brown  color. 

Although  they  contain  other  substances,  as  casein  or  legumin,  gum, 
sugar,  tannin,  starch,  aromatic  oil,  fat,  vegetable  fibre,  mineral  matters 
and  water,  the  peculiar  essential  properties  of  both  tea  and  coffee  are  due 
to  an  active  principle,  identical  in  composition,  though  in  the  former  it  is 
called  theine,  and  in  the  latter  caffeine.  Its  chemical  formula  is  put  down 
as  CieH5oO,N4+H,0. 

As  to  the  physiological  effect  of  tea  and  coffee,  it  is  apparent,  from 
their  composition,  that  their  direct  nutritive  value  cannot  be  very  great. 
It  is,  however,  larger  in  coffee,  of  which  an  infusion  of  1,500  grains  (97.19 
grammes)  in  a  quart  of  water  contains  about  300  grains  (19.438  grammes) 
of  soluble  principles.  Of  these,  about  140  grains  (9.007  grammes)  are 
nitrogenous  matter,  and  153  grains  (9.978  grammes)  fatty,  saccharine,  and 
saline  substances.'     Yet  that  they  supply  some  hidden  want  of  our  nature 

^  Payen :  Precis  Theorique  et  Pratique  des  Substances  Alimentaires,  Paris,  1865, 
p.  414. 

Vol.  L  — 13 


178  FOOD    A]SrD    DRINK. 

might  be  iuferrea  from  their  widespreaa  use.  Experience  and  experiment 
have  confirmed  such  inference.  First,  as  to  those  effects  upon  the  mind 
and  body,  which  have  come  under  the  observation  of  every  one.  The 
chief  of  these  are  a  feeling  of  refreshment,  especially  after  fatigue,  and 
a  capacity  for  further  mental  and  physical  effort.  Few  individuals  who 
are  called  upon  for  considerable  mental  or  physical  exertion  have  failed 
to  confirm  this  effect;  while  the  experience  of  armies,  and  of  communities 
like  the  Belgian  miners  of  Charleroi,  whose  condition  was  investigated  by 
De  Gasparin,'  has  led  to  similar  conclusions.  The  testimony  of  Dr. 
Hayes  as  to  these  effects  of  tea  and  coffee,  and  their  superiority  over 
alcohol  in  enabling  men  to  endure  cold  and  hardship  in  arctic  regions, 
points  in  the  same  direction.  "  They  both  operated  upon  fatigued  and 
overtaxed  men  like  a  charm;"  but  coffee  was  preferred  in  the  morning 
and  tea  in  the  evening.  "  The  coffee  seemed  to  last  throughout  the  day, 
and  the  men  seemed  to  grow  hungry  less  rapidly  than  after  drinking 
tea,  while  the  tea  soothed  them  after  a  day's  hard  labor  and  enabled  them 
better  to  sleep."  ^ 

This  reinvigorating  and  stimulating  influence  upon  the  mind,  if  unduly 
increased,  leads  to  wakefulness,  an  effect  so  well  known  that  both  tea  and 
coffee  are  commonly  resorted  to  when  it  is  desired  to  avert  the  disposition 
to  sleep.  Carried  still  farther,  the  effect  is  to  produce  nervousness  and 
tremor,  and,  if  sleep  be  obtained,  it  is  often  disturbed.  These  effects  are 
much  more  promptly  induced  in  some  persons  than  in  others,  some  being 
unable  to  take  a  single  cup  of  either  beverage  without  experiencing  them 
to  an  inconvenient  degree.  A  friend  of  the  writer,  an  accomplished  sur- 
geon, cannot  take  a  cup  of  coffee  at  breakfast  preceding  an  operation. 

These  effects  are  common  to  both  tea  and  coffee,  but  are  thought  to  be 
possessed  in  a  higher  degree  by  the  latter;  but  here,  too,  much  depends 
upon  idiosyncrasy,  certain  individuals  being  more  refreshed  by  one  than 
by  the  other,  and  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  will  keep  one  person  awake  for 
many  hours,  while  it  will  have  no  effect  whatever  upon  another,  whom 
tea  may  affect  strongly. 

With  regard  to  special  experiments  made  with  a  view  to  determine- 
ing  the  effects  of  these  substances,  those  of  Bocker,^  in  1853,  and  of 
Lehmann,*  in  1854,  were  the  first  whose  results  were  generally  acknowl- 
edged, and  they  are  still  accepted  by  many. 

These  experiments,  made  with  infusion  of  roasted  coffee  and  caffeine, 
went  to  show  that  their  chief  influence  was  to  retard  the  waste  of  the 
tissues;  the  amount  of  urea  and  phosphoric  acid  excreted  by  the  kidneys 
being  less  than  one-third  what  was  excreted  when  the  same  food  was  taken 
without  the  coffee.     The  empyreumatic  oil  was  found  to  have  a  stimulat- 

1  De  Gasparin  :  Note  sur  le  Regime  des  Mineurs  Beiges,  Comptes  rendus,  Paris, 
1850,  Tome  XXX. ,  p.  450.  This  writer  found  that  often  insufficiency  of  food  was  as- 
sociated with  the  laborious  occupations  of  these  people. 

'-'  Hayes;  Loc  cit. ,  p.  118. 

"  Bocker  :  Archiv  d.  Vereins  f .  gemeinsch.  Arbeit,  1853. 

"Lehmann  :  Liebig's  Annalen,  Bd.  LXXXVII.,  p.  205. 


FOOD    AND    DllINK.  170 

ing  effect  upon  the  nervous  system,  promoted  perspiration,  dispelled  liun- 
o-er,  and  moved  the  bowels;  and,  in  excess,  caused  excitement  and  wake- 
fulness. In  retarding"  the  waste  of  the  tissues  it  had  an  effect  quite  equal 
to  the  caffeine  itself.'  Lehmann  concluded  from  these  experiments  that 
both  tea  and  coffee  exhilarate  the  nervous  system,  and,  by  diminishing 
the  waste,  render  a  less  amount  of  food  necessary,  while  with  a  given 
amount  of  food  more  work  could  be  done  under  the  use  of  tea  and  coffee 
than  without  them. 

The  experiments  of  Hammond  ^  confirm  these  conclusions;  but  the 
more  recent  experiments  of  Dr.  Edw.  Smith  lead  to  opposite  results,  so 
far  as  the  effect  of  both  tea  and  coffee  upon  the  tissues  is  concerned. 
According  to  his  observations,  both  are  respiratory  excitants,  causing  a 
largely  increased  evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  promoting  the  transforma- 
tion of  food  without  supplying"  nutriment,  and  therefore  increasing  the 
VKiste.^  He  denies  that  a  diminished  elimination  of  urea  implies  dimin- 
ished waste  of  the  tissues,  since  not  urea,  but  carbonic  acid,  is  the  measure 
of  tissue  change.' 

He  points  out  also  certain  differences  in  the  action  of  tea  and  coffee, 
some  of  which  coincide,  and  others  disagree,  with  the  results  of  Lehmann. 
While  both  are  powerful  respiratory  excitants,  increasing  the  elimination 
of  carbonic  acid,  coffee  causes  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  respiration,  so 
that  the  depth  of  the  respiration  is  but  slightly  increased,  and  there 
was  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  the  pulsation.  Again,  tea  promotes  very 
largely  the  action  of  the  skin,  inducing  perspiration ;  while  coffee  decreases 
it,  and  therefore  dries  that  organ,  while  it  promotes  the  action  of  the 
bowels.  By  increasing  the  action  of  the  skin,  tea  lessens  the  force  of 
the  circulation,  cools  the  body,  and  does  not  cause  congestion  of  the 
mucous  membranes;  while  coffee,  by  diminishhig  the  action  of  the  skin, 
diminishes  the  loss  of  heat,  but  "  increases  the  vls-a-tergo,  and  therefore 
the  heart's  action  and  the  fulness  of  the  pulse,  and  excites  the  mucous 
membranes."  ^  With  this  difference  in  the  action  of  tea  and  coffee  upon 
the  skin  most  are  familiar,  and  therapeutical  advantage  of  it  is  often 
taken  when  diaphoresis  is  desired.  Few  agents  in  common  use  are  so 
efficient  in  this  direction  as  tea. 

Dr.  Smith  reaches  further  conclusions  in  his  observations,  which  are 
interesting  and  important,  if  correct.  He  says:  "The  conditions,  there- 
fore, under  which  coffee  may  be  taken  are  very  different  from  those  suited 
to  tea.  It  is  more  fitted  than  tea  for  the  poor  and  feeble.  It  is  also 
more  fitted  for  breakfast,  inasmuch  as  the  skin  is  then  active,  and  the 
heart's  action  feeble;  whilst  in  good  health,  and  with  sufficient  food,  it  is 


'  Johnston  :  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  edited  by  Lewes,  London,  1859,  Vol.  I., 
p.  304. 

^  Hammond  :  Urological  Contributions,  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences, 
April,  1856,  p.  335. 

'"■  Smith,  Edw.  M.D.  :  Foods,  New  York,  1873,  p.  349  et  seq.,  and  p.  365. 

*Idem:  Op.  cit.,  p.  367. 

'  Idem  :  Op.  cit. ,  p.  366. 


180  FOOD    AND    DKINK. 

not  needful  after  dinner,  but,  if  thus  drank,  should  be  taken  soon  after 
the  meal.  Hence,  in  certain  respects,  tea  and  coffee  are  antidotes  of  each 
other,  and  we  know  that  they  are  not  taken  indiscriminately,  although  in 
a  chief  action  they  are  interchangable."  * 

Voit,^  from  observations  on  a  dog,  and  Squarey,^  from  experiments  on 
men,  conclude  that  coffee  possesses  little  or  no  influence  on  the  general 
nutrition  of  the  body. 

Whatever  the  effect  of  tea  and  coffee  upon  the  tissues,  the  similarity 
of  their  exhilarating  effect  to  that  of  alcohol  leads  naturally  to  their  being 
placed  in  the  same  group,  while  their  harmlessness  and  more  permanent 
effects  render  them  much  more  suitable  beverages  than  alcohol.  It  need 
scarcely  be  mentioned  that  the  direct  nutrient  properties  of  tea  and  coffee 
are  greatly  increased  by  the  milk  and  sugar  with  which  they  are  so 
largely  used. 

Chiccory,  Avith  which  coffee  is  often  mixed,  is  the  root  of  the  cicho- 
rium  intihus,  a  plant  growing  in  all  European  countries,  and  now  much 
cultivated.  It  has  been  considered  nearly  inert,  and  as  giving  only  color 
and  a  certain  body  to  the  infusion  of  coffee;  but  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
Edw.  Smith  have  shown  it  to  possess  similar  properties  with  coffee, 
though  in  a  very  much  less  degree.  In  preparation,  it  is  cut  into  pieces 
and  roasted  with  fat,  as  coffee  is  roasted.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated 
with  roasted  rye,  with  which  coffee  also  is  known  to  be  adulterated  in  this 
country,  forming,  with  molasses,  a  large  proportion  of  the  so-called 
"  extracts  "  of  coffee,  at  one  time  much  sold  in  America. 

Mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  is  the  prepared  leaves  of  the  Brazilian  holly, 
or  Ilea  Paraguayensis.  It  is  similar  to  China  tea  in  its  effects,  which  are 
due  to  the  same  active  principle.  It  is,  however,  less  delicate  in  flavor, 
more  bitter  and  astringent,  and  is  said  to  be  more  narcotic  than  China  tea. 

Rapidly  dried  coffee-leaves  are  also  used  infused,  in  Java,  Sumatra, 
and  other  countries.  They  contain  a  small  proportion  of  caffeine;  but 
the  results  of  some  experiments  by  Dr.  Edw.  Smith*  were  opposed  to 
those  of  the  same  observer  on  tea  and  coffee,  showing  that  coffee-leaves 
are  not  respiratory  excitants. 

Chocolate. 

Chocolate  is  prejDared  by  admixture  with  sugar  of  the  powdered  seeds 
of  the  Cacao  tlieohrotna,  or  cocoa-palm,  and  the  pods  of  the  Arachis  hypo- 
gaia,  the  cacao  shrub  of  Zanzibar. 

Chocolate  contains,  besides  the  peculiar  principle  theobromine  (C,Hs 
N4O2),  which  seems  identical  in  its  properties  with  theine  and  caffeine, 
large  amounts  of  fat  and  sugar,  which  give  it  the  properties  of  direct 
aliment.    These  are  further  contributed  to  by  the  large  quantities  of  milk 

1  Smith:  Op.  cit.,  p.  367. 

^  Henle  and  Meissner's  Berichfc,  1860,  p.  403. 

^  Parkes  :  Practical  Hygiene,  p.  238. 

*  Smith,  Edw.  :  Op.  cit.,  p.  358. 


FOOD    AND    UKINK.  181 

always  taken  with  it.     It  is  less  stimulating  to  the  nervous  system  than 
tea  and  coffee,  but  is,  of  course,  more  nutritious. 

Guarana  and  Coca. 

Guaranine  and  cocaine  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  identical  in  their  ac- 
tion with  theine,  caffeine,  and  theobromine,'  The  former  is  the  fixed 
principle  of  guarana,  which  is  derived  from  the  seeds  of  PaidUnia  sor- 
bilis,  P.  ciqKina,  and  several  other  climbing  plants  of  the  order  Octandra 
trigynia  of  the  Linnaean  system.  Cocaine  is  the  active  principle  of 
Erythroxylon  coca.  The  formula  for  guaranine  is  the  same  as  for  theine 
and  caffeine,  and  that  of  cocaine  is  Ci8H,9N04.  The  latter  was  discov- 
ered by  Gaedeke  in  1855,  and  further  examined  by  Neiman  in  1859. 

Guarana  is  prepared  and  used  in  Brazil  in  the  same  manner  as  coffee. 
It  has  recently  acquired  considerable  reputation  as  a  cerebral  stimulant  in 
headache. 

Coca-leaves  are  likewise  used  in  infusion,  but  are  also  largely  chewed  as 
tobacco.  It  forms  always  an  important  element  in  the  food  of  the  native 
South  American,  and  some  of  the  joublished  accounts  of  the  endurance 
they  are  enabled  to  sustain  by  its  use  alone,  though  almost  incredible,  are 
well  authenticated.  For  example,  the  Indian  mail-carriers  and  messengers 
are  said  often  to  travel  three  or  four  days  without  any  food  except  coca, 
carried  in  a  little  bag  at  the  side.  Von  Tschudi  relates  that  an  Indian, 
sixty-two  years  old,  worked  for  him  at  excavation  for  five  days  and  nights 
consecutively  without  any  ordinary  food,  and  with  a  very  short  allowance 
of  sleep,  and  yet,  at  the  end  of  that  time,  was  fresh  enougli  to  undergo  a 
long  journey,  being  sustained  only  by  the  coca  which  he  chewed  from 
time  to  time.^ 

The  results  of  experimental  inquiry  into  the  effects  of  coca  are  not 
uniform,  but  the  very  carefully  conducted  experiments  of  Dr.  Isaac  Ott' 

'  See  a  paper  by  Alexander  Bennett,  M.D.  :  An  Experimental  Inquiry  into  the 
Physiological  Actions  of  Theine,  Caffeine,  Guaranine,  Cocaine,  and  Theobromine, 
Edinburgh  Med.  Jour.,  Oct.,  1873,  p.  323. 

-'  Anstie;  Stimulants  and  Narcotics,  London,  1864,  p.  143. 

The  writer  is  informed  by  one  of  his  former  pupils.  Dr.  Hermann  N.  Loeb,  long 
resident  in  South  America,  that  the  coca  is  always  chewed  with  a  small  fragment  of  a 
substance  called  yeclita^  which  is  composed  of  ashes,  a  "particular  kind  of  mud,"  and 
common  salt.  These  three,  when  thoroughly  mixed  and  sun-dried,  form  a  hard  sub- 
stance, which  is  used  in  quantity  the  size  of  a  pea.  It  has  a  smarting  taste,  and  is 
always  chewed  together  with  a  mouthful  of  coca. 

For  other  interesting  matter  on  this  subject,  see  also  the  following: 

Von  Tschudi :   Travels  in  Peru. 

Markham  :  Travels  in  Peru  and  India. 

Poppig:  Reise  in  Peru,  Bd.  II. 

Montegazza  :  Prize  Treatise  on,  Milan,  1859  :  Abstract  in  the  British  Pharmaceutical 
Journal  for  1860. 

Eeis  :  In  Bouchardat's  Annuaire  Therapeutiques  for  1864. 

Weddell :  Voyage  dans  le  Nord  de  Bolivia. 

2  Ott :  Cocain,  Veratria  and  Gelsemium,  Toxocological  Studies,  Philadelphia,  1874. 


182  FOOD    AND    DRINK. 

revealed  that,  during  the  use  of  coca  for  five  days,  the  solid  elements  of 
the  urine  diminished,  while  the  weight  of  the  body  slightlj'^  increased. 
The  urine  also  contained  oxalate  of  lime  crystals  during  its  use.  Chris- 
tison  found  that  it  increased  the  saliva  and  probably  also  lessened  the 
elimination  of  the  urinarj''  solids.  Gazrau,  on  the  other  hand,  found 
that  coca  augmented  the  urea  and  lessened  the  body  weight.  From  a 
personal  knowledge  of  Dr.  Ott's  careful  and  accurate  method  of  investi- 
gation, the  writer  is  inclined  to  accept  his  conclusions,  which  are  confirmed 
by  Christison  so  far  as  he  goes. 

Tobacco. 

Similar  jDroperties  are  claimed  for  tobacco,  which  is  also  said  to  have 
the  power  of  replacing  ordinary  food  for  a  limited  period.  Tobacco  was 
made  the  subject  of  exj^erimental  observation  by  Dr.  Hammond,'  who, 
quite  unaccustomed  to  its  use,  smoked  150  grs.  (97  grammes)  of  tobacco 
thrice  daily  for  a  series  of  days.  He  found  that  while  the  food  consumed 
was  sufficient  to  preserve  the  weight  of  the  body,  the  tobacco  increased 
that  weight,  and,  when  the  food  was  not  sufficient,  and  the  body  lost 
weight  in  consequence,  the  tobacco  restrained  that  loss.  He  found,  more- 
over— 

1st.  That  tobacco  did  not  materially  affect  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid  by  the  lungs. 

3d.  That  it  lessened  the  amount  of  aqueous  vapor  given  off  in  resj)i- 
ration. 

3d.  That  it  diminished  the  amount  of  faeces. 

4th.  That  it  lessened  the  quantity  of  urine  and  the  amount  of  its  urea 
and  chlorine. 

5th.  That  it  increased  the  amount  of  free  acid,  uric  acid,  phosphoric 
and  sulphuric  acid  eliminated  through  the  kidneys. 

In  comparison  with  Hammond's  observations  on  the  use  of  alcohol,  we 
have  a  difference  in  the  1st  result,  carbonic  acid  having  been  diminished. 
There  is  a  coincidence  in  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th;  but  in  the  experiments  with 
alcohol,  the  free  acid,  uric,  sulphuric,  and  phosphoric  acids  of  the  urine 
were  also  diminished.  Dr.  Hammond  can  only  account  for  the  increase 
in  the  phosphoric  and  sulphuric  acids  by  the  increased  consumption  of 
nervous  matter. 

Notwithstanding  the  effect  of  tobacco  in  diminishing  the  total  amount 
of  faeces,  it  is  a  matter  of  every-day  experience  that  the  smoking  of  a 
cigar  will  often  induce  a  stool,  and  is  frequently  resorted  to  for  that  pur- 
pose. This  effect  may  be  directly  due  to  an  increased  secretion  of  gastro- 
intestinal mucus;*  and  to  it  may  be  ascribed  the  beneficial  results  which 
have  been  observed  in  its  moderate  use  in  dyspepsia,  of  which  also,  in 
excessive  amounts,  it  is  a  prolific  cause. 

'The  tranquillizing  effect  of  the  moderate  consumption  of  tobacco,  es- 

'  Hammond  :  American  Journ.  of  Med.  Sci..  N.  S.,  Vol.  XXXIT.,  Oct.,  1856,  p.  315. 
^  Morris.  J.  C.  :  On  Tobacco..  Phila.  Med.  Times,  Vol.  I,  1870-71,  p.  311. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  183 

pecially  by  smoking,  and  the  phenomena  of  nervousness  shown  in  trem- 
bling and  wakefuhiess,  etc.,  from  excessive  use,  are  as  well  known  as  the 
similar  effects  of  tea  and  coffee.  They  were  also  experienced  by  Dr. 
Hammond. 

Opium. 

However  much  it  be  conceded  that  the  use  of  opium  were  better  con- 
fined to  medicinal  purj^oses,  the  fact  still  remains  that  it  is  jDractically 
used  as  food  by  a  large  number  of  the  Caucasian  race,  as  well  as  the  Ori- 
entals; and  it  becomes  us  to  consider  what  are  its  effects.  These,  from 
clinical  and  general  observation,  are  also  determined  to  be  conservative, 
so  far  as  tissue  consumption  is  concerned.  Few  hospital  or  practising 
physicians  have  failed  to  see  life  prolonged  in  exhausting  disease,  and 
during  inability  to  take  sufficient  food,  by  the  use  of  moderate  quantities 
of  opium;  while  the  long  lives  of  opium-eating  crones  have  not  failed  to 
impress  the  writer.  The  most  striking  instance  of  this  food-action  of 
opium  is  quoted  by  Dr.  Anstie  from  Dr.  Barnes,' who  says:  "  On  one  occa- 
sion I  made  a  very  fatiguing  night-march  with  a  Cutchie  horseman.  In 
the  morning,  after  having  travelled  thirty  miles,  I  was  obliged  to  assent 
to  his  jDroposal  of  halting  for  a  few  minutes,  which  he  employed  in  sharing 
a  quantity  of  about  two  drachms  of  opium  between  himself  and  his  jaded 
horse.  The  effect  of  the  dose  was  soon  evident  in  both,  for  the  horse 
finished  a  journey  of  forty  miles  with  great  apparent  facility,  and  the 
rider  became  absolutely  more  active  and  intelligent."  It  must  be  con- 
ceded that  it  is  not  easy  here  to  separate  the  simple  stimulant  action  from 
the  food  action.  The  latter  is,  however,  shown  in  the  length  of  time  in 
which  the  exertion  was  subsequently  maintained  without  the  use  of  other 
food. 

Of  opium,  however,  it  must  be  said,  as  of  alcohol,  that,  at  least  with 
the  Caucasian  race,  the  use  is  so  liable  to  lead  to  a  most  pernicious  abuse, 
that  it  is  better  restricted  to  the  category  of  remedies  than  to  that  of  food. 

Condiments. 

These  substances,  including  pepper,  mustard,  spices,  etc.,  although 
used  throughout  the  world,  seem  to  possess  only  the  property  of  stimu- 
lating the  secretion  of  the  digestive  fluids,  and,  by  imparting  a  flavor  to 
food  otherwise  insipid,  to  render  it  palatable. 

A  Mixed  Diet  necesssary. 

With  regard  to  organic  food,  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  prove  that 
none  of  the  four  kinds  enumerated  is  alone  sufficient  to  sustain  life  for 
any  length  of  time,  but  that  a  mixed  diet  is  necessary.  Such  evidence  is 
derived  from  four  sources^  1st,  instinctive  proclivities;  2d,  the  compara- 

'  Anstie,  Op.  cit.,  p.  148:  from  Barnes's  "A  Visit  to  Scinde,"  p.  330. 


184  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

tive  anatomy  of  the  organs  of  digestion;  3d,  experiment  and  experience; 
4th,  a  comparison  of  the  amount  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  daily  excreted, 
with  the  composition  of  bread  and  meat.  First,  with  regard  to  instinc- 
tive proclivities,  although  in  antiquity  we  find  whole  tribes  designated  in 
accordance  with  the  food  they  ate,  as  ichthyophagi,  or  fish-eaters,  the  hylo- 
phagi,  or  feeders  upon  shoots  of  trees,  we  have  no  evidence  that  these 
articles  were  their  exclusive  food.  And  we  note  that  where,  in  conse- 
quence of  geographical  causes,  nations  or  tribes  have  been  more  or  less 
limited  to  a  certain  kind  of  food,  as  their  knowledge  grows,  and  the 
advantages  of  commerce  are  opened  to  them,  one  of  the  first  result*  is  an 
increase  in  the  variety  of  aliment;  while  in  the  most  enlightened  com- 
munities it  would  appear  that  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  man's  efforts  is 
to  obtain  not  only  an  abundance,  but  also  a  maximum  variety  of  food. 

Second,  the  anatomy  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  man,  compared  with 
that  of  the  herbivora  and  carnivora,  indicates  also  the  kind  of  food  he  is 
intended  to  consume.  This  apparatus  in  man  is  not  as  simple  as  in  the 
carnivora,  nor  as  complex  as  in  the  herbivora,  but  intermediate.  A  reason- 
able inference  from  this  fact  is,  that  it  was  designed  that  man  should  subsist 
not  upon  a  purely  vegetable  aliment  nor  upon  an  animal  one,  but  that  he 
should  use  mixtures  of  both.    - 

Third,  most  satisfactory  evidence  is  derived  from  experiment  and  ex- 
perience. Ill  evidence  from  the  former  source  may  be  enumerated  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  early  experiments,  in  1769,  of  Dr.  Stark,'  of  London,  who  sub- 
sisted for  forty-four  days  upon  bread  and  water,  for  twenty-nine  days  on 
bread,  water,  and  sugar,  and  for  twenty-four  days  upon  bread,  water,  and 
olive-oil,  until  his  health  became  im23aired,  and  he  died  in  consequence. 

2.  Magendie^  proved,  in  1817,  that  dogs,  which  are  omnivorous  in  the 
domestic  state,  if  fed  exclusively  upon  non-nitrogenous  food  (oil,  gum, 
sugar),  died  in  from  the  thirty-second  to  the  thirty-sixth  day,  with  all  the 
symptoms  of  inanition;  and,  a  little  later,^  that  while  dogs  lived  very  well 
on  brown  military  bread,  which  contains  a  variety  of  alimentary  principles, 
the  same  animals,  fed  on  pure  wheaten  bread  and  water,  did  not  live 
more  than  fifty  days. 

3.  The  experiments  of  Tiedmann  and  Gmelin,^  published  in  1827. 
These  experimenters  fed  geese  exclusively  upon  gum,  sugar,  starch,  and 
coagulated  Avhite  of  (^gg  respectively.  The  one  fed  on  gum  died  on  the 
sixteenth  day,  that  on  sugar  the  twenty-first;  the  two  fed  on  starch  on 
the  twenty-fourth  and  twenty-seventh  days;  and  the  one  fed  on  white  of 
^^v  on  the  twenty-sixth  day. 

1  The  works  of  the  late  Wm.  Stark,  M.D.,  by  Dr.  James  Carmichael  Smyth, 
London,  1788. 

^  Magendie :  Precis  Elementaire  de  Physiologie,  premiere  ed.,  Paris,  1817,  Tome 
II.,  p.  390. 

2  Idem :  ibidem,  deuxieme  edit.,  Paris,  1825,  p.  493*   trois.  ed.,  Paris,  1833,  p.  504. 
''  Tiedmann  and  Gmelin  :  Recherches  experimentales,  physiologiques  et  chimiques, 

sur  la  digestion,  Paris,  1827,  sec.  partie,  p.  266. 


FOOD    AND    DKINK.  185 

4.  Burclach's '  experiments  upon  rabbits,  in  whicli  he  fed  one  animal 
on  potato  alone,  which  died  on  the  thirteenth  day;  another  with  barley, 
which  died  in  the  fourth  week;  and  a  third,  on  alternate  days  with  potato 
and  barley  successively  for  three  weeks,  and  afterward  on  potato  and 
barley  together.  This  rabbit  increased  in  size  and  appeared  well  nour- 
ished. 

5.  The  results  of  the  French  '^  and  Amsterdam  Commissions,  already 
alluded  to,  in  the  former  of  which  were  included  the  use  of  nitrogenized 
substances  and  articles  containing  a  variety  of  alimentary  principles.  In 
these  experiments  it  was  shown  that  dogs  could  not  live  upon  pure  mus- 
culine,  the  appetite  failing  entirely  from  the  forty-third  to  the  forty-fifth 
day,  while  they  were  well  nourished  by  gluten,  which  contains  a  variety 
of  alimentary  principles. 

6.  Finally  we  have  the  more  recent  experiments,  published  in  1857,  of 
Dr.  Hammond,^  of  this  country,  which,  like  those  of  Dr.  Stark,  being  upon 
himself,  are  more  to  the  point  than  any  of  the  preceding,  excepting  those 
of  Stark.  Dr.  Hammond  found  it  impossible  to  sustain  health,  for  any 
length  of  time,  upon  albumen,  starch,  or  gum. 

Experience  abundantly  attests  the  necessity  of  a  mixed  diet.  We 
have  only  to  allude  to  the  sufferings,  by  scurvy,  of  seamen  long  confined 
to  a  diet  of  salt  pork  and  bread,  and  the  effect  of  the  addition  to  their 
food  of  fresh  meat  and  vegetables,  sufficiently  to  illustrate  the  fact. 

Observation  has  also  shown  that  an  habitual  excess  of  any  one  of  the 
great  divisions  of  food,  over  and  above  the  wants  of  the  economy,  some- 
times results  in  the  production  of  a  constitutional  derangement,  exhibiting 
itself  in  various  ways,  and  known  in  technical  language  as  a  "  diathesis." 
Thus,  an  excess  of  albuminous  food,  derived  from  a  diet  too  exclusively 
composed  of  animal  flesh,  produces  congestions  and  enlargements  of  the 
liver  and  the  so-called  arthritic  or  gouty  diathesis.  In  this  condition  the 
blood  contains  an  undue  amount  of  unoxidized  nitrogenous  matter — im- 
perfectly assimilated  histogenetic  and  force-producing  material,  or  par- 
tially reduced  products  of  retrograde  metamorphosis — which,  in  their  more 
perfectly  oxidized  state,  are  easily  separated  by  the  kidneys,  but  which,  un- 
oxidized, are  removed  with  difficulty  by  these  organs.  Being  thus  in  excess, 
they  seek  to  deposit  themselves  in  the  urinary  passages  in  the  shape  of  uric 
acid  gravel,  and  in  the  joints  as  gouty  deposits  of  the  urates.  An  excess 
of  oleaginous  food  tends  to  produce  the  so-called  bilious  diathesis,  char- 
acterized by  excessive  bile-production  and  congestion  of  the  liver.  This 
occurs  when  more  hydrocarbons  are  introduced  into  the  blood  than  can  be 
eifectually  oxidized.  Part  of  the  excess  is  converted  into  bile,  and  such 
conversion  involves  not  only  a  hyperemia  of  the  liver,  but  also  of  the  in- 


'  Burdach,  C.  F.  :  Traite  de  physiologie,  traduit  par  Jourdain,  Paris,  1841,  Tome 
IX.,  p.  249. 

2  Loc.  cit. ;  also  Flint:  Physiology  of  Man,  Vol.  I.,  1871,  p.  130  et  seq. 

^  Hammond  :  Experimental  Researches  relative  to  the  Nutritive  Value  and  Physi- 
ological Effects  of  Albumen,  Starch,  and  Gum,  when  singly  and  exclusively  used  as 
Food  :  Transactions  of  the  American  Med.  Ass'n,  1857. 


186  FOOD    AND    DKINK. 

testinal  tract,  the  blood  from  which  has  to  pass  through  it.  To  this  maj'- 
be  referred  some  of  the  diarrhoeas  and  dysenteries,  which  are  more  fre- 
quent in  hot  climates  and  in  warm  seasons.  An  excess  of  both  starches 
2A\difats  also  retards  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  matters,  and  results 
in  excessive  obesity.  An  exclusive  diet  oi  farinaceous  food,  on  the  other 
hand,  more  frequently  the  result  of  necessity  than  of  choice  among  the 
poorer  classes,  is  thought  to  cause  the  rheumatic  diathesis,  consisting,  too, 
in  malassimilation  and  deficient  metamorphosis,  in  which  lactic  acid  or 
other  product  of  the  chemolysis  of  saccharine  compounds  becomes  the 
offender.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  known  that  scurvy  is  the  inevi- 
table result  of  prolonged  absence  from  food  of  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables; 
and  it  is  at  least  observed  that  in  many  of  those  in  whom  a  scrofulous  ten- 
dency exists  there  is  often  repugnance  to  oleaginous  food,  while  those  who 
best  digest  and  consume  fatty  food  most  seldom  become  phthisical. 

Fourth.  Further  evidence  of  the  propriety  of  a  mixed  diet  is  found  in 
a  comparison  of  the  amount  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  daily  excreted  by  the 
lungs,  skin,  kidneys,  and  bowels,  with  the  comj^osition  of  bread  and  meat. 
Various  experiments  have  shown  the  former  to  be,  in  the  routine  laborer, 
about  19.891  grammes  (307  grains)  of  nitrogen  and  304.141  grammes  (4694 
grains)  of  carbon.^  According  toPayen,^  04.79  grammes  (1000  grains)  of 
bread  contain  about  19.438  grammes  (300  grs.)  of  carbon  and  .647  gramme 
(10  grs.)  of  nitrogen:  hence,  to  obtain  the  19.891  grammes  (307  grs.)  of 
nitrogen  required  by  the  system,  over  1943,7  grammes  (30000  grs.),  or 
more  than  1.94  kilogrammes  (4.189  jjounds),  of  bread  must  be  consumed. 
But  the  304.141  grammes  (4694  grs.)  of  carbon  required  are  contained 
in  971.9  grammes  (15000  grs.)  of  bread;  so  that  to  obtain  the  proper 
amount  of  nitrogen,  a  quantity  of  bread  must  be  consumed  containing 
double  the  amount  of  carbon  actually  required.  Again,  G4.79  grammes 
(1000  grs.)  of  meat  contain  6.47  grammes  (100  grs.)  of  carbon  and  1.943 
grammes  (30  grs.)  of  nitrogen:  therefore,  to  obtain  304.141  grammes 
(4694  grs.)  of  carbon,  no  less  than  3041.41  grammes  of  meat,  or  3.041 
kilogrammes  (6.6  jDOunds)  must  be  consumed,  while  the  required  19.891 
grammes  (307  grs.)  of  nitrogen  are  contained  in  663.26  grammes  (1.46 
pounds)  of  meat  ;  so  that  four  times  more  meat  must  be  consumed  to 
supply  the  carbon  than  is  necessary  to  furnish  the  nitrogen.  But  let  us 
suppose  that  a  mixed  diet  of  bread  and  meat  is  used,  when  1000.42 
grammes  (15440  grs.)  of  bread  and  300  grammes  (4030  grs.)  of  meat 
would  supply  nearly  the  j^roper  amount  of  carbon  and  nitrogen. 

Thus, 

Grms.  of  carbon.     Grms.  of  nitrogen. 

1000  grms.  or  1  kUog.  (15433.6  grs.)  of  bread  contain.  . .  300   (4630  grs.)  10     (154  grs.) 

300  grms.  (4630  grs.)  of  meat  contain 30     (463  grs.)    9  (138.9  grs.) 

330   (5093  grs.)  19  (292.9  grs.) 


'  H.  Letheby :  On  Food,  New  York,  1872,  p.  110.  Deduced  from  the  results  of 
experiments  by  Messrs.  Edw.  Smith,  Parkes,  Haughton,  Playfair,  Fick  and  Wislicenus, 
Ranke,  Beigel,  Maas  and  Yogel ;  Payen's  results  are  nearly  the  same. 

-  Des  substances  alimentaires,  Paris,  1865,  p.  482. 


FOOD    AND    DKINK.  187 

That  is,  about  1  kilogramme  or  3.2  pounds  of  bread  and  -^-  kilogramme  or 
f  pounds  of  meat  are  sufficient  to  compensate  the  daily  loss  of  a  healthy 
man. 

Sufficient  reason  having  been  assigned  for  the  propriety  of  a  mixed 
diet,  so  far  as  the  different  elementary  articles  of  food  are  concerned,  a 
second  question,  which  for  a  time  assumed  some  importance,  was  as  to 
whether  such  mixed  food  is  best  obtained  from  both  animal  and  vegetable 
sources,  or  whether  one  of  the  two  kingdoms  can  sufficiently  supjjly  it. 
We  believe  it  has  never  been  seriously  claimed  that  man  should  subsist 
upon  animal  food  alone;  but  the  question  of  vegetarianism,  so  called,  at 
one  time  excited  considerable  interest.  The  representatives  of  this  school 
claimed  that  the  destruction  of  animal  life  for  purposes  of  food  was  not  jus- 
tifiable and  insisted  that  man  could  subsist  upon  a  purely  vegetable  diet 
consistently  with  the  highest  degree  of  health.  There  is  no  doubt — indeed, 
we  have  already  shown,  that  all  the  proximate  alimentary  substances  are 
furnished  by  the  vegetable  as  well  as  by  the  animal  kingdom;  and  the 
experience  of  many  individuals  of  the  vegetarian  school  attests  the  possi- 
bility of  sustaining  life  and  health  under  such  a  regimen.  But,  apart  from 
the  fact,  as  shown  from  the  above  comparison,  that  a  mixed  diet  is  more 
easily  obtained  by  combining  the  two  sources,  the  intermediate  position 
of  the  anatomy  of  the  digestive  organs  of  man,  as  compared  with  those  of 
the  carnivora  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  herbivora  on  the  other,  shows 
that  he  is  intended  to  use  a  mixed  diet  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter, 
rather  than  an  exclusive  one  of  either.  Experiment  also  shows  that 
the  use  of  an  animal  diet  tends  to  raise,  and  that  a  vegetable  diet 
tends  to  lower,  the  proportion  of  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood.'  Dr. 
Carpenter  says  there  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  the  substitution  of 
a  moderate  proportion  of  animal  flesh  "  seems  rather  to  favor  the  high- 
est niental  development;"^  while  the  converse  acknowledgment  of  the 
same  author,  that  "  a  well-selected  vegetable  diet  is  capable  of  produc- 
ing (in  the  greater  number  of  individuals)  the  highest  physical  devel- 
opment," is  not  admitted  by  Dr.  Flint,  Jr.^  The  examination  of  this 
subject  by  Dr.  Parkes  also  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  animal  and 
vegetable  albuminates  serve  equal  purposes  in  the  economy;  that  "the 
meat-eater  and  the  man  who  lives  on  corn,  or  peas,  or  rice  are  equally  well 
nourished;"  and  that  the  well-fed  vegetable-eater  "will  show  when  in 
training,  no  inferiority  to  the  meat-eater."  ^  There  still  remains  the 
important  fact,  however,  that  the  necessary  mixture  of  the  principles  of 
food  is  more  easily  obtained  by  combining  the  two  sources. 


'  Carpenter :  Principles  of  Human  Philosophy,  7th  Edition,  p.  79,  London,  1869. 
-Ibid.,  p.  77. 

^  Flint :   Physiology  of  Man,  volume  on  Alimentation,  Digestion,  and  Absorption, 
p.  127,  New  York,  1871. 

^  Parkes  •  Practical  Hygiene,  5th  Edition,  1878,  p.  200. 


188  EOOD    AND    DEINK. 

Modifications  in  the   Proportion  of  Different  Alitnentary  Principles 
deynanded  by  Differences  in  Temperature  and  Climate. 

Although  the  propriety  of  a  mixed  diet  would  appear  conclusively 
proven  by  the  facts  presented,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  modifications  in 
the  strict  application  of  the  principle,  are  required  by  differences  of  tem- 
perature, due  to  change  of  season  or  climate.  Thus,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  inhabitants  of  "frigid  zones  consume  large  amounts  of  carbona- 
ceous food,  in  the  shape  of  the  fat  of  seals  and  whales,  while  those 
of  torrid  zones  adhere  to  a  diet  composed  more  largely  of  farinaceous 
matter.  But  even  here  we  have  further  illustration  of  the  correctness 
of  the  general  principle  in  the  fact  that  the  Hindoo  constantly  adds 
to  the  rice,  which  constitutes  his  chief  article  of  diet,  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  "  ghee,"  or  rancid  butter,  which  he  greatly  enjoys.  Moreover,  it 
is  well  known  that  in  temperate  climates  the  majority  of  persons  have 
a  decidedly  increased  relish  for  fatty  articles  of  food  in  the  winter  season, 
while  in  the  hot  weather  of  summer  there  is  often  indisposition  to  touch 
ordinary  butchers'  meat,  which,  when  of  good  quality,  has  been  found  to 
contain  as  much  as  one-half  to  one-third  its  weight  of  fat.'  It  is,  indeed, 
the  fact,  as  we  should  expect,  that  among  the  inhabitants  of  temperate 
zones  the  principle  of  the  propriety  of  a  mixed  diet  is  most  strictly  carried 
out,  and  therefore  best  illustrated.  It  was  facts  of  the  kind  which  led 
Liebig  to  adopt  the  classification  already  given  under  his  name,  and  which, 
in  a  general  way,  is  correct. 

The  Effects  of  Cooking. 

Comparatively  small  quantities  of  food  of  any  kind  are  consumed  in 
the  raw  state,  it  being  usually  subjected  to  the  process  of  cooking,  which 
includes  boiling,  roasting,  frying,  broiling,  baking,  etc.  The  changes 
wrought  in  food  by  the  cooking  process  are  several.  Most  important, 
perhaps,  is  that  by  which  its  digestibility  is  improved.  This  is  accom- 
plished in  the  boiling,  etc.,  of  almost  all  vegetables  and  almost  all  the 
proximate  constituents  of  meat.  But  in  those  processes  which  involve 
the  cooking  of  meat  without  the  addition  of  water,  as  roasting,  broiling, 
baking,  2A\di frying,  this  end  is  not  attained  if  they  be  too  "well  done," 
since  in  this  condition  the  albuminous  matters  are  too  thoroughly  coagu- 
lated, and  even  charred,  and  their  nutritive  and  assimilative  properties 
thus  destroyed.  The  principle  of  these  processes  consists  in  the  sudden 
application  of  a  high  heat— 212°  to  270°  Fahr.  (100°  to  i;32|  C.)— to  the 
exterior.  By  this  means,  the  exterior  is  hardened,  while  the  meat  retains 
the  juices  which  are  freed  by  the  lower  temperature — 125°  to  250°  Fahr. 
(51f  °  to  121-^°  C.) — to  which  the  interior  is  subjected.  Baking  and  frying 
are  less  favorable  processes,  in  consequence  of  the  higher  heat  which  is 
involved.  This  is  particularly  true  of  frying  or  cooking  in  fat,  though  the 
disadvantage  is  diminished  if  the  substance  fried  is  coated  with  crumbs  or 

'  Experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert :  Philosoph.  Transac.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  495. 


FOOD    AND    DKIJS^K.  -  189 

batter,  by  which  the  hot  fat  is  prevented  from  penetrating  the  interior. 
Young  meats,  as  veal  or  lamb,  and  the  white  meat  of  poultry,  and  fish, 
require  a  higher  temperature  and  more  thorough  cooking.  The  inter- 
muscular areolar  tissue  is  also  softened  or  liquefied  in  all  processes  of 
cooking  in  which  moisture  is  added  or  retained,  by  which,  too,  its  diges- 
tibility is  improved. 

Scarcely  less  important  is  the  unproved  flavor  and  savory  odor  which 
are  given  to  almost  all  articles  cooked,  and  which  greatly  stimulate  the 
secretion  of  the  digestive  fluids  by  which  they  are  ultimately  to  be  worked 
up.  The  direct  causes  of  these  odors  and  flavors  are  not  precisely  known. 
They  are  believed  to  be  due  to  the  formation  of  certain  undetermined  prod- 
ucts, one  of  which,  of  organic  nitrogenous  composition,  has  been  called 
osmazom. 

Finally,  the  inorganic  salts,  among  which  the  potash  salts  are  promi- 
nent, are  largely  dissolved  in  the  expressed  juices  or  the  water  added  in 
cooking, 

/Soiqjs  and  JBeef  Teas. 

The  chief  rejoresentative  food  in  which  all  these  effects  are  combined 
are  the  soups  or  broths,  made  with  the  addition  of  water  during  the  pro- 
cess of  cooking,  although  the  flavoring  and  odoriferous  substances  are 
perhaps  not  so  highly  developed  as  in  some  other  processes,  especially 
broiling  and  roasting.  Soups  contain  chiefly  gelatin,  extractive  matters, 
the  salts,  and  some  floating  fat.  Albuminous  substances  are  insoluble  in 
hot  water,  and,  coagulating,  remain  with  the  meat  if  it  has  been  immedi- 
ately placed  in  hot  water.  If,  however,  the  water,  when  first  added,  be 
cold,  the  free  albumen  is  dissolved  in  it,  but  coagulates  as  the  water 
becomes  hot,  and  is  removed  with  the  scum.  The  flesh  remainina'  contains, 
however,  the  most  nourishing  constituents,  the  myosin  and  gelatin  pro- 
ducing tissues  and,  in  the  first  instance,  also  the  albumen,  but  no  longer 
the  pleasantly  flavored  portions  or  the  salts,'  which  have  gone  over  into 
the  water  or  soup.  The  solid  particles  of  the  meat  should  therefore  be 
comminuted  and  retained,  not  thrown  away,  as  has  been  the  custom  in 
the  "  beef  essence,"  so  called,  prepared  for  the  sick.  Soups,  as  ordinarily 
prepared,  contain,  after  the  meat  is  withdrawn,  but  from  nine  to  ten  parts 
in  the  1,000  of  solid  matter,'  and  we  may  well  be  surprised  that  so  much 
nutritive  power  should  have  been  ascribed  to  them.  Doubtless  some  ad- 
vantage accrues  from  the  stimulating  effect  upon  the  heart,  of  the  alkaline 
salts,  which  the  concentrated  broths  contain  in  considerable  quantity. 
Something  similar  to  this  seems  indeed  to  have  been  Liebig's  view  with 
regard  to  the  effects  of  beef-tea  and  extract  of  beef.  For,  in  a  recent 
communication,  he  says,  he  "  never  asserted  that  beef-tea  and  extract  of 
meat  contained  substances  necessary  for  the  formation  of  albumen  in  the 

*  Hermann  :  Grundriss  der  Physiologie  des  Menschen,  Vierte  verbesserte  und  ver- 
mehrte  Auflage,  Berlin,  1872,  p.  191. 

-  Flint,  Jr.  :  Physiology  of  Man,  "Alimentation,  Digestion,  and  Absorption,"  New- 
York,  1871,  p.  87. 


190  FOOD   AND    DRINK. 

blood  and  muscular  tissue ;  and  that,  by  the  addition  of  extract  of  meat 
to  our  food,  we  neither  economize  carbon  for  the  maintenance  of  the  tem- 
perature, nor  nitrogen  for  the  sustenance  of  the  organs  of  our  body;  and 
that  therefore  it  cannot  be  called  food,  in  the  ordinary  sense;  but  we 
thereby  increase  the  working  capabilities  of  the  body  and  its  capacity  to 
resist  injurious  influences,  i.  e.,  to  maintain  health  under  favorable  circum- 
stances." He  further  says  that  those  constituents  of  the  meat,  which  are 
soluble  in  boiling  water,  take  no  part  in  the  formation  and  renovation  of 
the  muscular  tissues,  but  by  their  effect  on  the  nerves  they  exercise  a 
most  decided  influence  on  the  muscular  work,  wherein  meat  differs  from 
all  other  animal  and  vegetable  food.  He  therefore  places  extract  of  meat, 
and  with  it  tea  and  coffee,  under  the  head  of  "  nervous  food,"  in  contra- 
distinction to  articles  of  "  common  food,"  which  serve  for  the  preservation 
of  temperature  and  the  restoration  of  the  machine.  But  tea  and  extract 
of  meat  are  of  themselves  incapable  of  supporting  nutrition  or  maintain- 
ing life.^ 

But  from  the  above  it  is  evident  that  if  the  nutrient  matter  which  has 
been  hitherto  thrown  away,  leaving  in  some  instances  little  more  than  a 
watery  solution  of  the  alkaline  salts,  could  be  retained  in  some  such  way 
as  to  make  it  easily  assimilable,  the  efficiency  of  these  preparations  would 
be  greatly  increased.  This  is  in  a  measure  accomplished  in  the  prepara- 
tion known  as  "  beef -essence,"  as  distinguished  from  "  beef -tea,"  prepared 
from  finely  chopped  pieces  of  lean  meat,  to  which  is  added  but  a  small 
quantity  of  water,  while  the  whole  is  subjected  in  a  closed  vessel  to  the 
prolonged  action  of  a  water-bath.  This  results  in  a  more  or  less  complete 
comminution  of  the  muscular  fibre,  which  passes  over  with  the  salts  and 
juices  into  the  water,  and,  if  the  remaining  meat  be  further  compressed, 
perhaps  most  of  the  directly  nutrient  matter  as  well  as  the  stimulating 
salts  are  obtained.  The  "  beef-tea,"  so  called,  is  more  a  watery  solution 
of  the  salts  with  less  of  the  tissue-forming  material  of  the  meat. 

There  has  recently  been  introduced  to  the  market  a  preparation  known 
as  Johnston's  "  Fluid  Beef,"  which,  if  prepared  as  claimed,  would  seem  to 
meet  all  the  requirements  of  a  concentrated  food.  The  process  is  as  fol-. 
lows:  The  beef  is  first  treated  so  as  to  obtain  the  albumen  and  fibrin  in  a 
highly  concentrated  form;  these  nitrogenous  compounds  are  then  reduced 
to  a  powder  capable  of  suspension  in  water,  and  added  to  "  the  extract  of 
beef  "  carefully  prepared.  There  results  a  paste,  which  is  claimed  to  con- 
tain, and  which  must  contain  if  the  process  described  is  carried  out,  all 
the  constituents  of  beef.     It  is  used  diluted  in  water. 

The  Proper  Daily  Amount  of  Food. 

The  amount  of  food  requisite  to  keep  up  a  perfect  state  of  the  body 
depends  so  much  upon  circumstances  of  occupation,  habit,  climate,  age, 
sex,  etc.,  that  the  best  guide  is  generally  found  in  the  information  afforded 

1  Northwestern  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  October,  1873,  from  the  London 
Medical  Record.  April  IG,  1873. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


191 


by  the  sensations  of  the  individual.  It  is  tlie  universal  conclusion  of  all 
who  have  directed  their  attention  to  the  subject,  that  the  time  to  cease 
eating  is  that  at  which  a  feeling  of  comfortable  satiety  is  reached.  This, 
while  it  may  be  indescribable,  is,  nevertheless,  not  difficult  of  recognition; 
although  there  may  still  be  an  inclination  to  eat  on  account  of  pleasant 
sensations  due  to  the  agreeable  flavor  of  the  food,  it  should  be  resisted. 
At  all  times  to  eat  until  a  sense  of  discomfort,  caused  by  distention  of  the 
stomach,  is  reached,  ultimately  results  in  dysjoepsia. 

As  guardians  of  the  public  health,  however,  medical  men  are  frequently 
called  upon  for  information  with  regard  to  the  dietaries  of  such  public  in- 
stitutions as  hospitals,  prisons,  almshouses,  etc.,  while  the  success  of  ex- 
peditions by  land  and  sea  depends  as  much,  if  not  more,  upon  a  proper  sup- 
ply of  food,  than  upon  any  other  element — less,  however,  in  these  days  of 
rapid  steam  transit  than  in  earlier  times,  when  long  voyages  and  expeditions 
were  more  common.  Accordingly,  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
subject  of  dietaries,  and  physiologists  have  sought  to  determine  the  proper 
daily  quantity  of  food  by  experiment,  by  extended  observation  of  the 
habits  of  communities  and  districts  in  which  the  people  are  engaged  in 
different  pursuits,  and  by  estimating  the  sum  of  excreted  matters,  which 
must,  of  course,  be  compensated  by  a  suitable  supply  of  aliment. 

From  investigations  in  the  former  direction — experiment  and  observa- 
tion— by  Drs.  Christison,  Edw.  Smith,  and  Lyon  Playfair  in  England, 
Moleschott,  Pettenkofer  and  Voit,  and  liebig  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
Dr.Letheby'  deduces  the  following  average  requirements: 


Daily  diets  for 


Idleuess 

Ordinary  labor 
Active  labor . . 


Nitrogenous. 


grms.      oz. 

75.66  (2.67) 
129.23  (4.56) 
164.65  (5.81) 


Carbonaceous. 


grms.  oz. 
.555.64  (19.61) 
828.66  (39.24) 
971.04  (34.97) 


Carbon. 


grms.  grsi. 
=  147.25  (3,816) 
=  368.41  (5,688) 
=  442.09  (6,823) 


grms.  grs. 

11.66  (180) 

19.89  (307) 

25.33  (391) 


In  estimating  by  the  second  method  of  inquiry,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  excreta  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  quantity  and  kind  of 
food.  It  is  well  known  that  if  the  supply  of  food  be  diminished  within 
limits,  life  is  still  perserved  by  a  proportionate  reduction  of  the  excreta. 

Examining  the  subject  from  this  standpoint,  we  are  early  impressed 
with  the  amount  of  waste  matter  daily  thrown  off.  Thus,  Prof.  Dalton  * 
estimates  the  daily  discharges  from  the  body,  including  that  from  the 
pulmonary  and  cutaneous  surfaces,  as  something  more  than  7  lbs.  avoir- 
dupois, or  3.171  kilogrms. 

Dr.  Edw.  Smith  considers  that  a  healthy  man,  of  average  weight  (150 
lbs. ,  or  67.95  kilogrms.),  discharges  from  the  lungs  242.8  grms.  (8.57  oz.) 
carbon,  which,  added  to  the  quantity  discharged  from  the  skin  and  bowels, 
is  not  less  than  272.0  grms.  daily,  or  4  grms.  per  kilogrm.  (9.6  oz.  daily  = 


1  Letheby  :  On  Food,  New  York,  1872,  p.  108. 

^  Dalton  :  Human  Physiology,  5th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1871,  p.  100. 


192 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


4200  grs.,  or  28  grs.  per  lb.)  of  the  man's  weight.  During  light  labor  it 
ranges  from  272.0  grms.  to  297.5  grms.  (9.16  oz.  to  10.5  oz.);  and  during 
hard  work,  from  354.2  grms.  to  396.76  grms.  (12.5  oz.  to  14  oz.).  Supposing 
the  first  figures  to  represent  idleness,  the  second  moderate  exercise  (routine 
work,  and  the  last  hard  work,  they  represent  612.1  grms.  (21.6  oz.),  660.5 
grms.  (23.63  oz.),  and  892.7  grms.  (31.5  oz.)  of  dry  carbonaceous  matter, 
calculated  as  starch,  for  the  three  degrees  of  activity  respectively. 

As  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted,  the  results  are  subject  to  con- 
siderable variation,  which  the  most  modern  researches  have  shown  to  be 
dependent  upon  the  kind  of  food  rather  than  the  degree  of  tissue  meta- 
morphosis. The  same  observer  concludes  that  an  average-sized  man,  per- 
forming routine  work,  secretes  from  141.5  milligrms.  to  177  milligrms.  per 
kilogrm.  (0.92  grs.  to  1.4  grs.  per  lb.)  weight,  or  8.03  grms.  to  13.6  grms.  per 
67.95  kilogrms.  (135.9  grs.  to  210  grs.  per  150  lbs.) ;  a  fair  average  being  162 
milligrms.  per  kilogrm.,  or  11.2  grms.  per  67.95  kilogrms.  (1.15  grs.  per  lb., 
or  173  grs.  per  150  lbs.). 

Adding  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  in  other  forms  than  urea  in  the 
urine  and  that  passed  in  the  feeces,  we  may  adopt  for  the  total  amounts 
the  figures  of  Dr.  Letheby  as  sufficiently  correct — being  12.31  grms. 
(190  grs.)  at  rest,  and  19.43  grms.  (300  grs.)  when  at  routine  work,  and 
append  the  following  comparative  table  from  the  same  author.^ 


Nitrogenous 
food. 

C^^bon^^^o^^        Nitrogen. 

Carbon. 

During  idleness,  as    de-  j  by  dietaries 

termined—                    |  by  excretions 

Average 

Routine  work  (ordinary  i  by  dietaries 

labor),  as  determined—  ■)  by  excretions 

Average 

grms.      oz. 
75.66  (2.67) 
78.78  (2.78) 

77.22  (2.73) 

129.23  (4.56) 
124.39  (4.39) 

126.81  (4.48) 

grms.     oz. 
555.64  (19.61) 
612.14  (21.60) 

583  89  (20.60) 

828.26  (29.24) 
689.67  (23.63) 

758.96  (26.44) 

grms.    oz. 
=:  11.66  (ISO) 
=  12.11  (187) 

=  11.88  (184) 

=  19.89  (307) 
=  19.18  (296) 

=  19.53  (302) 

grms.        oz. 
147.25    (3816) 
272.06    (4199) 

209.65    (4005) 

368.54    (5688) 
304.14    (4694) 

336.34    (5191) 

The  first  of  these  averages  is  represented  by  .96  kilogrms.  (2  lbs.  2  oz.) 
of  bread,  and  the  second  by  about  1.58  kilogrms.  (3|-  lbs.).  Whence,  too, 
it  appears  that  the  relation  of  the  nitrogenous  to  the  carbonaceous  con- 
stituents of  food  should  be  as  1  to  6  or  6^,  and  the  relation  of  nitrogen  to 
carbon  as  1  to  19;  whereas  in  bread  it  is  as  1  to  23,  and  in  meat  1  to  10; 
showing,  as  already  stated,  that  the  former  requires  the  addition  of  plas- 
tic matter,  and  the  latter  of  respiratory.  In  milk  the  proportion  of  nitro- 
genous to  carbonaceous  constituents  is  as  1  to  3.6  (calculating  butter  as 
starch),  and  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  to  carbon  1  to  13,  doubtless  the 
proportions  required  in  the  dietaries  of  children. 

A  very  much  more  liberal  allowance  than  this,  however,  should  be 
adopted  in  actual  practice.  Dr.  Edw.  Smith  says  "that  even  in  periods 
of  idleness  a  man's  daily  food  should  not  contain  less  than  278.61  grms. 


J  Letheby  :  Op.  cit.,  p.  110 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


193 


(4300  grs.)  of  carbon  and  12.96  grms.  (200  grs.)  of  nitrogen;  and  a 
woman's  at  least  252.09  grms.  (3900  grs.)  of  carbon  with  11.66  grms. 
(180  grs.)  of  nitrogen — these  being  the  proportions  which  in  his  opinion 
are  necessary  to  avert  starvation  diseases:  and  they  are  represented  in 
the  case  of  a  man's  diet  by  623.48  grms.  (22  oz.)  of  carbonaceous  food 
and  84.16  grms.  (2.97  oz.)  of  nitrogenous." 

Having  given  the  proportion  of  carbonaceous  and  nitrogenous  matter 
in  different  kinds  of  food,  and  knowing  the  requirements  of  an  average- 
sized  man,  we  may  thence  make  up  a  dietary  for  a  known  number  of  men 
for  a  certain  length  of  time.  The  following  table,  from  Dr.  Letheby's  vol- 
ume on  Food,  shows  the  quantity  of  different  articles  of  diet  which  contain 
84.16  grms.  (2.97  oz.)  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  it  also  shows  the  pro- 
portion of  carbonaceous  matter  associated  in  each. 


Description  op  food. 


Carbonaceous  mat- 
ter in  it,  as  starch. ' 


Skim  cheese  . 
White  fish. . . 
Lean  meat . . . 
Skim  milk  . . . 

Peas 

New  milk. . .  . 
Oatmeal 

Bakers'  bread 
Wheat  flour. . 
Indian  meal. . 
Rye  meal .... 
Barley  meal. . 

Rice 

Bacon 


Grammes. 

Ounces. 

187.04 

6.6 

464.81 

16.4 

412.10 

15.6 

2,002.82 

74.2 

317.90 

1L2 

2,051.81 

72.4 

6Q8.S2 

23.6 

1,040.07 

36.7 

779.35 

27.5 

759.51 

26.8 

1,051.41 

37.1 

1,334.81 

47.1 

1,334.81 

47.1 

955.05 

33.7 

Grammes. 
25.22 
33.72 

50.44 
210.56 
227.28 
302.95 
521.73 

572.46 
758.22 
647.28 
824.97 
964.18 
1,085.70 
1,750.84 


Ounces. 
0.89 
1.19 
1.78 
7.43 
8.02 
10.69 
18.41 

20.20 
26.79 
22.84 
29.11 
38.02 
38.31 
61.78 


Carbon 

in  it. 

Grammes. 

Grains. 

43.86 

778 

54,36 

836 

61.61 

951 

132.76 

2,049 

140.20 

2,164 

173.84 

2,683 

264.68 

4,184 

293.63 

4,532 

301.09 

4,647 

326.36 

5,046 

405.99 

6,265 

518.15 

7,997 

521.78 

8,053 

8,016.08 

12,617 

o 

p 

cr 
o 


Q 

O 

3 


hs- 


Prof.  Dalton,  whose  observations  are  based  upon  experiment  rather 
than  upon  theory,  has  found  that  the  entire  quantity  of  food  required 
during  twenty-four  hours,  by  a  man  in  full  health  and  taking  free  exer- 
cise, is  very  much  more  than  the  rest  allowance  of  Dr.  Edw.  Smith.  Prof. 
Dalton's  quantities  are  as  follows  :  ^ 

Meat 453  grms.  (16    oz.    or    1  lb.  avoird.) 

Bread 538.46       "  (19    "      "     1.19       "      ) 

Butter  or  fat 99.19       "  (3|-    "      "     0.22        "      ) 

Water. 1.54  litres  (52  fluid  oz.  3.25        "      ) 

'  Although  the  fattening  and  respiratory  power  of  starch,  sugar,  gum,  and  pectin 
are  nearly  the  same,  the  power  of  fat  is  a  little  more  than  twice  as  great  as  that  of 
sugar. 

'Dalton,  Prof.  J.  C,  M.D.:  Op.  cit.,  p.  100. 
Vol.  I.— 13 


194  EOOD    AND    DKINK. 

Making  over  1.132  kilogrms.,  or  1132  grms.  (2^  lbs,  or  40  oz.  avoird.)  of 
solid  food  and  rather  over  1,4  litres  (three  pints)  of  liquid  food. 

The  quantity  of  water  consumed  in  the  free  state  is  subject  to  great 
variations,  much  depending  upon  habit,  while  the  water  contained  in  the 
different  solid  articles  of  food  is  so  variable  that  much  modification  is 
resultingly  made  in  the  amount  in  the  free  state.  Indeed,  the  water  con- 
tained in  some  food,  as  succulent  vegetables,  may  be  so  abundant  that  no 
additional  fluid  is  required. 

A  com23arison  of  these  quantities  with  the  table  above  given  will  show 
that  this  allowance  is  considerably  more  liberal  than  the  diet  of  rest  of 
Dr.  Smith,  but  considerably  less  than  the  diet  of  routine  work. 

Army  and  Navy  Itatioyis. 

A  British  volunteer  in  camp,  in  Sei^tember,  1871,  received  daily, 
according  to  Dr.  Letheby,'  079  grms.  {1^  lbs.)  bread,  or  453  grms.  (1  lb.) 
biscuit ;  339  grms.  (f  lb.)  fresh  meat,  or  453  grms.  (1  lb.)  salt  meat,  or 
226  grms.  (|-Ib.)  preserved  meatj  4.72  grms.  {\  oz.)  tea;  9.44  grms.  (^  oz.) 
coffee;  56. G8  grms.  (2  oz.)  sugar;  28.34  grms.  (1  oz.)  of  salt;  and  a  very 
small  quantity  of  joepper.  This,  exclusive  of  tea  and  coffee,  contains 
16.14  grms.  (270  grs.)  nitrogen,  and  305.24  grms.  (4721  grs.)  of  carbon  ; 
which  are  equal  to  686.8  grms.  (24.27  oz.)  of  dry  carbonaceous  matter, 
calculated  as  starch,  and  113,36  grms,  (4  oz.)  nitrogenous  matter,  con- 
taining 305,24  grms.  (4721  grs.)  carbon  and  16.14  grms.  (270  grs.)  nitro- 
gen. 

The  British  sailor  receives,  according  to  Dr.  Carpenter,''  878.5  to  991.9 
grms.  (31  to  35  oz.)  of  dry  nutritious  matter,  of  which  736.8  grms.  (26  oz.) 
are  vegetable  and  the  remainder  animal;  and  these  contain  112.70  grms. 
(5  oz.)  of  nitrogenous  matter  and  283.4  grms.  (10  oz.)  of  carbon,  as  does 
also,  according  to  the  same  author,  the  ration  of  the  British  soldier. 
Playfair  ^  gives  about  the  same  figures  for  the  English  sailor;  but  his 
soldier's  war  ration  seems  to  be  an  average  derived  from  the  actual  die- 
taries of  European  and  American  soldiers  during  recent  wars,  which  is 
153.3  grms.  (5.41  oz.)  of  nitrogenous  food,  and  360.31  grms.  (5561  grs.= 
12.71  oz.)  of  carbon,  or,  estimated  as  starch,  665.42  grms.  (23.48  oz.).  The 
French  soldier  receives,  according  to  Carpenter,  134.6  grms.  (4f  oz.) 
nitrogenous  food  and  340.08  grms.  (12  oz.)  carbonaceous;  the  French 
sailor,  according  to  Playfair,  162.67  grms.  (5.74  oz.)  nitrogenous  food 
and  372.10  grms.  (13.13  oz.)  carbon,  or,  estimated  as  starch,  756.67  grms. 
(26.70  oz.). 

The  daily  ration  of  the  United  States  soldier  is,  of  bread  or  flour, 
623.48  grms.  (22  oz.);  fresh  or  salt  beef  (or  pork  or  bacon,  320.08  grms, 
(12  oz.)),  566.8  grms.  (20  oz.);  potatoes,  three  times  a  week,  453  grms. 

'  Op.  cit.,  p.  114. 

*  Carpenter,  W.  B.,  M.D.:  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,  7tli  Ed.,  London,  1869, 
p  83. 

"  Playfair  in  Letheby  on  Food,  p.  115. 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  195 

(16  oz.);  rice,  45.4  grms.  (1.6  oz.);  coffee,  45.4  grms.  (1.6  oz,);  sugar,  68.01 
grms.  (2.4  oz.);  beans,  29.57  grms.  (0.64  gill);  vinegar,  14. "78  gi'ms.  (0.32 
gill);  salt,  7.39  grms.  (0.16  gill).  The  bread,  meat  (considered  as  lean), 
and  potatoes  furnish,  according  to  Letheby's  table,  169.18  grms.  (5.97  oz.) 
nitrogenous  food,  and  496.23  grms.  (17.51  oz.)  carbonaceous,  calculated 
as  starch;  substituting  340.08  grms.  (12  oz.)  pork  for  the  566.8  grms. 
(20  oz.)  fresh  lean  beef,  we  would  have  92.95  grms.  (3.28  oz.)  nitroge- 
nous food,  and  860.96  grms.  (30.38  oz.)  carbonaceous,  calculated  as  starch. 
When  we  add  to  the  above  the  alimentary  principles  contained  in  the 
rice,  beans,  sugar,  and  coffee,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  United  States  ration 
is  far  more  liberal  than  that  of  other  nations.  So  liberal  is  it  that  even  in 
war  the  "  company  fund "  derived  in  commutation  for  articles  not  con- 
sumed, when  well  managed,  increases  rapidly;  and  during  our  recent 
civil  war  the  advantage  of  this  liberality  was  shown,  on  the  march,  and  in 
the  hospital,  in  diminished  fatigue  and  recovery  from  disease,  as  well  as 
the  power  of  warding  off  all  ordinary  affections,  excepting  those  due  to 
malaria. 

Habit  is  known  to  have  considerable  influence  upon  the  amount  of 
food  consumed,  and  the  effect  of  climate  has  already  been  alluded  to. 
The  quantities  consumed  by  the  natives  of  extreme  northern  latitudes 
have  long  been  subjects  of  wonder  to  the  readers  of  arctic  voyages.  Cap- 
tain Parry  relates,  in  his  "  Arctic  Voyages,"  an  instance  of  a  young  Es- 
quimaux, not  full  grown,  who  consumed,  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours, 
1.92  kilogrms.  (4J  lbs.)  of  the  raw,  frozen  flesh  of  a  sea-horse,  the  same  quan- 
tity boiled,  .789  kilogrm.  (If  lbs.)  bread,  besides  .591  litre  (ll  pints)  of  rich 
gravy  soup,  a  tumbler  of  strong  grog,  three  wineglasses  of  raw  spirits, 
and  4.25  litres  (9  pints)  of  water.  According  to  Sir  John  Ross  and  Sir 
John  Franklin,  the  daily  ration  of  an  Esquimaux  is  9.06  kilogrms.  (20  lbs.) 
of  flesh  and  blubber;  according  to  Dr.  Hayes"  personal  observation,  it  is 
from  340.08  to  9.06  kilogrms.  (12  to  20  lbs.)  meat,  one-third  of  which  is  fat. 
The  latter  observer  remarked  the  effect  of  the  cold  upon  the  appetite 
of  his  own  party,  particularly  in  a  craving  for  fats.  Some  of  their  num- 
ber were  in  the  habit  of  drinking  the  contents  of  the  oil-kettle  with  evi- 
dent relish. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  small  amounts  which  serve  to  sustain  life, 
and,  apparently,  health,  are  equally  wonderful.  The  instances  of  Cor- 
naro,  and  Thomas  Wood,  the  miller  of  Belaricoy,  related  by  Dr.  Carpen- 
ter,' are  sufficiently  striking.  The  former  subsisted  upon  340.08  grms. 
(12  oz.)  a  day,  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter,  with  396.76  grms.  (14  oz.)  of 
light  wine,  for  fifty-eight  years.  The  latter  sustained  a  remarkable  de- 
gree of  vigor,  for  upward  of  eighteen  years,  upon  no  other  nutriment 
than  453  grms.  (16  oz.)  of  flour  (containing  about  396.76  grms.  (14  oz.)  of 
dry  solids),  made  into  a  pudding  with  water,  no  other  liquid  being  taken. 
All  instances  of  total  abstinence  from  food  for  any  length  of  time  may  be 

'  Rauch  :  Psychology  and  Anthropology,  4th  Edition,  New  York. 
-  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,  7th  Edition,  London,  1869,  p.  87. 


196  .  FOOD    AND    DRINK. 

put  down  as  impositions.     The  most  recent  of  these,  that  of  the  Welsh 
fasting  girl,  was  thoroughly  investigated,  and  found  to  be  such.' 

Certain   Conditiojsts   and    Diseases   Resulting  eeom   the    Use  of 
Defective,  Deficient,  Excessive,  ok  Diseased  Food. 

The  Effects  of  Partial  and  Total  Deprivation  of  Food — Inanition. 

Since  inanition  is  insufficient  alimentation,  and  starvation  total  depri- 
vation of  food,  the  results  of  both  must  be  ultimately  identical,  being,  in 
the  former,  only  more  slowly  induced;  in  the  latter,  more  rapidly.  It  is 
therefore  impossible  to  consider  them  separately. 

Although  certain  animals,  as  cats  and  rabbits  (the  latter,  when  fed  on 
fresh  green  vegetables,  never  drink  '),  bear  very  well  the  absence  of  water, 
except  what  is  contained  in  the  food  consumed  by  them,  it  is  said  to  be 
demanded  by  most  mammals  more  imperatively  even  than  solid  food;^  at 
least  it  is  said  that  animals  will  live  longer  if  deprived  of  solid  food,  and 
allowed  to  drink  freely,  than  if  deprived  of  both  food  and  drink.  But 
Schuchhardt  *  has  shown  that,  on  total  withdrawal  of  water,  animals  very 
soon  decline  to  take  solid  food;  while  Bischoff,  and  Voit  and  Chossat  have 
proven  that,  if  totally  deprived  of  solid  food,  they  very  soon  decline  to 
take  water;  so  that  it  comes  to  the  same  thing  whether  one  or  both  are 
withdrawn.  Further,  the  results  are  the  same,  whether  there  be  defect  in 
quantity  or  quality. 

Researches  upon  inanition  have  been  made  by  Chossat^  upon  pigeons; 
Collard  de  Martigny,®  Bischoff  and  Voit  on  dogs;  and  Bidder  and  Schmidt 
on  cats;  while  the  horrors  of  shipwreck  and  famine  have  served  to  com- 
plete a  tolerably  correct  picture  of  its  phenomena  in  man.  The  very  first 
effect  of  diminished  ingestion  or  defective  quality  of  food  is  an  adaptation 
of  the  organism  to  these  by  a  proportionate  lowering  of  its  tissue-changes, 
and  a  resulting  of  falling  off  in  excretion.  Thence  result  lessened  capacity 
of  the  tissues  for  operations  of  any  kind,  mental  or  physical,  although 
there  may  not  be  as  yet  a  reduction  of  weight.  Very  soon,  however,  this 
appears,  accompanied  by  a  decline  in  temperature,  rate  of  pulse,  and  respi- 
ration. The  loss  in  weight  is  not  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
food  withdrawn,  because  of  the  diminished  excretion  referred  to.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  maximum  loss  occurs  at  the  early  part  of  the  experiment, 
partly  because  of  the  discharge  of  the  residue  of  aliment  taken  the  day 

'  See  numerous  communications,  with  regard  to,  in  the  Med.  Times  and  G-azette, 
Vols.  I.  and  II.,  1869,  and  other  contemporary  English  journals. 
^  Hermann:  Grundriss  der  Physiologie,  1872,  p.  203,  note. 

•  Flint :  Physiology  of  Man,  volume  on  Alimentation,  Digestion,  and  Absorption, 
p.  21. 

*  Hermann:  Op.  cit.,  p.  203. 

^  Chossat :  Recherches  experimentales  sur  I'inanition,  Paris,  1843. 

^  Collard  de  Martigny  :  Recherches  experimentales  sur  les  effets  de  1' abstinence 
complete  d'alimens  solides  et  liquides,  sur  la  composition  et  la  quantite  du  sang  et  de 
la  lymphe,  Jour,  de  physiologie,  1828,  Tome  VIII.,  p.  152. 


rooD  AjN'd  deine:.  197 

before,  and  diminishes  progressively  with  the  excretion;  though  some- 
times, in  Chossat's  experiments,  the  maximum  daily  loss  was  toward  the 
termination,  but  never  at  the  middle.  The  lessened  temperature,  rate  of 
pulse,  and  respiration  are  due  to  diminished  oxidation.  There  is  not  a  uni- 
form diminution  of  the  excreta  in  all  instances.  Thus,  the  herbivora, 
which  naturally  excrete  much  less  urea,  assume,  in  the  course  of  starva- 
tion, first  the  role  of  carnivora.  All  animals,  during  starvation,  become 
flesh-consumers,  consuming  their  own  tissues.  Urea  excretion  in  her- 
bivora is  therefore  increased  until  it  apjoroaches  that  of  carnivora,  after 
which  there  is  a  diminution  corresponding  to  the  diminished  tissue- 
change.  In  carnivora,  the  falling  off  in  urea  is  sudden  from  the  first,  and 
the  more  so  the  greater  the  excretion  of  urea  before  starvation  began. 
Later,  however,  it  is  slower  and  more  regular,  because  then  the  "  organic 
albumen"  of  the  tissues  is  being  consumed;  whereas,  in  the  beginning,  it 
is  the  intermediate  "  circulating  albumen,"  or  that  derived  more  directly 
from  the  last  food  (Voit). 

The  time  at  which  death  occurs  in  starvation  is  influenced  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  animal  as  to  obesity  and  its  age.  When  an  animal  is  fat, 
some  time  is  required  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  condition  of  one  just  suffi- 
ciently nourished.  Thus,  while  Chossat  found  that  the  average  duration 
of  life  of  pigeons  was  a  little  more  than  ten  days,  two,  which  were  un- 
iisually  fat,  lived  respectively  16.79  and  30.42  days.  The  young  of  all 
animals  resist  death  from  starvation  most  feebly,  while  those  of  medium 
and  adult  age  exhibit  proportionately  increased  endurance.  Young  doves 
lived  only  until  one-fourth  of  their  body-weight  had  disappeared  (3  days), 
while  old  birds  lived  until  almost  half  had  disappeared  (13  days).  Apart 
from  the  consideration  just  mentioned,  Chossat  found,  in  experiments 
upon  birds,  guinea-pigs,  and  rabbits,  that  death  quite  uniformly  resulted 
when  the  loss  of  weight  equalled  four-tenths  of  the  original  weight.  He 
found  the  average  duration  of  life  in  birds  9.35  days,  in  guinea-pigs  and 
rabbits,  99.9  days.  In  rabbits,  according  to  Collard  de  Martigny,  the  dura- 
tion of  life  was  10  to  12  days;  in  dogs,  the  results  of  Leuret  and  Las- 
saigne  ^  point  to  an  average  of  30  to  35  days.  In  Chossat's  experiments, 
the  influence  of  temperature  in  temporarily  renewing  the  vitality  of  starv- 
ing animals  was  strikingly  shown.  When  food  and  increased  tempera- 
ture were  afforded,  even  when  the  latter  had  almost  reached  the  point  at 
which  death  occurs,  they  were  able  to  digest  food,  and  slowly  but  com- 
pletely recovered.  When,  however,  food  alone  was  restored  to  them, 
they  did  not  recover.  Death  usually  occurred  in  doves  when  the  temper- 
ature reached  30°  F.  (—1.11°  C.) 

The  importance  of  these  observations  upon  the  lower  animals  cannot 
be  overestimated,  for  their  results  are  equally  applicable  to  human  beings, 
and,  thus  applied,  enable  us  to  explain  many  phenomena  observed  under 
circumstances  of  deficient  alimentation  in  man. 


^  Leuret  et  Lassaigne :  Eecherches  physiologiques  et  chimiques  pour  servir  a  I'his- 
toire  de  la  digestion,  Paris,  IS'^o,  p.  210. 


198  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

The  length  of  time  during  which  human  life  continues  without  food  is 
influenced  by  so  many  causes,  as  temperature,  obesity,  supply  of  water, 
etc.,  that  it  is  only  possible  to  state  it  approximately  at  from  5  to  8  days. 

After  a  certain  period  of  largely  deficient  or  total  deprivation  of  food, 
it  has  been  found  impossible,  both  in  the  case  of  man  and  in  that  of  ani- 
mals, to  maintain  life  by  a  restoration  of  food,  the  digestive  powers  seem- 
ing to  be  so  enfeebled  that  assimilation  is  no  longer  possible. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  effects  of  insufficient  aliment  are  the 
same  as  those  of  total  withdrawal  of  food,  except  that  they  are  longer  in 
producing  the  result.  The  same  is  true  of  the  effects  of  an  exclusive  diet, 
where  death  ultimately  results,  of  which  sufficient  evidence  has  already 
been  adduced.'  The  entire  loss  is,  however,  much  less  than  in  starvation, 
for  it  is  true  that  the  fatty  and  albuminous  food  may,  to  a  certain  extent, 
substitute  each  other.  If  albuminous  food  be  withdrawn,  and  a  diet  of  fat 
and  water,  or  of  fat,  carbohydrates,  and  water  be  substituted,  there  is 
loss  of  weight,  but  less  than  in  total  withdrawal;  the  excretion  of  urea  is 
significantly  diminished,  corresponding  to  diminished  ingestion  of  nitrogen 
and  diminished  oxidation  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues. 

Marked  constitutional  effects  are  produced,  however,  only  after  some 
days.  Parkes  kept  a  strong  man  upon  fat  and  starch,  and  found  full 
vigor  preserved  for  five  days;  in  a  man,  in  whom  he  reduced  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  one-half,  full  vigor  was  retained  for  seven  days.  If  the  absten- 
tion was  prolonged,  however,  there  was  great  loss  of  muscular  strength, 
often  mental  debility,  some  feverish  and  dyspeptic  symptoms;  then  fol- 
lowed anaemia  and  great  prostration.  In  accordance  with  the  above  state- 
ment, the  elimination  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  urea  greatly  lessened, 
though  it  never  ceased,  while  the  uric  acid  diminished  in  less  degree.' 
According  to  Hammond,  if  starch  be  largely  suiDplied,  the  weight  of  the 
body  does  not  lessen  for  seven  or  eight  days. 

If  fat  be  withheld,  but  a  food  of  carbohydrates  with  albumen  per- 
mitted, there  is  no  significant  alteration  in  tissue-change.  If  the  carbo- 
hydrates be  also  withheld,  but  albumen  permitted,  there  is  a  decided 
increase  in  the  excretion,  and  increased  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen-holding 
constituents,  so  that,  for  maintenance  of  life,  more  albuminous  matter 
must  be  ingested.  The  effect  of  a  deficiency  of  fat  in  an  ordinary  diet,  in 
developing  occasionally,  at  least,  a  scrofulous  diathesis,  has  been  alluded  to. 

An  effect  of  insufficient  or  defective  aliment,  most  important  to  medi- 
cal men,  remains  to  be  noticed:  it  is  the  tendency  which  arises  in  those 
thus  situated  to  contract  the  so-called  zymotic  diseases,  as  typhus  and 
malarial  fevers,  hospital  gangrene,  camp  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery.  This 
is  thought  to  be  the  reason  why  pestilence  and  famine  go  hand  in  hand. 
The  observations  of  Dr.  Joseph  Jones  upon  the  Federal  prisoners  confined 
in  the  stockade  at  Camp  Sumter,  Georgia,  forms,  as  Dr.  Flint '  well  says: 

^  See  page  184. 

2  Parkes  :  Practical  Hygiene,  5th  Ed.,  Philadelphia,  1878. 

2  Flint :  Physiology  of  Man,  volume  on  Alimentation,  Digestion,  Absorption,  p.  37 
a.  f. 


FOOD    AND    DEIiSTK. 


199 


"  the  most  complete  scientific  history  of  inanition  ever  written."  The 
effects  of  the  deficient  diet,  consisting  daily  of  151  grms,  (^  lb.)  bacon 
and  566  grms.  (I5  lbs.)  corn  meal,  and  often  less,  in  connection  with  the  ac- 
cumulation of  large  quantities  of  the  most  noisome  filth  in  contracted 
space  (30,000  were  confined  to  a  space  of  27  acres),  in  the  production  of 
diarrhoea,  dysentery,  scurvy,  and  hospital  gangrene,  with  the  frightful 
mortality  resulting  (10,000  in  less  than  seven  months),  are  graphically 
portrayed,  and  form  one  of  the  most  stirring  chapters  in  the  history  of  the 
late  rebellion.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  malarial  and 
typhus  fevers  were  rare.' 

Parkes,  on  the  other  hand,  says  that  under  partial  deprivation  of  al- 
buminates (70  to  100  grs.  nitrogen  daily),  while  the  body  gradually  lessens 
in  activity,  and  passes  into  a  more  or  less  adynamic  condition,  which  pre- 
disposes to  all  the  specific  diseases,  it  is  to  malarious  and  typhous  affec- 
tions especially  that  this  predisposition  exists.  A  similar  disposition  to 
pneumonia  exists,  and  the  course  of  some  of  these  diseases,  as  typhoid 
fever,  is  modified,  the  latter  running  its  course  with  less  elevation  of  tem- 
perature and  no  excess  of  ureal  secretion.^ 

The  Results  of  an  Excess  of  Food. 
(See  also  page  185.) 

These  are  not  uniform.  Most  frequently  dyspepsia  results  from  the 
irritation  of  the  undigested  and  therefore  unabsorbed  excess.  Few  per- 
sons have  failed  to  observe  some  of  the  slighter  degrees  of  such  indiges- 
tion. Fermentation  and  decomposition  result  in  the  evolution  of  gases, 
the  chief  among  which  are  carbonic  acid,  sulphuretted  and  carburetted 
hydrogen.  These  are  eructated,  and  passed  per  anum.  When  larger 
amounts  are  ingested,  to  these  symptom.s  succeed  crapulous  diarrhoea, 
caused  by  the  irritation,  and  the  partly  digested  and  partly  decomposed 
matter  is  gotten  rid  of.  On  the  other  hand,  constipation  sometimes  results, 
and  purgatives  are  necessary  to  accomplish  this.  Septic  conditions,  due 
to  the  absorption  of  decomposed  food,  are  not  common;  and  the  furred 
tongue,  fetid  breath,  nausea,  and  even  feverishness,  often  seen,  are  more 
frequently  due  to  the  irritation  of  the  undigested  mass  in  the  alimentary 
canal  than  its  absorption.  This  same  train  of  symptoms  with  concen- 
trated urine,  due  to  increased  urea  elimination,  may,  however,  result  from 
absorption  of  putrid  food. 

'  Investigations  upon  the  Diseases  of  the  Federal  Prisoners  confined  in  Camp 
Sumter,  Andersonville,  Ga. ,  instituted  with  a  view  to  illustrate  chiefly  the  Origin  and 
Causes  of  Hospital  Gangrene,  the  Relations  of  Continued  and  Malarial  Fevers,  and 
the  Pathology  of  Camp  Diarrhoea  and  Dysentery,  by  Joseph  Jones,  M.D.,  Prof, 
of  Medical  Chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of  Georgia,  at  Augusta,  and  formerly 
Surgeon  in  the  Provisional  Army  of  the  Confederate  States  ;  in  3  vols.,  manuscript, 
Augusta,  Ga. ,  1865-'66.  For  a  full  and  admirable  abstract  see  also  Austin  Flint's 
Physiology  of  Man,  volume  on  Alimentation,  Digestion,  and  Nutrition,  p.  37  et  seq., 
New  York,  1871. 

2  Parkes  :  Op.  cit.,  p.  204. 


200  FOOD    AND    DRINK. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  state  that  in  most  persons  a  moderate  ex- 
cess of  food  over  the  force-demands  of  the  economy  results  in  the  laying 
on  of  an  increased  amount  of  fatty  or  adipose  tissue,  derived  in  part  from 
the  albumens  of  the  food  and  partly  from  the  oils  and  carbohydrates, 
while  the  nitrogen  is  eliminated  in  the  urine  in  the  shape  of  urea.  Any- 
thing beyond  such  moderate  excess  of  any  of  these  three  divisions  of  ali- 
mentary principles  usually  passes  away  in  the  faeces,  with  more  or  less  of 
the  symptoms. of  dyspepsia  alluded  to. 

Although  the  facts,  as  stated  in  the  last  paragraph,  cover  a  majority  of 
instances,  it  is  still  possible  for  some  one  or  more  of  the  chief  alimentary 
principles  to  be  digested  and  absorbed  in  such  quantity  as  to  produce 
harmful  results.  This  is  probably  more  frequently  the  case  when  habit  or 
necessity  has  caused  the  individual  to  use,  as  food,  a  large  amount  of  one 
of  these  principles,  to  the  exclusion  of  a  proper  proportion  of  the  rest. 
Allusion  has  already  been  made  (page  185)  to  the  congestions  of  the  liver 
and  gouty  diathesis,  caused  by  an  excess  of  albuminates.  The  experi- 
ments of  Dr.  Hammond '  proved  that  albuminuria  makes  its  appearance, 
sooner  or  later,  after  the  adoption  of  an  exclusive  albuminous  diet.  An 
excess  of  albuminates  also  causes  a  more  rapid  oxidation  of  fat,  while  an 
excess  of  fat  lessens  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  and  hinders  the  metamor- 
phosis of  both  fat  and  albuminous  tissues.  (See  also  page  186  for  some 
of  the  effects  of  an  excessive  proportion  of  fatty  and  farinaceous  principles.) 

Ergotism.^ 

Ergotism  is  the  constitutional  condition  produced  by  the  long-con- 
tinued use  of  the  ergot  of  rye  (Claviceps  purpurea),  in  the  shape  of  bread 
and  other  preparations  made  of  flour,  derived  from  spurred  rye  or  wheat, 
barley,  rice,  or  other  grains,  upon  which  it  develops  in  wet  seasons,  and  in 
certain  countries,  as  France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  Ergot-poisoning 
was  very  much  more  common  many  years  ago,  from  the  ninth  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  than  at  present.  During  that  period  epidemics  de- 
vastating whole  races  of  people  were  common,  but  of  late  years  they  have 
been  very  rare.  The  cause  of  ergotism  was  discovered  in  1630  by  Thuil- 
lier. 

There  are  two  forms  of  chrome  ergot-poisoning:  one  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  convulsions  with  disturbance  of  sensation,  and  called  spas- 
modic ergotism;  the  second  by  gangrene  of  the  extremities  and  face,  and 
is  called  gangrenous  ergotism. 

Spasmodic  ergotism. — Of  this  the  symptoms  are,  first,  a  peculiar  irrita- 
tion of  the  sensitive  nerves  of  the  skin,  affecting  chiefly  the  fingers  and  toes, 
and  compared  to  that  of  the  creeping  of  ants,  which  continues  throughout 
the  whole  illness,  and  is  the  last  to  disappear;  second,  almost  simultaneously. 


'  Hammond  :  Experimental  Researches,  p.  30. 

-  We  have  nothing  to  do,  in  a  treatise  on  Hygiene,  with  the  so-called  acute  ergot- 
poisoning,  a  condition  induced  when  large  quantities  of  ergot  are  introduced  into  the 
economy  for  medication  or  other  purposes. 


FOOD    AND    DEIJSTK.  201 

symptoms  of  gastro-intestinal  irritation,  vomiting,  purging,  and  colicky 
pains;  third,  insatiable  hunger  accompanying  the  vomiting  and  diarrhoea; 
fourth,  the  formication  becomes  very  acute  pain;  fifth,  a  peculiar  sensation 
of  discomfort,  anxiety,  and  weariness,  giddiness ;  finally,  involuntary 
twitch  ings  at  first  in  widely  different  groups  of  muscles,  as  the  tongue  and 
extremities,  which  soon  pass  into  painful  continuous  contractions,  espe- 
cially affecting  the  flexors.  This  latter  (the  muscular  cramp)  lasts  from 
half  an  hour  to  an  hour  or  more,  followed  by  a  period  of  exhaustion,  which 
is  soon  succeeded  by  another  painful  convulsion.  There  may  be  delirium 
with  loss  of  sight  or  hearing.  The  pupils  are  usually  contracted,  some- 
times distorted,  the  eyes  fixed,  the  skin  covered  with  cold  perspiration, 
urine  suppressed,  while  there  is  violent  dysuria  from  spasm  of  the  bladder. 
Pustules  and  boils  sometimes  appear  upon  the  skin,  while  whitlows  and 
other  nutritional  derangements  make  their  appearance  at  different  date; 
cardiac  contractions  are  slow  and  feeble,  and  the  arteries  are  constricted, 
containing  little  blood.  Death  may  occur  from  cardiac  paralysis,  and  is 
generally  ushered  in  by  convulsions  or  paralytic  symptoms.  The  duration 
of  the  illness  is  from  four  to  eight  weeks  or  longer. 

Gangrenous  ergotism. — In  gangrenous  ergotism  we  first  have  more  or 
less  the  same  train  of  symptoms  as  those  described  in  spasmodic.  To 
these  is  superadded,  sometimes  from  the  third  day  to  the  fourth  week,  an 
erysipelatous  redness  in  some  peripheral  locality,  on  the  toes  and  feet;  less 
frequently  on  the  fingers,  hands,  ears,  and  nose.  This  is  followed  by  blebs, 
with  ichorous  contents,  which  soon  discharge  and  leave  a  gangrenous  spot 
of  varying  size,  whence  dry  gangrene  is  developed;  although  the  moist 
variety  may  supervene  in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  moisture.  It 
may  be  confined  to  a  finger  or  toe,  or  may  involve  the  whole  hand  or  foot. 
The  disease  sometimes  stops  short  at  the  erysipelatous  redness. 

Pellagra  is  a  disease  which  is  thought  to  be  due  to  a  fungus  which 
infests  maize  or  Indian  corn.  It  occurs  particularly  in  Lombardy,  and  is 
characterized  by  a  scaly  and  wrinkled  condition  of  the  skin,  especially 
of  those  parts  exposed  to  the  air.  The  strength  and  mental  faculties  are 
affected,  sensation  is  obtunded,  and  cramps  and  convulsions  supervene, 
much  as  in  ergotism, 

TricMniasis. 

Trichiniasis  is  an  acute  febrile  disease,  in  which  the  muscular  system  is 
infested  with  the  trichina  spiralis,  an  extremely  fine,  thread-like,  round 
worm,  with  a  still  finer  head,  but  more  rounded  hinder  extremity.  This 
worm  lies  partially  coiled  within  the  sarcolemma  of  the  ultimate  muscular 
fasciculus.  The  trichina  exists  in  two  forms,  the  muscle-trichina  and  the 
intestinal  trichina.  The  latter  is  the  mature  sexual  trichina,  and  is  larger 
in  size  than  the  muscle-trichina,  being,  in  the  case  of  the  male,  1|-  mm. 
(re  i'^-)'  ^^^  the  female,  3  to  4  mm.  {\  to  \  in.)  in  length.  The  muscle- 
trichina,  at  its  maximum  size,  is  only  .7  to  1  mm.  (-^  in.)  long.  The 
most  important  difference,  however,  exists  in  the  fact  that  the  former  is  in 


202 


FOOD    AND    DEINK. 


a  state  of  complete  sexual  development,  both  male  and  female,  and  the 
latter  is  not.     The  latter  is  the  larval  state  of  the  former. 

Trichiniasis  is  produced  in  man  by  the  ingestion  of  pork  which  is  it- 
self infested  with  muscle-trichina.  This  undeveloped  trichina  undergoes 
development  as  soon  as  it  enters  the  human  stomach,  and  in  seven  days 


hi  II  n      'Pi  I   I  fill  III  L 


M- 


^x^Wifi 


ri 


Fig.  7. 
Capsulated  muscle-trichinse,  with  calcification  of  the 
capsules.   (Magnified  80  diameters. )  (After  Heller. ) 


fiJ^jSl*.     .«; 


Fig  8. 
Capsulated  and  calcified 
muscle-trichinae.     (Natu- 
ral size.)     (After  Heller. ) 


Pig.  y. 

Capsulated  and  calci- 
fied muscle-trichinas  from 
the  biceps  muscle  of  a 
man.  (Slightly  magni- 
fied.)    (After  HeUer.) 


after  it  is  introduced  the  females  give  birth  to  numberless  embryos,  which 
are  developed  from  eggs  in  its  uterus.  These  embryos  soon  migrate  and 
become  located  in  the  voluntary  muscles  by  paths  which  are,  as  yet,  dis- 
puted. It  may  be  by  perforation  of  the  bowel  into  the  submucous  tissue, 
or  even  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  and  thence  through  the  loose  connec- 


I 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


208 


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tive  tissue  into  the  mesentery  and  the  retroperitoneal  tissue  to  the  mus- 
cles. Or  it  may  be  by  the  circulation.  The  former  two  are  both  likely 
routes,  but  the  latter  seems  less  likely, 
because,  if  it  were  the  case,  we  should  oc- 
casionally have  the  phenomena  of  embo- 
lism presenting  themselves.  But  these  are 
rare  occurrences,  and,  when  they  occur,  are 
attributable  to  other  causes. 

Having"  reached  the  muscles,  the  trich- 
inae perforate  the  sarcolemma  and  imbed 
themselves  in  the  sarcous  substance,  where 
they  grow  for  about  fourteen  days  longer, 
when  they  have  attained  their  maximum 
size  as  muscle-trichinte.  The  sarcolemma 
around  the  worm  enlarges,  becomes  thick- 
ened and  lined  with  a  layer  of  muscle  nu- 
clei, while  above  and  below  the  capsule  thus 
formed  it  atrophies  and  disappears.  Thus 
the  worm  becomes  encapsuled,  and,  par- 
tially coiled,  is  embedded  in  a  mass  of  fine 
granules.  The  number  thus  encapsuled 
may  be  from  one  to  four.  Subsequently, 
lime  salts  are  deposited  in  the  capsule,  and 

the  worm  becomes  obscured  and  even  hid- 
den, although  the  cajDsule  itself  is  thereby 

rendered  more  distinct  and  easily-  visible  to 

the  naked  eye  as  small  white  dots  or  streaks, 

a  millimetre  in  length.     The  appearance  of 

the  pai'asite  at  this  stage,  natural  size,  and 

slightly  magnified,  is  well  shown  in  Figs. 

7  and  8.      The  appearance  under  a  power 

of  eighty  diameters  is  shown  in  Fig  9. 

The  muscle-trichinje  thus  encapsulated 

are  not  dead,  but  ready,  on  solution  of  the 

capsule  by  the  gastric  juice,  to  become  de- 
veloped into  sexually  mature  intestinal  tri- 
chinae (requiring  about  two  and  a  half  days) ; 

they  then  copulate,  and  five  days  later  the 

females  give  birth  to  living  young,  whicli 

are  again  ready  to  migrate  to  the  nmscles. 

The  period  during  which  the  muscle-tri- 
chinae remain  susceptible  of  development, 

when  placed  under  favorable  conditions,  is 

almost  unlimited,  except  by  the  death  of 

the  individual   in  whom  they  reside,  while 

the  intestinal  trichina  rarely  lives  longer 

than  from  five  to  eisrht  weeks. 


204  FOOD    AND    DEINK. 

Si/rnj)toms. — The  symptoms  of  trichiniasis  are  by  no  means  reliably 
the  same,  and  although  it  is  usual,  for  convenience  in  study,  to  divide 
them  into  three  periods — 1st,  that  of  their  introduction  into  the  digestive 
tract;  2d,  that  of  the  migration  of  the  embryos  into  muscle;  and  3d,  that 
of  rest  and  capsulation — it  is  seldom  possible  to  differentiate  these  stages 
by  the  s\Tnptoms.  In  all,  except  very  light  cases,  there  is  fever,  the 
curve  in  the  temperature  of  which  quite  resembles  that  of  typhoid  fever, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram  from  Ziemssen's  Cyclopaedia  (see 
previous  page),  with  evening  increment  and  morning  decline,  but  still 
gradual  ascent  until  the  acme  is  reached,  when  there  is  again  a  gradual 
decline.  The  pulse  ranges  from  80  to  90,  and  thence  to  100  and  130. 
There  is  also  thirst.     Occasionally  only,  a  chill  precedes. 

The  symptoms  referable  to  the  digestive  tract,  when  present,  are  sen- 
sations of  uneasiness,  fulness,  nausea,  and  occasional  vomiting  at  variable 
periods,  from  a  few  hours  to  several  days  after  ingestion  of  the  infested 
meat.  The  appetite  is  capricious,  being  often  great.  There  is  more  or 
less  diarrhoea,  which  sometimes  lasts  for  weeks,  and  may  be  followed  by 
constipation.  The  trichinae  are  very  seldom  found  in  the  stools.  Degluti- 
tion is  sometimes  painful  from  involvement  of  muscles  employed  in  the  act. 

A  very  striking  symptom  is  that  of  muscular  soreness  or  lameness, 
which  precedes  the  invasion  of  the  muscles.  Coincident  with  the  latter,  and 
not  earlier  than  the  ninth  day,  are  observed  also  various  degrees  of  hard- 
ness and  swelling,  accompanied  by  tenderness  on  pressure,  together  with 
muscular  pain,  which  is  often  extreme,  especially  on  motion.  It  is  most 
marked  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  weeks. 

As  to  symptoms  connected  with  the  nervous  system,  sleeplessness, 
apathy,  and  neuralgic  pains  are  characteristic;  also  hyperfesthesia  of  the 
skin,  in  the  form  of  pruritus  or  formication;  sometimes  undue  dilatation 
of  the  pupil,  and  loss  of  hearing. 

CEdema  is  almost  always  present,  although  sometimes  so  trifling  as  to  be 
overlooked.  Most  constant  and  earliest  is  oedema  of  the  eyelids  and  face, 
usually  appearing  about  the  seventh  day,  to  disappear  after  from  two  to 
five  days,  sometimes  to  return.  CEdema  of  the  legs  comes  on  later,  about 
the  ninth  day,  and  is  more  marked  and  more  permanent,  although  it  may 
also  disappear  to  reappear  in  a  more  marked  degree.  Changes  in  the 
composition  of  the  blood,  hoarseness,  bronchial  catarrh,  hypostatic  and 
catarrhal  pneumonias,  abortions  in  women,  profuse  sweats,  eruptions,  and 
bed-sores  may  occur.  When  death  occurs,  it  is  frequently  due  to  imper- 
fect respiration,  because  of  the  involvement  of  important  muscles  of 
respiration,  as  the  diaphragm  and  muscles  of  the  larynx.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  marked  symptoms,  a  diagnosis  is  often  difficult,  and  can  only 
be  certainly  made  by  an  examination  of  flesh  removed  by  the  harpoon  or 
by  excision.  Despite  also  the  seriousness  of  the  malady,  many  cases  of 
recovery  occur  even  when  the  symptoms  are  most  violent,  especially  in 
children. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  treatment  for  the  disease  when  actually  pres- 
ent, except  the  relief  of  the  symptoms  as  they  present  themselves. 


FOOD    AND    DKINK.  205 

The  only  effectual  treatment  is  the  preventive.  Although  there  is 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  method  in  which  the  flesh  of  the  hog- 
becomes  infested  with  the  trichina,  it  is  well  determined  that  in  man  it 
arises  only  from  the  use  of  the  flesh  of  the  infected  hog.  As  the  worm  is 
easily  recognized,  if  not  by  the  naked  eye,  by  the  aid  of  moderate  magni- 
fying powers,  the  most  effectual  mode  of  preventing  the  disease  is  by  an 
official  examination  of  all  pork  sold  for  food.  In  no  other  way  can  it  be 
effectually  excluded  from  market.  A  second  measure  of  importance  is 
the  avoidance  of  the  use  of  raw  and  partially  cooked  pork,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  high  temperature  in  the  cooking  of  pork.  Trichina3  are  effectu- 
ally destroyed  by  a  temperature  of  142°  to  155°  F.  (61°  to  68°  C).  Pork, 
therefpre,  should  be  thoroughly  cooked  before  being  eaten.  These  pre- 
cautions being  carried  out,  there  is  little  or  no  danger  of  trichiniasis. 

Tcenim — Tape-  Worms. 

Tape-worm  in  man  is  acquired  by  the  ingestion  of  the  flesh  of  animals 
infested  with  the  embryos  of  the  worm.  This  embryo  is  known  as  cys- 
ticerctcs  cellulosce.  Of  the  worm,  there  infest  man,  among  others,  two 
principal  varieties — the  tasnia  solium,  or  "  armed  tape-worm,"  and  taenia 
saginata  (mediocanellata  of  Ktichenmeister),  or  "unarmed  tape-worm." 
In  the  former,  the  head  is  provided  with  four  suckers,  and  a  central  cir- 
clet of  small  hooks  arranged  in  a  double  row;  on  the  latter  this  coronet 
of  booklets  is  wanting.  The  cysticercus  of  tsenia  solium  is  found  in  the 
intermuscular  connective  tissue  and  other  parts  of  the  pig,  in  which  ani- 
mal it  finds  its  place  by  the  introduction  with  its  food  of  links  of  tape- 
worm, which  are  crowded  with  eggs.  This  is  easy  of  occurrence,  on 
account  of  the  well-known  tendency  of  hogs  to  feed  upon  the  faecal 
evacuations  of  man  wherever  they  may  be  found.  It  has  also  been 
found  in  the  flesh  of  the  dog,  deer,  and  polar  bear.  The  cysticercus  of 
taenia  saginata  has  been  found  only  in  the  muscles  and  other  tissues  of 
the  cow  and  giraffe,  although  it  has  been  produced  artificially  in  other 
ruminants,  as  the  calf,  goat,  and  sheep,  by  feeding  with  mature  seg- 
ments of  the  unarmed  worm.  But,  although  the  worm  is  very  common 
in  man,  in  some  countries,  as  Africa  and  Southern  and  Northern  Ger- 
many, its  cysticercus  is  very  seldom  found. 

These  cysticerci,  or  embryos,  are  developed  in  the  stomachs  of  the  ani- 
mals in  which  they  are  found,  from  the  mature  eggs  contained  in  the  seg- 
ments upon  which  they  feed.  The  mature  egg  already  contains  an 
embryo — a  delicate  mass  of  protoplasm  with  three  pairs  of  hooks.  When 
these  reach  the  stomach  of  the  animal,  the  envelope  is  dissolved  by  the 
gastric  juice,  and  the  embryo  set  free.  Thence  it  migrates,  like  the 
trichina,  to  the  muscles,  and  soon  becomes  developed  into  the  cysticercus. 
This  is  a  thin-walled  cyst,  about  as  large  as  a  pea,  surrounded  also  by  a 
capsule  of  connective  tissue.  Within  the  cyst,  surrounded  by  a  clear 
fluid,  is  a  firm,  white,  roundish  body,  connected  with  a  depression,  easily 
visible  on  its  external  surface.     In  this  body  is  found  also  a  cyst,  within 


206 


FOOD    AND    DRINK. 


which  is  the  head  of  the  cysticercus,  inverted  like  the  finger  of  a  glove. 
This  head  is  identical  with  that  of  the  tape-worm,  into  which  it  may  be 
later  developed,  whether  taenia  solium  or  saginata. 

Fig,  11  shows  the  appearance  of  pork  containing  the  cysticercus  of 
taenia  solium,  and  Figs.  12  and  13  the  cysticercus  itself — the  former  of  natu- 
ral size,  the  latter  slightly  magnified.     The  cysticercus  of  tsenia  saginata  is 

not  essentially  different  from  that  of  t»nia 
solium.  It  is  somewhat  smaller,  and  contains 
of  course  the  head  of  the  saginata.  It  is  also 
much  shorter  lived  than  the  taenia  solium. 

If  now  a  portion  of  flesh  containing  either 
of  these  cysticerci  is  taken  into  the  stomach 
of  man,  the  embryo  is  speedily  released  from 
its  c^'st  by  solution  of  its  envelope;  it  fastens 
itself  by  means  of  its  suckers  upon  the  intes- 


FlG.  11. 

Pork  containing  the  cysticerciis 
of  T.  SoUum. 
(After  Heller.) 


Fig.  13. 

Cysticercus  cellulosEe 
(natural  size). 
(After  HeUer.) 


Fig.  13. 

The  same  seen  through 

a  magnifying-glass. 

(After  Heller.) 


tinal  wall,  and  is  speedily  developed  into  the  tape-worm,  by  the  addition 
of  the  segments  of  which  its  chief  bulk  is  made  up. 

The  taenia  solium  is  found  only  in  the  intestine  of  man,  and  is  common 
in  Europe  and  America,  and  especially  the  middle  of  Germany.  The  taenia 
saginata  is  also  common  in  the  intestine  of  man,  and  is  prevalent  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Northern  and  Southern  Germany.  In  Abyssinia  almost  every 
individual,  beyond  the  nursing  period,  regardless  of  sex  and  age,  is  the  sub- 
ject of  one. 

The  curative  treatment  of  tape-worm  is  fully  discussed  in  the  works 
on  the  practice  of  medicine.  We  have  here  more  particularly  to  do  with 
its  prevention. 

The  first  essential  condition  of  successful  preventive  treatment  is  offi- 
cial inspection,  one  and  the  same  inspection  serving  for  trichiniasis  as  well 
as  for  "  measles,"  or  cysticerci.  Thus  will  the  infected  meat  be  excluded 
from  sale.  Secondly,  no  pork  at  least  should  be  eaten  without  being 
thoroughly  cooked.  But  there  are  other  methods  than  by  the  ordinary 
use  of  food  that  tape-worm  is  acquired,  which  should  be  guarded  against. 
Carelessness  and  uncleanliness  on  the  part  of  those  who  have  to  do  with 
the  preparation  and  handling  of  raw  meat  often  results  in  their  infection 
in  an  accidental  manner.  Thus  it  is  well  known  that  it  is  a  very  common 
thing  for  persons  employed  in  pork-packing  establishments  to  have  tape- 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  207 

worm.  This  may  result  from  the  accidental  introduction  of  embryos  into 
the  mouth,  as  well  as  by  the  eating  of  pieces  of  raw  pork,  to  which  those 
thus  employed  are  prone.  For  the  same  reason  cooks  are  often  subjects 
of  tape-woi'm. 

In  the  United  States  at  least  the  flesh  of  ruminants  used  as  food  is  so 
seklQm  the  seat  of  its  peculiar  cysticercus,  the  saginata,  that  it  is  very  rare 
for  the  worm  to  be  acquired,  although  it  is  a  common  practice  to  eat  meat 
rarely  done,  and  it  is  considered  that  in  this  state  it  is  more  easily  digested. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  use  of  finely-grated  raw  beef,  a  therapeutic 
measure  now  often  resorted  to,  may  occasionally  result  in  the  production 
of  tape-worm,  and  its  preparation  should  not  be  without  close  inspection 
for  the  embryos,  which  are  even  m.ore  easily  detected  than  those  of 
trichinee;  and  if  all  meat  containing  vesicles,  white  spots,  or  streaks,  which 
are  at  all  of  uncertain  nature,  are  rejected,  there  is  little  risk  of  acquiring 
tape-worm. 

Note. — The  cuts  on  pages  160  and  161,  are  camera-lucid  a  drawings,  made  from 
actual  specimens  of  the  different  flours  as  found  in  commerce,  excepting  that  of  the 
potato,  which  was  drawn  from  a  scraping  of  the  tuber.  The  specimens  were  prepared 
by  dusting  on  the  glass  slide  a  minute  quantity  of  the  flour  and  then  moistening  it 
with  a  drop  of  water. 


I 

i 


i 


ON  DRINKING-WATER 


PUBLIC  WATER-SUPPLIES 


PROFESSOR  WM.   RIPLEY   NICHOLS, 

OP   THE    MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE   OF  TECHKOLOGT, 

BOSTON,    MASS. 


Vol.  I.— 14 


I 


ON  DRINKING-WATER   AND    PUB- 
LIC WATER-SUPPLIES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  importance  of  an  abundant  and  good  supply  of  water  for  domes- 
tic purposes  is,  at  the  present  time,  a  subject  which  needs  no  discussion. 
For  drinking  and  culinary  purposes,  for  washing,  for  the  rapid  removal 
of  the  excreta,  water  of  greater  or  less  purity  is  required;  but  for  all  these 
purposes  an  abundant  supply  is  needed,  as  well  as  in  many  cases  for 
manufacturing  industries,  for  the  extinguishing  of  fire,  for  the  sprink- 
ling of  streets,  and,  in  rural  communities,  for  the  irrigation  of  grass  and 
garden  plats. 

In  spite  of  the  magnitude  of  the  water-works  of  the  Romans,  Greeks, 
and  other  ancient  peoples,  the  aqueducts,  the  storage  reservoirs,  the  pub- 
lic baths,  and  in  spite  of  the  lavishness  of  the  supply  for  public  uses  and 
in  the  houses  of  the  rich,  it  is  probable  that  there  has  never  been  such 
general  and  widespread  interest  as  there  is  to-day  in  the  matter  of  water- 
supply  cts  a  sanitary  necessity,  not  only  to  the  community  as  a  whole, 
but  also  to  the  individuals,  no  matter  how  poor,  who  make  up  the  com- 
munity. 

In  choosing  the  source  from  which  the  water-supply  is  to  be  taken, 
three  prominent  points  demand  consideration.  In  the  first  place,  can 
the  source  in  question  furnish  enough  water;  secondly,  is  the  water  of 
suificiently  good  quality;  thirdly,  how  does  the  cost  of  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  the  necessary  works  compare  with  the  expense  of 
obtaining  water  from  other  sources. 

Quantity. 

The  question  of  available  quantity  is  all-important.  There  are  many 
instances  on  record  where  a  supply  of  water  has  scarcely  been  introduced 
before  it  has  proved  insufficient  in  quantity.  Such  failures  arise  either 
from  an  over-estimate  of  the  amount  which  the  chosen  source  can  furnish, 
or  from  an  under-estimate  of  the  needs  of  the  city  or  town  supplied. 
What  shall  be  considered  an  abundant  supply  of  water  ?  This  is  a  ques- 
tion which  does  not  admit  of  answer  from  simple  theoretical  considera- 
tions. We  may  determine  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  amount  necessary, 
on  the  average,  for  each  family  for  household  purposes,  or  the  amount 
required  in  certain  manufacturing  establishments  for  a  given  amount  of 


212      0]Sr    DELNTKESTG- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

finished  product;  but  for  many  purposes  it  is  very  diflicult  to  estimate, 
and  the  item  of  waste  enters  largely  into  the  account.  The  following 
table,  taken  from  Fanning's  Water-Supply  Engineering,  gives  the  average 
daily  supply  of  a  number  of  American  cities  in  the  year  1874. 


Washington 
New  York .  . 
Detroit .... 
Jersey  City. 
Chicago  . .  .  . 
Worcester . . 
Montreal  .  .  . 
Charlestown 
Boston  . .  .  .  . 

Buffalo 

Philadelphia 
Brooklyn  . .  . 

Salem 

Cambridge . . 
Cincinnati .  . 
Cleveland. .  . 

Newark 

Louisville. . . 


Total    average   daily 
supply. 


In  U.  S.  gallons. 


18,000,000 

9,013,350 

10,421,001 

38,090,952 

3,000,000 

8,395,810 

7,643,017 

18,000,000 

8,509,481 

42,111,730 

24,772,467 

1,380,000 

2,300,000 

13,600,596 

5,625,150 

4,732,718 

3,598,730 


Average  daily  supply 
per  head. 


U.  S. 
gallons. 


138 
100(?) 

87 

86 

84 

80 

66 

62 

60 

60 

58 

58 

55 

54 

45 

45 

38 

24 


Litres. 


522 
378(?) 
329 
326 
317 
303 
254 
235 
227 
227 
219 
219 
208 
204 
170 
170 
144 
91 


The  following  table  is  selected  from  Humber's  Treatise  on  Water- 
Supply,  but  the  amounts  there  given  in  English  gallons  are  calculated 
into  U.  S.  gallons  and  litres  (in  round  numbers). 


TOWNS  FURNISHED  WITH 


AN   INTBRMITTENT   SUPPLY. 

A    CONSTANT   SUPPLY. 

Daily  average  sup- 
ply per  head,  in 

TOWN   OE   CITY. 

Daily  average  sup- 
ply per  head,  in 

TJ.  S. 
gallons. 

Litres. 

tr.  S. 
gallons. 

Litres. 

Windsor 

56 
55 
51 
48 
29 
25 
23 
21 

210 

207 

194 

181 

109 

95 

86 

79 

Glasgow 

63 
43 
35 
34 
27 
25 
22 
17 

240 

Chester 

Edinburgh 

163 

Birkenhead 

Sheffield 

132 

London 

Newcastle 

127 

Liverpool  

Leeds 

104 

Hastings 

Manchester 

95 

Bath 

Bristol 

84 

St.'  Helen's 

Norwich 

65 

ON    DRINKI]S"G-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       213 

The  following  table  gives  details  with  reference  to  the  use  of  water  in 
certain  continental  cities,  and  is  selected  from  a  large  mass  of  information 
compiled  by  E.  Grahn,  civil  engineer,  at  the  instigation  of  the  German 
society  of  "Gas-  und  Wasserfachmannern."  ' 


CITIES. 

Total  daily  amount  in 
cubic  metres. 

Daily  average    supply  per 
head  in 

Litres. 

U.  S.  gallons. 

Karlsruhe 

12,000 
10,000 
80,000 
45,000 
23,050 
27,000 

3,632 
10,000 

4,000 

6,200 
15,000 

1,200 

11,000 

900 

581 
289 
237 
228 
223 
200 
163 
154 
148 
124 
116 
115 
86 
52 

154 

Bonn 

76 

Hambura: 

63 

Dresden 

60 

Frankfurt  a.  M 

59 

Coin 

53 

Altenbursr 

43 

Braunschweig 

41 

Bamberg 

39 

Kassel 

33 

Hannover 

Altona 

31 
31 

Leipzig 

Ascherleben 

23 
14 

For  domestic  and  household  uses,  from  15  to  20  gallons  per  person  per 
day  is  a  sufficient  allowance,  but  of  course  a  much  larger  amount  is  used 
for  manufacturing  and  mechanical  purposes.  Making  allowance  for  this, 
for  the  fountains  which  are  the  usual  accompaniments  of  water-works,  for 
street-sprinkling,  extinguishing  fires,  etc.,  we  may  regard  an  average  of 
60  gallons  per  day  for  each  inhabitant  as  a  very  liberal  provision.  In  the 
case  of  the  smaller  towns  where  no  extensive  manufactures  are  carried  on, 
a  much  smaller  amount  than  this  may  suffice.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  the  chosen  source  must  be  able,  on  occasion,  to  furnish  an 
amount  very  greatly  in  excess  of  the  average  consumption.  Thus,  in 
Boston,  in  1872,  at  the  time  of  the  "  great  fire  "  which  burned  over  an 
area  of  about  sixty  acres  of  the  business  portion  of  the  city,  while  the 
daily  consumption  was  averaging  12,500,000  gallons,  there  Avere  used  by 
the  fire  department  some  18,500,000  gallons  in  thirty-five  hours,  and  the 
greater  portion,  in  fact,  during  the  first  eighteen  hours. ^  To  provide  for 
such  emergencies  as  this,  either  the  source  must  be  abundant,  or  reservoirs 
must  be  provided  for  the  storage  of  a  quantity  of  water  sufficient  to  meet 
such  occasionally  occurring  abnormal  demands. 

Waste. — In  all  cities  and  towns  supplied  by  public  water-works,  there 
is  a  very  large  amount  of  water  actually  wasted.     The  Chicago  Board  of 

'  See  Journal  fiir  G-asbeleuchtung  und  Wasserversorgung,  Vol.  XX.,  1877. 
^  Report  of  the  Cochituate  Water  Board  to  the  City  Council  of  Boston,  for  the  year 
ending  AprH  30,  1873.     City  Document,  No.  103,  p.  43. 


214      ON   DEINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-STJPPLIES. 

Public  Works,  in  their  report  of  March  31,  1875,  estimate  that  "  one-half 
of  the  water  now  pumped  is  wasted,"  and  in  the  St.  Louis  Report  for  1876 
a  calculation  is  made  by  the  engineer.  Col.  Henry  Flad,  by  which  it  ap- 
pears that  the  prospective  cost  to  the  city  for  a  period  of  ten  years,  on 
account  of  waste,  is  over  four  million  dollars. 

There  are  two  general  methods  suggested  for  lessening  the  waste 
which  occurs.  One  is  to  introduce  a  rigid  system  of  inspection  to  detect 
all  leakage  from  the  pipes  and  from  imperfect  fixtures,  and  to  prevent  all 
unlawful  use  of  the  water.  Such  a  system  has  been  found  to  work  ad- 
mirably in  some  places,  a  notable  example  being  in  Liverpool,  England, 
where,  by  meters  invented  for  the  purpose,  it  was  possible  to  determine 
the  amount  of  water  flowing  in  small  sections  of  the  pipes,  and  thus  to 
locate  any  considerable  leak  or  to  ascertain  where  an  abnormal  amount  of 
water  was  being  used  or  wasted.'  The  second  method  is  to  supply  all  the 
water  through  meters,  as  is  now  done  with  that  portion  which  is  used  by 
manufactories  and  other  largd  establishments.  The  principal  objection 
urged  against  the  adoption  of  this  method  in  the  case  of  private  families, 
is  the  fear  that,  by  the  use  of  meters,  an  economy  of  water  would  be  ef- 
fected among  the  very  class  of  people  where,  for  the  general  good  of  the 
community,  it  is  important  that  water  should  be  used  freely.  There  is 
considerable  weight  to  this  objection  and,  if  meters  are  to  be  introduced 
into  the  cities,  either  a  certain  amount  of  water  must  be  allowed  free, 
and  the  excess  charged  for  at  an  established  rate,  or  else  some  other 
arrangement  must  be  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  poorer  class,  especially 
for  persons  and  families  living  in  tenement-houses.  It  is  further  to  be 
said  that  the  cheaper  meters  are  not  very  reliable,  and  it  is  often  possible  to 
pass  a  considerable  amount  of  water  without  its  being  registered,  provided 
the  water  pass  slowly.  The  question  is,  after  all,  one  which  must  be  set- 
tled by  local  considerations.  In  many  places,  where  there  is  an  abundance 
of  water  at  command  and  where  the  rates  are  low,  the  expense  and  the 
attendant  inconvenience  would  make  it  advisable  not  to  introduce  meters. 
In  other  localities,  where  the  available  water  is  limited  in  quantity,  or  where, 
without  economy,  the  existing  supply  is  likely  to  prove  insufficient  in  the 
immediate  future,  or  in  places  where  the  rates  are  of  necessity  high,  the 
introduction  of  meters  would  be  advisable.  The  waste  in  northern  cities 
during  the  winter  is  enormous,  as  it  is  very  common  to  leave  the  faucets 
open  during  the  night,  in  order  to  prevent  freezing.  To  remedy  this  waste 
it  would  not  be  impossible  to  insist  that  the  service-pipes  should  be  laid 
below  the  line  of  frost,  and  that  in  the  houses  it  should  be  possible  to  shut 
off  the  water  and  drain  the  pipes  whenever  there  is  danger  of  freezing. 
Vigilant  inspection  would  probably  accomplish  as  much  as  the  introduc- 
tion of  meters  to  check  such  waste. 

Double  supply. — In  view  of  the  difficulty  which  sometimes  exists,  of 
obtaining  from  a  single  source   a  sufficiently  abundant  supply  of  good 

1  See  the  very  valuable  report  of  G-.  F.  Deacon,  Borough  Engineer,  reprinted  in  the 
Report  of  the  Cochituate  Water  Board  of  the  City  of  Boston,  for  the  year  ending 
April  30,  1874.     City  Document,  No.  55,  pages  84-112- 


ON    DEINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       215 

water  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  large  community,  it  has  often  been  pro- 
posed to  adopt  a  system  of  double  supply,  i.  e.,  to  furnish  water  of  two 
qualities.  It  is  true  that  for  many  purposes,  as  for  extinguishing  fires 
and  for  sprinkling  streets,  a  water  would  answer  which  would  not  be 
suitable  for  drinking,  and  such  a  supply  might  in  many  cases  be  easily 
procured,  while  to  procure  an  abundance  of  water  well  suited  for  drink- 
ing would  involve  a  large  outlay.  To  the  double  system  there  is  no  ob- 
jection, if  the  poorer  water  can  be  drawn  only  from  street-hydrants, 
which  are  under  municipal  control  ;  but  it  is  not  practicable  to  supply 
two  sorts  of  water  to  private  dwellings,  with  any  security  that  the  distinc- 
tion between  them  will  be  regarded  ;  no  domestic,  and  indeed  no  average 
inhabitant,  will  fail  to  use  for  all  purposes  that  water  which  is  most 
handily  obtained,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  actually  repulsive  to  the  taste. 
In  the  case  of  large  cities,  it  is  seldom  that  a  single  source  of  sufficient 
size  can  be  found,  and  it  becomes  a  question  to  be  settled  by  local  con- 
siderations whether  each  portion  of  the  supply  shall  be  distributed  to  a 
different  section  of  the  city,  or  whether  the  water  from  all  sources  shall 
be  united  in  a  common  reservoir  or  reservoirs,  and  distributed  therefrom. 
The  city  of  London  is  supplied  by  eight  companies,  of  which  five  take 
water  from  different  points  on  the  Thames.  Here  each  company  supplies 
a  certain  district.  In  cities  where  the  entire  works  are  under  control  of 
the  same  authority,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  unite  the  waters  coming  from 
the  different  sources,  unless  they  are  of  decidedly  different  character. 

Intermittent  supply. — In  many  places  in  the  Old  World,  especially  in 
England,  the  supply  of  water  is  intermittent,  ^.  e.,  is  let  into  the  dis- 
tributing pipes  for  a  certain  number  of  hours  only  during  the  day.  This 
method  is  open  to  so  many  and  such  obvious  objections  that  it  has  never 
been  introduced  to  any  extent  in  this  country,  and  has  fallen  into  disfavor 
abroad. 

Quality. 

We  shall  now  consider,  in  a  general  way,  the  qualifications  which 
must  be  possessed  by  a  water  in  order  to  be  considered  sufficiently  good 
for  domestic  use.  Many  of  the  questions  which  will  naturally  arise  in 
this  connection  will  be  discussed  more  appropriately  hereafter,  when  we 
come  to  consider  the  various  sources  to  which  we  must  look  for  our  water- 
supply. 

In  the  first  place,  absolute  chemical  purity,  in  the  sense  of  freedom 
from  all  foreign  substances,  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable.  The  sur- 
face-waters of  uninhabited  granitic  and  gneissic  regions  are  often  very 
free  from  foreign  raatters  ;  but  even  they,  in  their  passage  through  the 
air  and  over  the  ground,  dissolve  gaseous  and  solid  substances.  Most  of 
the  mineral  substances  which  make  up  the  earth's  crust  are  either  more 
or  less  soluble  in  water,  or  are  decomposed  by  water  with  the  produc- 
tion of  soluble  substances.  The  more  common  mineral  substances  thus  oc- 
curring in  natural  water  are  the  chlorides,  sulphates  and  carbonates  of 


216      ON    DEINKING-WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

sodium,  potassium,  magnesium,  and  calcium,  together  with  silica,  alumina, 
and  iron,  in  some  form  of  combination.^  Organic  matter  of  animal  or 
vegetable  origin  also  occurs  in  most  waters  ;  it  is  various  in  character, 
and  of  very  diverse  sanitary  importance. 

Within  reasonable  limits,  the  presence  of  a  greater  or  less  amount  of 
dissolved  mineral  matter  is  of  little  account  so  far  as  the  wholesomeness 
of  the  water  is  concerned.  It  is  well  known  that  freshly  distilled  water 
is  quite  unpalatable;  this  is  due  in  part  to  the  absence  of  dissolved  gases 
which  occur  in  almost  all  natural  waters,  and  in  part  to  the  absence  of 
mineral  salts. ^  Most  persons,  guided  by  taste  alone,  would  prefer  a 
water  containing  a  moderate  amount  of  matter  in  solution,  and  a  water 
may  be  somewhat  highly  charged  with  mineral  salts  without  being  un- 
suited  for  drinking.  For  certain  special  manufacturing  operations  water 
of  peculiar  character  is  required,  or,  at  least,  water  which  is  free  from  par- 
ticular substances,  while  other  substances,  although  present  in  considera- 
ble quantity,  are  of  indifference.  The  salts  which  give  the  most  trouble 
are  the  compounds  of  lime  and  magnesia,  especially  the  carbonates  and 
sulphates.^ 

These  compounds  give  rise  to  the  incrustations  which  form  in  steam-boil- 
ers (see  farther,  page  286),  and  their  presence  causes  the  water  to  be  "  hard." 
The  practical  disadvantages  of  a  hard  water  for  boiler  use  and  for  washing 
are  very  great;  but  a  water  which  is  tolerably  hard  may  be  used  to  drink 
without  inconvenience.  In  fact,  many  maintain  that  a  hard  water  is  more 
wholesome  than  a  soft  water.  Some  years  ago  Dr.  Letheby  tabulated  sta- 
tistics from  some  sixty-five  English  towns,  with  reference  to  a  possible  con- 
nection between  the  hardness  of  the  water  used  and  the  death-rate.  In  this 
table  the  towns  using  the  hardest  water  had  the  lowest  death-rate.  From 
this  statement  improper  inferences  have  been  drawn.  Such  a  comparison 
cannot  be  otherwise  than  fallacious,  for  the  death-rate  depends  upon  so 
many  factors  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  far  it  is  affected  by  the 
water-supply,  if,  indeed,  it  is  affected  at  all.    Moreover,  some  of  the  towns 

'  Where  the  amount  of  dissolved  substances  is  considerable,  the  water  is  gener- 
ally called  a  "  mineral  water."  These  waters,  which,  as  a  rule,  come  from  a  consider- 
able depth  in  the  earth's  crust,  often  contain,  in  considerable  quantities,  substances 
which  occur  either  not  at  all  or  only  in  minute  quantities  in  ordinary  waters,  such  as 
would  be  considered  available  for  water-supply. 

'^  On  shipboard  the  water  is  aerated  and  sometimes  filtered  through  animal  charcoal 
or  other  substances  before  being  used  to  drink  ;  it  has  been  proposed  to  render  it  more 
palatable  and  more  wholesome  by  the  addition  of  a  certain  amount  of  mineral  salts. 
A  mixture  which  has  been  suggested  for  this  purpose  consists,  for  1,000  litres  of 
water,  of  4.8  grms.  salt,  3.4  grms.  sulphate  of  soda,  48  grms.  bicarbonate  of  lime 
[?  W.  R.  N.],  14  grms.  carbonate  of  soda,  and  6  grms.  carbonate  of  magnesia.  It  is 
stated  that  the  Russian  navy  has  adopted  this  idea,  and  furnished  to  its  vessels  a 
mixture  of  this  character.  Fonssagrives  :  Hygiene  et  assainissement  des  miles,  Paris, 
1874,  p.  316. 

^  It  is  the  more  modern  practice  to  speak  of  carbonate  of  calcium  and  sulphate  of 
calcium,  instead  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  li7yie.  The  modem  practice  is  the 
better  from  a  chemical  point  of  view,  but  the  older  terms  are  still  the  more  common 
in  the  world  at  large. 


A 


ON    DEINKING-WATER    AISTD    PUBLIC    WATEE-SUPPLIES.       217 

instanced  as  using  soft  water  were  towns  where  other  sanitary  conditions 
were  notoriously  bad,  and  some  of  those  using-  hard  water  were  well 
sewered  and  otherwise  in  a  good  sanitary  condition.  It  should  be  said 
that  Dr.  Letheby  himself,  while  strongly  favoring  moderately  hard  water, 
did  not  claim  to  show  more  by  these  figures  than  that  "  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  soft  water  so  benefits  the  health  of  the  people  as  to  reduce  the 
death-rate,"  He  also  admits  frankly  that  the  water  may  have  nothing  to 
do  with  it.  The  question  is  an  open  one,  but  it  can  hardly  be  a  matter  of 
indifference  whether  the  hardness  of  the  water  is  caused  by  carbonate  of 
lime  or  by  sulphate  of  lime.  Indeed,  water  containing  a  considerable 
amount  of  sulphate  of  lime  is  generally  held  to  be  injurious,  while  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  tolerated  in  much  larger  quantities;  moreover,  the  com- 
pounds of  magnesia  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  having  pi-ecisely  the  same 
effect  as  the  compounds  of  lime,  and  the  drinking  of  hard  water  contain- 
ing a  large  amount  of  magnesium  compounds  is  one  of  a  number  of  things 
which  have  been  assigned  by  different  observers  as  causes  of  the  "  goitre  " 
which  prevails  in  various  localities.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
human  system  has  great  power  of  accommodation.  Thus,  it  sometimes 
happens  that  no  ill  effect  is  noticed  from  the  habitual  use  of  a  hard  water 
by  natives,  while  strangers  who  come  from  a  soft  water  district  are  quite 
sure  to  be  affected.  On  the  other  hand,  a  person  who  has  always  used 
hard  water  may  be  seriously  affected  by  undertaking  to  drink  a  soft  sur- 
face-water. In  this  latter  case  it  is  to  be  said  that,  in  addition  to  beino: 
soft,  such  waters  almost  always  contain  more  or  less  vegetable  matter, 
which  may  be,  and  probably  is,  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

Further,  although  there  maybe  an  open  question  as  to  the  effect  of  drink- 
ing hard  water,  there  is  no  question  but  that,  on  other  sanitary  grounds, 
soft  water  is  much  to  be  preferred,  and  especially  with  reference  to  clean- 
liness of  person  and  of  surroundings.  Hard  water  is  not  only  less  agree- 
able in  washing,  but  is  less  effectual  as  a  cleansing  agent.  A  portion  of 
the  soap  used  is  destroyed  for  all  practical  purposes,  and  forms  in  the 
water  an  insoluble  curd,  useless  as  a  detergent  and  unsightly  to  the  eyes 
of  those  who  are  accustomed  to  soft  water.  For  cooking,  hard  water  is, 
as  a  rule,  much  less  suited  than  soft,  and  if,  in  addition  to  these  considera- 
tions, we  take  into  account  the  fact  that  for  most  manufacturing  opera- 
tions soft  water  is  desirable,  it  is  evident  that,  for  the  general  purpose  o£ 
town-supply,  soft  water  is  to  be  preferred. 

Besides  mineral  substances  which  we  have  discussed,  all  natural  waters 
contain  more  or  less  organic  matter  in  solution.  This  is  due  mainly  to 
the  action  of  the  water  on  the  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  substances 
contained  in  the  ground  over  or  through  which  the  water  drains,  or  to 
organisms  which  live  and  die  in  the  water  itself.  A  water  entirely  free 
from  organic  matter  is  very  rare,  although  some  classes  of  waters  are 
much  more  liable  than  others  to  be  charged  with  it.  Surface-water,  such 
as  that  of  rivers  and  ponds,  is  apt  to  contain  a  good  deal  of  dissolved  or- 
ganic matter,  while  springs  and  deep  wells,  or  even  properly  protected 
shallow  wells,  often  furnish  water  quite  free  from  organic  substances.     The 


218      ON    DEINKIITG-TrATER    AI^D    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

influence  of  such  substances  depends  very  much  upon  their  source  and 
nature.  Thus,  a  water  may  be  highly  colored  from  the  presence  of  peaty 
matter,  or  may  taste  quite  decidedly  of  the  smaller  algee,  without  being  as 
far  as  we  know  unwholesome.  It  is  well  known  that  the  water  of  the 
*'  Dismal  Swamp,"  although  strongly  colored  by  dissolved  vegetable  mat- 
ter, is  held  in  high  repute  as  a  drinking-water,  and  is  in  especial  favor  for 
provisioning  ships.  It  is  true  also  that  the  waters  of  some  northern 
streams,  which  contain  a  good  deal  of  vegetable  matter,  are  in  repute  for 
the  same  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  water  draining  from  marshes,  es- 
pecially in  hot  climates,  is  known  to  be  the  cause  of  intestinal  disorders; 
it  is  also  suspected  of  causing  malarial  and  other  fevers,  although  some 
consider  the  air  to  be  the  sole  agent  in  the  latter  cases.  ^Yith  reference 
to  the  effect  of  the  lower  orders  of  vegetable  growth,  especially  of  the 
minute  fresh-water  algse,  something  will  be  said  when  we  consider  lakes 
as  a  source  of  supply,  since  lakes  and  ponds,  natural  and  artificial,  are 
particularly  subject  to  such  growths. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  is  not  difficult  to  decide  whether  a  natural  uncon- 
taminated  water  is  or  is  not  suitable  for  general  use.  With  reference  to 
most  of  the  substances  which  occur  naturally  in  potable  water,  it  is  hardly 
fair  to  designate  them  as  "  impurities,"  because  these  substances  are  com- 
mon to  all  natural  waters  and  there  is  more  or  less  of  stigma  conveyed  in 
the  term  "impurity."  Fairly  to  be  designated  as  impurities,  however,  are 
mineral  substances  of  known  poisonous  character  and  the  organic  matter 
of  animal  or  vegetable  origin  which  come  as  refuse  from  manufacturing 
or  from  household  operations.  A  water  which  is  chosen  as  a  supply  for 
towns  or  for  individual  families  must  be  known  to  be  free  from  all  poison- 
ous or  deleterious  mineral  substances.  This  point  is  one  that  is  readily 
settled  by  chemical  analysis;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  can  be  done  equally  well  by 
an  inspection  of  the  locality  from  which  the  water  is  to  be  taken,  and  its 
surroundings.  The  supply  chosen  must  also  be  capable  of  being  pro- 
tected from  all  such  injury  in  the  future. 

Pollution  of  drinking -loater. — We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of 
the  pollution  of  water  by  organic  matters,  and  here  we  approach  a  subject 
which  has  occasioned  much  discussion,  and  with  regard  to  which  diame- 
trically opposite  views  are  held. 

It  is  a  universal  belief  that  there  is  some  connection  between  filth  and 
certain  forms  of  disease.  By  filth  we  understand  decaying  organic  mat- 
ter of  animal  or  vegetable  origin,  and  the  chief  point  of  difference  in  be- 
lief is  as  to  whether  the  filth  can  originate  specific  disorders,  or  whether  it 
simply  forms  a  nidus  for  the  growth  and  development  of  a  something  by 
which  the  disease  is  propagated.  Whatever  view  is  held  on  this  point, 
provided  the  connection  is  ad-mitted,  the  question  next  arises  as  to  the 
vehicle  by  which  this  disease-producing  something  is  carried,  and  it  is 
held  by  most  non-medical  sanitarians  as  well  as  by  many  eminent  medical 
authorities,  that  the  air  we  breathe  and  the  water  we  drink  may  both 
serve  as  agents  in  this  matter;  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  who 
deny  that  there  is,  as  a  rule,  any  direct  connection  between  disease  and 


ON    DEINKIN^G-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       219 

drinking-water,  and  who  assert  that  a  water  which  is  not  polluted  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  inspire  disgust  by  taste  or  smell  is  fit  to  drink.'  Those 
who  favor  the  former  view  call  attention  to  the  many  recorded  instances 
of  sickness  affecting  individuals  and  families  where  the  sickness  has 
been  coincident  with  the  use  of  a  polluted  drinking-water  ;  there  are 
also  cases  recorded  by  competent  observers  where  a  zymotic  disease  has 
affected  an  entire  commvmity,  and  has  been  apparently  on  the  increase, 
but  has  been  checked  by  a  change  of  drinking-water  ;  there  are  other 
cases  on  record  where  the  change  to  a  better  water-supply  has  in  suc- 
ceeding years  been  followed  by  a  decrease  in  the  average  sickness,  or  by 
a  decreased  death-rate.  In  other  cases  still,  a  locality  peculiarly  liable  to 
certain/forms  of  sickness  at  periodic  or  accidental  intervals,  has  ceased  to 
be  thus  afflicted,  even  when  surrounding  localities  have  been  visited  as 
usual,  and  when  no  other  conditions  have  been  altered  except  that  a 
polluted  water-supply  has  been  exchanged  for  one  unpolluted  or  less  im- 
pure. On  the  other  hand,  those  who  deny  the  "  drinking-water  theory  " 
hold  that  such  apparent  connection  between  polluted  water  and  disease  is 
simply  a  matter  of  coincidence,  and  they  point  to  the  numerous  instances 
where  water  known  to  be  badly  polluted  has  been  used  regularly  for  years 
with  apparent  impunity. 

With  all  due  allowance  for  imperfect  observation  and  for  prejudiced 
observers,  it  seems  that  at  present  the  weight  of  evidence  and  of  authority 
favors  the  idea  that  the  drinking-water  may  become  the  cause  of  disease; 
and  in  drinking  a  polluted  water  one  always  runs  more  or  less  risk.  In 
studying  matters  like  this  we  can  hardly  expect  to  reach  absolute  certainty, 
unless  possibly  by  means  of  direct  experiments  upon  living  human  beings 
— a  mode  of  investigation  which  we  are  involuntarily  obliged  to  witness  to 
a  certain  extent,  and  from  which  such  data  as  we  have  are  derived,  but 
which  we  can  never  systematically  conduct.  No  doubt  there  is  much  that 
we  may  hope  to  learn,  in  the  future,  with  reference  to  the  propagation  of 
disease;  but  there  are  many  things  that  must  rest  more  or  less  on  cir- 
cumstantial evidence,  and  in  determining  principles  which  are  to  guide 
the  community  it  is  best  to  err  on  the  side  of  safety. 

The  attempt  to  isolate  the  effects  of  various  habits,  which,  from  a 
hygienic  standpoint,  are  decidedly  bad,  gives  rise  to  problems  which  it  is 
often  impossible  to  solve.  We  know  that  there  are  many  persons  who 
live  and  seem  to  get  along  very  well  in  utter  disregard  of  the  laws  of 
health,  as  far  as  personal  cleanliness,  wholesome  diet,  pure  air,  and  many 
other  things  are  concerned;  but,  because  many  thus  live  for  a  time  with- 
out experiencing  evident  inconvenience,  does  any  one  argue  that  purity 
of  air,  a  healthful  diet,  and  cleanliness  of  person  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended and  desired  ?  The  effect  upon  the  community  of  the  bolting  of 
indigestible  food  must  be  immense;  but  comparatively  few  are  the  ac- 
knowledged cases  of  injurious  effects.  We  are  able,  however,  in  many 
cases,  to  show  even  in  these  matters  that  the  apparent  strength  and  im- 

'  See  especially  Nageli,  Die  niederen  Pilze,  Miinclien,  1877. 


220      ON    DEINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-SUPPLLES. 

munity  from  discomfort  is  due  to  a  constitution  naturally  strong,  and  the 
draft  upon  the  vital  energy  may  be  seen,  if  not  in  the  persons  themselves 
in  later  years,  at  least  in  their  children. 

With  reference  to  the  danger  from  the  presence  of  decaying  organic 
matter  in  the  drinking-water,  we  must  distinguish  between  the  organic 
matters  from  different  sources.  First  in  importance,  no  doubt,  is  excre- 
mental  matter  from  human  sources.  The  evidence  seems  very  strong  that 
the  dejections  of  persons  who  are  sick  with  certain  particular  diseases 
may  communicate  the  disease  to  others  if  they  are  taken  into  the  stomach. 
I  do  not  know  that  there  is  any  proof  that /"resA  sewage  from  healthy  per- 
sons, when  largely  diluted,  is  injurious  if  drunk.  "We  know  that  fish 
sometimes  gather  about  the  mouths  of  sewers,  and  seem  to  thrive;  we 
know,  however,  that  decomposing  sewage  drives  away  the  fish,  and,  with 
our  present  light,  we  can  hardly  fail  to  believe  that  decomposing  excre- 
mental  matter,  even  if  it  contain  no  specific  organic  poison,  is  detrimental 
to  health  when  taken  into  the  stomachs  of  human  beings. 

Next  in  importance  to  excremental  matter  is  animal  refuse,  such  as 
forms  the  waste  from  slaughter-houses,  wool-pulling  establishments,  tan- 
neries, etc.  In  the  case  of  such  substances,  we  have  less  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  direct  effect  upon  health  than  in  the  case  of  excremental  matter; 
and  yet  the  suspicions  against  them  are  so  strong  that  all  possible  means 
should  be  taken  to  keep  them  out  of  the  sources  of  drinking-water. 

Last  in  order  of  importance  is  matter  which  is  purely  of  vegetable 
origin.  It  is  felt  that  such  substances,  in  their  decay,  may  contaminate 
the  surrounding  air  so  as  to  be  a  source  of  injury  to  health,  and  it  would 
certainly  be  undesirable  to  have  any  considerable  amount  present  in  a 
drinking-water.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why  the  products  of  the  decay  of  all 
vegetable  matters  should  be  innocuous,  if  the  products  of  the  decay  of 
animal  matters  are  injurious  ;  and,  in  any  case  of  contamination,  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  are  associated  together  and  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish,  with  absolute  certainty,  differences  in  their  action  or  to  say  to 
which  of  them  ill  effects  are  to  be  ascribed. 

In  considering  the  conditions  which  a  water  must  satisfy  in  order  to 
be  regarded  as  suitable  for  domestic  supply,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
a  large  portion  of  the  water-drinkers  in  any  large  town  or  city  are  women 
and  children,  many  of  them  living  much  of  the  time  indoors,  in  an  arti- 
ficial atmosphere,  and  they  are  thus  peculiarly  sensitive  to  the  action  of 
influences  which  would  be  without  effect  upon  a  healthy  person  spending 
a  reasonable  time  in  the  open  air.  Moreover,  in  the  choice  of  a  water- 
supply,  we  must  not  only  avoid  a  source  which  contains  actually  poisonous 
substances  or  substances  which  are  suspected  with  any  considerable  show 
of  reason  of  being  injurious  to  health  ;  we  must  also  consider,  to  a  certain 
extent,  some  things  which  appeal  mainly  to  the  imagination.  For  this 
reason,  a  water  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  color,  although  the  col- 
oring substance  may  be  innocuous.  It  may  be  possible  to  educate  a  per- 
son or  a  community  to  drink  a  water  that  is  strongly  colored,  but  unless 
natural  prejudice  were  overcome  by  education  or  by  a  life-experience,  the 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       221 

averao-e  of  mankind  would  turn  from  an  unpolluted  water  colored  yellow 
or  brown  by  peaty  matter,  to  the  colorless,  sparkling  water  drawn  from  a 
polluted  spring,  provided  the  pollution  was  marked  by  no  peculiar  taste 
or  odor.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  suspended  matters.  We  have  had  iu 
mind  hitherto  those  substances  which  were  actually  dissolved  in  the  water. 
Of  course,  much  that  has  been  said  will  apply  as  well  to  matter  held  in 
suspension  ;  this  is  true  especially  of  excremental  matter  and  of  sub- 
stances of  animal  origin.  There  are  many  substances  of  earthy  origin 
which  occur,  especially  in  surface  waters,  which  are  not  capable  of  being 
dissolved,  and  which,  unless  taken  in  excessive  quantities,  are  of  compara- 
tively little  sanitary  importance.  Still  even  such  mineral  substances  as 
clay  and  mica,'  when  constantly  present  in  the  drinking-water,  have  been 
regarded  as  the  cause  of  diarrhoea  and  other  forms  of  sickness.  Nearly 
all  waters  that  carry  such  suspended  mineral  substances  carry  also  a  quan- 
tity of  vegetable  matter  in  suspension  or  in  solution,  and  just  how  far 
each  sort  of  impurity  is  to  blame  for  ill  effects  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

Now  it  is  possible  to  educate  a  person  into  drinking  without  hesitation 
a  turbid  water,  and  in  some  localities  where  all  the  soft  waters  are  turbid 
and  the  clear  waters  hard  and  unfit  to  drink,  turbidity  becomes  even  a 
recommendation.  As  a  rule,  however,  any  suspended  matter  renders  the 
water  less  desirable  to  drink,  and,  in  the  choice  of  a  supply,  the  preference 
should  be  given  to  a  clear  water,  or  if  turbidity  is  the  only  disadvantage 
which  a  water  possesses,  the  water  should  be  freed  from  suspended  sub- 
stances by  a  process  of  filtration. 

Again,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  imagination,  even  if  it  proves  that 
the  generally  received  idea  is  incorrect,  and  that  there  is  no  real  danger  to 
be  apprehended  from  the  use  of  polluted  water,  we  should  still  endeavor 
to  reach  the  greatest  possible  purity.  Although,  as  has  been  said  before, 
there  is  no  proof  that  water  containing  perfectly  fresh  sewage  is  unwhole- 
some if  drunk,  still,  scarcely  any  one  would  be  willing  to  drink  such  water, 
and,  as  a  mere  yielding  to  what  is  certainly  a  reasonable  prejudice,  we 
should  strive  for  the  greatest  possible  freedom  from  contamination. 

In  Europe,  and  especially  on  the  continent,  great  stress  is  laid  upon 
the  temperature  of  the  water,  and  some  go  even  so  far  as  to  reject  rivers 
from  the  list  of  available  sources  on  account  of  the  considerable  variation 
in  temperature  to  which  the  water  is  subject  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  We  cannot,  however,  in  this  country  go  so  far,  although  it  is  very 
true  that  a  uniform  temperature  is  desirable.  Over  a  large  part  of  the 
country  ice  is  used  almost  universally  in  summer.  In  all  the  Northern 
States,  a  supply  of  ice  sufficient  for  the  summer's  consumption  can  be 
readily  stored  during  the  winter,  and  even  in  the  southern  cities  ice  is  not 
extravagantly  dear,  and  for  most  purposes  other  than  for  drinking  the 
matter  of  temperature  is  of  little  consequence. 


'  For  examples  see  Parkes's  Hygiene,  4th  Ed.,  p.  38. 


222      ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

The  Question  of  Cost. 

There  comes  a  time  in  the  history  of  almost  every  growing  community, 
when  a  supply  of  water  must  be  obtained;  but,  although  in  theory  it  may 
be  true  that  the  hest  water  should  always  be  introduced  regardless  of  ex- 
pense, in  practice  this  rule  cannot  be  insisted  upon;  and  if,  in  the  case  of 
a  given  town,  a  supply  of  good  water  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  ex- 
pense, while  the  cost  of  introducing  the  best  water  accessible  would  be 
such  as  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  any  water  at  all  for  years,  it  is 
manifestly  better,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  that  the  less  desirable 
source  should  be  chosen.  It  is  a  question,  however,  whether  sometimes 
there  might  not  be  co-operation  on  the  part  of  several  villages  or  small 
towns,  so  as  to  make  available  for  all  a  source  which,  on  account  of  dis- 
tance or  for  other  reasons,  would  require  a  larger  outlay  than  could  be 
borne  by  one  alone.  Small  communities  have  always  profited  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  works  carried  out  by  larger  cities,  but  the  examples  of  co- 
operation by  the  association  of  a  number  of  small  communities  are  not  so 
common.  An  instructive  example  is  afforded  by  the  means  taken  to  sup- 
ply with  potable  water  a  district  in  the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg.'  This 
district,  which  is  known  as  the  "  rauhe  Alh^''  lies  from  750  to  800  metres 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  some  300  metres  above  the  surrounding 
lowlands,  has  a  width  of  some  33  kilometres,  and  is  of  such  a  geological 
character  that  the  rainfall  quickly  disappears  in  the  clefts  of  the  limestone 
or  dolomitic  rock,  and  does  not  appear  again  in  springs  within  the  region. 
The  surface- and  rain-water,  collected  by  the  inhabitants  in  cisterns  and  in 
puddled  cavities  in  the  ground,  was  not  only  inferior  in  quality,  but  so 
insufficient  in  quantity  that  often  in  cold  or  dry  weather  it  was  necessary 
to  bring  water  from  the  valley  below,  a  distance  of  from  3  to  12  kilo- 
metres. 

The  plans  for  supplying  this  district,  containing  between  sixty  or 
seventy  villages,  with  some  40,000  inhabitants  scattered  over  an  area  of 
twenty-two  square  miles,  were  devised  by  Dr.  v.  Ehmann,  State  Director 
of  Public  Water-Supply. 

The  villages  are  divided  into  nine  groups,  each  grouj)  forming  a  unit 
for  purposes  of  water-supply.  The  water  is  taken  partly  from  natural 
springs  in  the  lower  land,  and  partly  from  the  ground-water  by  means  of 
wells  and  galleries,  and  is  pumped  by  water-power  to  the  plateau  above. 

The  height  to  which  the  water  has  to  be  forced  in  order  to  reach  the 
various  distributing  reservoirs,  as  well  as  other  details,  may  be  learned 
from  the  following  table: 

'  Das  offentliclie  Wasser-Versorgungswesen  im  Konigreich  Wiirttemberg.  Denk- 
schrif  t  aus  Aalass  der  internationalen  Ausstellung  f  iir  Gesuudheitspflege  und  Rettungs- 
wesen  in  Briissel,  verfasst  von  Oberbaurath  v.  Ehmann,  Stuttgart,  1876,  4to,  pp.  137. 
This  work,  being  printed  for  private  distribution  only,  is  not  readily  obtained.  Ab- 
stracts are  to  be  found  in  the  Correspondenzblatt  des  niederrheinischen  Vereins  fiir  off. 
Gesuudheitspflege,  vi.  (1877),  p.  09,  in  Grahn's  stadtische  Wasserversorgung,  i.,  pp.  4- 
9,  and  in  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  January,  1879. 


J 


ON    DEINKING-WATER    AND   PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       223 


Amt.     of 

No.  of 

Total 

water 

Group. 

commu- 

inhabi- 

in cubic 

nities. 

tants. 

metres 
per   day. 

I 

9 

8 
8 

7,525  • 

7,600 

3,600 

600 
570 
270 

II 

Ill 

IV 

8 

3,700 

280 

V 

9 

7 

3,800 
1,700 

280 
130 

VI 

VII 

9 

2,000 

170 

VIII 

6 

4,300 

300 

IX 

4 

2,900 

200 

^%^^  *°    Length   of 
wnich  water         •      •        o  ^       j. 

.    i-j!,    -,  •     1  mams  m  i  Source  or  water. 


265 

300 
180-255 
117-200 

320 

180 
220-230 

200 
173-230 


34,000 
50,000 
30,000 
32,000 
50,000 
28,000 
30,000 

25,000 


Springs. 
Ground-water. 
Ground-water. 
Springs. 

? 

Springs. 
Springs. 

Springs. 


It  will  be  readily  seen  that,  in  this  case,  it  would  be  impossible  for  a 
single  village,  with  from  400  to  800  inhabitants,  to  provide  the  means  for 
the  erection  and  maintenance  of  the  works  necessary  to  bring  the  water 
from  such  a  distance;  and  indeed,  besides  bearing  the  expense  of  the  pre- 
liminary surveys,  of  the  preparation  of  plans,  and  of  the  superintendence 
of  the  work,  the  State  contributed  in  some  cases  25  per  cent,  of  the  cost 
of  construction.  Of  course,  we  shall  not  find  in  our  country  any  locality 
where  the  condition  of  things  is  precisely  similar  to  that  which  has  just 
been  detailed;  but  the  idea  of  co-operation  and  of  a  comprehensive  plan 
for  supplying  a  district  defined  by  natural  conditions,  rather  than  one 
bounded  by  accidental  political  circumstances,  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

The  conclusions  thus  far  reached  are  that  a  suitable  source  of  supply 
should  furnish  water  which  is  abundant  in  quantity;  the  Avater  should  be 
colorless  and  clear,  i.  e.,  free  from  all  turbidity;  it  should  be  soft  and  con- 
tain not  too  large  an  amount  of  mineral  matter  in  solution;  it  should  con- 
tain no  excremental  or  other  animal  matter;  and  it  should  be  so  situated 
as  to  make  it  possible  to  protect  it  from  defilement  in  the  future.  More- 
over, while  the  imagination  as  well  as  the  reason  is  to  be  consulted  in  the 
choice  of  a  supply,  an  extravagant  outlay  is  not  justified  when  called  for 
by  extravagant  demands  for  excellence. 

With  these  general  conclusions,  we  shall  proceed  in  the  next  section 
to  consider  t.he  various  sources  of  water-supply  which  are  available,  with 
their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 


Sources  of  Supply. 

It  would  be  very  difficult  to  devise  a  scheme  which  should  enable  us 
to  classify  the  various  natural  waters,  and  to  separate  the  classes  by  strict 
lines  of  demarcation.  For  convenience,  however,  and  with  especial  ref- 
erence to  the  subject  in  hand,  all  waters  used  for  purposes  of  town  or 
household  supply  may  be  considered  under  four  general  divisions,  as  fol- 
lows: 


224     OlS^    DEINKHiTG-WATER    AISTD    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

1.  Rain-water. 

2.  Surface-waters,  including'  streams  and  lakes. 

3.  Ground-water,  including  many  shallow  wells  and  a  few  springs. 

4.  Deep-seated  water,  including  deep  wells,  artesian  wells,  and  most 
springs 

In  the  case  of  some  artesian  wells,  the  water  now  supplied  may  come 
from  the  still  unexhausted  deposits  made  long  before  man  appeared  on 
the  earth;  but,  with  such  exceptions,  all  the  water  used  for  town  or 
household  supply  comes  more  or  less  directly  from  that  which  falls  from 
the  atmosphere,  as  rain  or  snow. 

The  course  of  the  rain  when  it  reaches  the  earth,  after  its  passage 
through  the  atmosphere,  depends,  in  great  measure,  upon  the  character 
of  the  surface  upon  which  it  falls.  If  the  region  is  rocky,  the  water  may 
find  its  way,  by  means  of  torrents  and  small  brooks,  directly  into  the 
open  watercourses,  or  into  ponds;  or,  if  the  rain  falls  upon  the  outcrop 
of  inclined  strata,  it  may  sink  through  seams  and  fissures  of  the  rock,  and 
disappear  from  the  surface  to  accumulate  in  some  lower  stratum,  or  to 
form  underground  streams,  which  may  appear  again  to  the  light  in  less 
elevated  regions.  If  the  ground  is  sandy  and  gravelly  in  character,  the 
water  soaks  readily  into  it,  and,  if  the  underlying  stratum  is  impervious, 
collects  to  form  the  ground-water  of  the  locality.  This  ground-water,  as 
will  appear  more  fully  hereafter,  is  generally  in  motion  toward  a  lower 
level,  and  may  emerge  as  actual  springs  of  small  volume,  or  may  issue, 
unobserved,  to  swell  the  volume  of  rivers  and  ponds. 

On  Hain-ioater  as  a  Source  of  Supply. 

It  is  not  likely  that  propositions  will  be  seriously  entertained  in  this 
country  to  supply  by  municipal  enterprise  any  town  or  city  with  water 
collected  directly  as  it  falls  from  the  clouds.  Plans  to  this  end  have,  it  is 
true,  been  proposed,^  but  it  would  be  impossible  in  this  way  to  collect 
enough  water  to  supply  more  than  what  would  be  necessary  for  drinking 
and  for  culinary  purposes,  and  the  disadvantages  of  a  double  system  of 
water-supply  have  already  been  spoken  of.  There  are  regions,  however,  in 
this  and  in  other  countries,  where  the  main  dependence  of  the  inhabitants 
for  the  water  used  in  the  household  is,  of  necessity,  the  rain-water  col- 
lected and  stored  in  some  sort  of  tanks  or  cisterns.  Where  this  is  neces- 
sary, it  is  usual  for  the  individual  householder  to  secure  his  own  supply  by 
collecting  the  rain  (and  snow)  which  falls  upon  his  own  premises.  A 
house  40  feet  by  20  feet,  i.  e.,  covering  800  square  feet,  would  receive 
upon  its  roof,  with  a  rainfall  of  42  inches,  2,800  cubic  feet  of  water  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  This  Avould  be  about  21,000  gallons,  or  about  60  gal- 
lons per  day  on  the  average. 

The  rain-water  which  falls  in  the  open  country,  away  from  manufactur- 

'  Ormsby,  A.  S.:  A  New  Idea  for  ;the  Water-supply  of  Towns,  etc.,  pamphlet,  pp. 
42,  London,  1867. 


ON"    DKINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       225 

ing  centres,  is  quite  pure,  and,  no  doubt,  wholesome,  although  some  regard 
the  absence  of  mineral  salts  as  a  disadvantage.  Rain-water,  however,  as 
ordinarily  collected,  often  contains  as  much  solid  matter  in  solution  as  the 
waters  of  some  of  the  ponds  or  lakes  which  are  used  as  sources  of  supply. 
The  Rivers  Pollution  Commission  in  England  examined  a  large  number 
of  samples  of  rain  collected  at  the  experimental  farm  of  Messrs.  Lawes  and 
Gilbert,  about  twenty-five  miles  from  London.  The  average  amount  of 
dissolved  solid  matter  in  some  seventy  specimens  was  very  nearly  4 
parts  in  100,000,  although  on  one  occasion  as  little  as  0.62  part  in  100,000 
was  found.  The  rain  which  falls  in  towns  is  more  impure,  as,  in  its  pas- 
sage to  the  ground,  it  takes  up  from  the  air  both  gaseous  and  solid  sub- 
stances./ Moreover,  as  usually  collected  from  the  roofs  of  houses,  it 
becomes  contaminated  with  various  objectionable  substances,  such  as  the 
dust  of  the  street  and  the  excrement  of  birds.  The  greater  amount  of  the 
impurity  in  the  air  and  on  the  collecting  surfaces  is  washed  away  by  the 
first  portion  of  the  rain,  and  it  has  been  j)roposed  to  arrange  the  spouts  so 
as  to  allow  the  first  portion  of  water  falling  to  run  to  waste.  Devices  to 
accomplish  this  object  have  been  invented,  and  it  is  said  that  in  Cadiz  ' 
the  water  conductors  of  each  house  are  furnished  with  an  arrangement  to 
accomplish  this  object.  As  they  are  not  automatic,  it  is  safe  to  suppose 
tliat,  in  spite  of  these  devices,  a  good  deal  of  dirty  water  is  collected — un- 
less Cadiz  is  very  different  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  rain-water  is  extremely  soft,  it  will  probably 
always  be  collected  for  washing,  except  when  the  general  water-supply 
is  also  very  soft.  If  it  is  to  be  used  for  drinking,  especial  care  should 
be  taken  in  storing  it,  and  it  should,  as  a  rule,  be  filtered.  Many  exami- 
nations have  s^own  that,  as  rain-water  is  usually  stored,  it  is  subject  to 
contamination  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Open  cisterns  built  in  cellars  are 
certain  to  collect  dust  and  insects,  and  occasionally  rats  and  mice;  wooden 
cisterns,  sometimes  wet  and  sometimes  dry,  are  subject  to  decay,  and  to 
vegetable  growth;  lead-lined  tanks  give  up  to  the  water  metallic  poison. 
For  the  storage  of  water  in  small  quantity,  there  is  nothing  better,  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view,  than  slate  tanks,  and  no  objection  can  be  offered  to 
iron  tanks  protected  from  rusting  by  a  coal-tar  paint.  The  small  storage- 
tanks  will  usually  be  situated  at  the  top  of  the  house,  in  order  that  the 
water  may  be  delivered  by  gravity  to  the  various  apartments.  Being 
used  to  supply  water  for  flushing  the  water-closets,  these  tanks  are  some- 
times in  communication  with  the  drains  of  the  house,  and  instances  are 
on  record  where  the  water  had  been  rendered  impure  by  the  gases  from 
the  soil-pipes.  The  main  bulk  of  the  rain-water  collected  on  the  roofs  of 
the  houses  is  usually  stored  in  underground  cisterns  built  of  brick  laid  in 
cement.  These  underground  cisterns  are  unobjectionable,  provided  they 
are  properly  protected  and  are  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  ready  cleaning. 

It  may  not  here  be  out  of  place  to  allude  to  the  method  of  collecting 
and  storing  rain-water  in  the  peculiarly  situated  city  of  Venice. 

^  Ferreira  :  Hydrolo^e  generale,  Paris,  1867,  p.  128. 
Vol.  I.— 15 


226      ON   DKIISTKING-WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 


The  situation  of  the  city  prohibits  the  construction  of  ordinary  wells, 
although  of  late  years  a  number  of  artesian  wells  have  been  sunk.  The 
cisterns  have  always  been  an  important  source  of  supply;  these  are  con- 
structed as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 


5       '  ID  20  30 

Fig.  1, — Section  of  rain-water  cistern  at  Venice. 

An  excavation  is  made  in  the  soil  as  deep  as  practicable,  generally 
about  ten  feet,  and  a  brick  floor  and  walls  are  built  with  a  backing  of 
puddled  clay,  so  as  to  be  water-tight.  The  walls  are  sometimes  vertical, 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  and  sometimes  they  slope  outward.  A  well-hole 
is  built  of  brick,  water-tight  except  at  the  bottom,  where  openings  are 
left.  The  cistern  is  then  filled  with  sand,  and  drains  are  constructed  as 
shown  in  the  figure,  to  collect  and  distribute  the  rain-water  which  runs 
from  the  houses  and  falls  upon  the  streets  and  courtyards.  The  water  is 
thus  subjected  to  filtration  through  sand,  and,  as  there  are  no  draught- 
animals  in  Venice,  the  street-wash  is  not  as  bad  as  it  would  be  in  other 
places.  The  sand,  being  fine,  holds  the  water  and  delivers  it  gradually 
into  the  well-hole.  Of  course,  the  cistern  must  be  made  larger  than  would 
otherwise  be  necessary,  because  the  sand  itself  must  occupy  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  space,  and  thus  leave  only  about  one-third  for  the 
storage  of  water.  ^ 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  rain-water  which  is  used  for  drinking 
should  be  filtered,  but  it  will  perhaps  be  better  to  discuss  the  subject  of 

'  Water  for  drinking  has  also  been  brought  from  the  main -land  in  boats,  and  a  few 
years  ago  a  project  was  under  discussion  for  introducing  water  by  an  aqueduct.  The 
figure  of  the  cistern,  Fig.  1,  is  taken  from  Hagen's  Wasserbaukunst. 


ON    DRINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       227 

household  filtration,  after  we  have  considered  other  means  of  supply,  for, 
however  much  Ave  may  deplore  the  fact,  it  is,  and  probably  always  will  be 
true,  that  much  of  the  water  supplied  by  public  works  requires  filtration 
in  the  household. 

We  have  seen  that,  as  far  as  the  question  of  a  general  water-supply  is 
concerned,  it  is  not  at  present  practicable  to  collect  the  rain  as  it  falls,  and, 
consequently,  from  a  limited  district,  but  that  we  must  allow  it  to  fall  upon 
the  ground,  and  then  take  water  which  is  collected  over  what  may  be, 
comparatively,  a  very  wide  area.  We  pass  now  to  our  second  division 
of  available  sources  of  water-supply,  namely,  surface-waters,  including 
streams  and  rivers. 

/ 

On  Hwers  as  a  Source  of  iSiq^pl)/. 

Many  rivers  begin  with  the  clear  mountain  streams  of  pure  water  flow- 
ing over  a  rocky  bed,  dwindling  in  the  heat  of  summer,  and  increasing  to 
torrents  in  the  time  of  rain,  or  in  the  spring  when  the  snows  are  melting. 
Others  issue  from  a  marsh,  or  from  a  forest,  where  the  vegetable  accumu- 
lations many  feet  in  thickness  hold  the  water  like  a  sponge,  and  gradually 
allow  it  to  drain  away.' 

As  the  river  flows,  it  receives  constant  accessions  to  its  volume,  not 
•only  from  tributary  streams,  but  also  from  the  ground- water,  which,  espe- 
cially in  gravelly  or  sandy  regions-,  is  continually  passing  into  it.  Occa- 
sionally a  river,  passing  over  the  outcrop  of  upturned  rocky  strata,  loses  a 
portion  of  its  water  or  disappears  altogether;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  increases 
in  size  from  its  source  to  the  sea,  in  spite  of  the  evaporation  which  takes 
place  from  its  surface. 

The  water,  in  its  passage  over  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
dissolves  both  mineral  and  vegetable  matters.  Few  rocks  or  mineral  de- 
posits are  absolutely  unaffected  by  water:  on  some,  water — especially 
natural  water  charged  with  more  or  less  carbonic  acid — exerts  a  solvent 
action ;  others  are  decomposed,  and  yield  new  compounds  to  the  water,  so 
that  the  water  of  rivers  and  lakes  varies  very  greatly,  according  to  the 
situation  or  geological  character  of  the  location.  It  is  further  true  that 
the  water  of  the  same  stream  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  from 
time  to  time. 

There  are  a  number  of  objections  to  the  use  of  river-water  for  domestic 
supply.  One  objection  is  the  high  temperature  which  the  water  acquires 
in  summer.  In  this  country  we  do  not  lay  much  stress  upon  this  point, 
as  the  use  of  ice  is  so  general,  and  it  would,  indeed,  be  quite  impracti- 
cable in  many  cases  to  insist  upon  obtaining  a  water  of  anything  like  a 
uniform  temperature  the  year  round.  Most  streams  are  open  to  the  objec- 
tion that  they  are  liable  to  become  turbid  at  certain  seasons,  especially  in 
tunes  of  freshet,  and  are  also  liable  to  become  colored  when  the  stream 


'  See,  for  example,  a  recent  article  on  the  "  Water- Supply  of  Rivers,"  by  George 
Cahoon,  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  for  July,  1878. 


228      02^    DEINKING -WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

flows  through  a  peaty  region.  The  most  hnportant  objection  is  their 
liability  to  pollution  by  becoming  carriers  of  manufacturing  refuse  or  of 
the  sewage  of  towns:  this  objection  we  will  j)roceed  to  discuss  somewhat 
fnUy. 

It  is  ver}^  obvious  "why  a  flowing  stream  should  be  considered  the 
natural  carrier  of  all  waste  matters  which,  in  solution  or  in  suspension, 
can  be  borne  along  by  the  current.  Unfortunately,  the  condition  of  many 
streams  in  England,  and  that  of  a  few  in  our  own  country,  show  that 
there  are  those,  ignorant  or  reckless,  who  do  not  hesitate  to  throw  all  sorts 
of  insoluble  and  heavy  refuse  into  the  beds  of  streams,  regardless  of  the 
shoaling  of  the  channel  or  such  alteration  of  the  bed  and  banks  as  leads 
to  destructive  inundations  and  other  inconveniences. 

In  our  own  country  we  know  comparatively  little  of  the  pollution  of 
rivers.  In  England,  however,  owing  to  the  density  of  the  population 
and  the  variety  and  extent  of  the  manufacturing  establishments,  many  of 
the  streams  are  in  a  fearful  condition. 

The  folloAving  is  a  quotation  from  one  of  the  English  reports  with 
reference  to  the  rivers  Aire  and  Calder  : 

"  The  rivers  Aire  and  Calder  and  their  tributaries  are  abused  b}^  pass- 
ing into  them  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  per  annum  of  ashes,  slag, 
and  cinders,  from  steam-boilers,  furnaces,  iron-works,  and  domestic  fires  ; 
by  their  being  made  the  receptacle,  to  a  vast  extent,  of  broken  pottery 
and  worn-out  utensils  of  metal,  refuse  brick  from  brick -yards  and  old 
buildings,  earth,  stone,  and  clay  from  quarries  and  excavations,  road- 
scrapings,  street-sweejjings,  etc.;  by  spent  dye-woods  and  other  solids 
used  in  the  treatment  of  worsteds  and  woollens;  by  hundreds  of  carcasses 
of  animals,  as  dogs,  cats,  pigs,  etc.,  which  are  allowed  to  float  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  streams  or  putrefy  on  their  banks  ;  and  by  the  flowing  in,  to 
the  amount  of  very  many  millions  of  gallons  per  day,  of  water  poisoned, 
corrupted,  and  clogged  by  refuse  from  mines,  chemical  works,  dyeing, 
scouring,  and  fulling  worsted  and  Avoollen  stuffs,  skin-cleaning  and  tan- 
ning, slaughter-house  garbage,  and  the  sewage  of  towns  and  houses."  ' 

"SYe  have  very  few  rivers  in  the  United  States  of  which  such  a  de- 
scription could  be  given,  although  in  some  of  the  more  thickly  settled 
parts  of  the  country,  there  are  instances  of  streams  which  have  become 
hopelessly  foul. 

Of  course,  the  substances  which,  as  refuse  from  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, or  from  the  household,  find  their  way  into  running  streams, 
are  of  very  diverse  sanitary  importance  ;  some  of  them  are  such  as  to  be 
universally  regarded  as  unfit  to  admit  to  any  stream — those,  for  instance, 
containing  lead,  arsenic,  etc. ;  but  a  large  amount  of  refuse  material  is  of 
such  a  character  as  to  be,  excejDt  in  excessive  quantities,  of  no  api^reciable 
influence  on  the  human  system.  Many  waste  liquors,  which  ajDpear  to 
be  very  offensive,  contain  in  reality  very  little  of  anj'thing  actually  injuri- 


'  Third  Report  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  to  iaquire  into  the  best  Means  of 
preventing  the  Pollution  of  Rivers  (Aire  and  Calder),  1867,  Vol.  I.,  p.  11. 


ON   DEINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       229 

ous — such,  for  example,  are  spent  dye-liquors  ;  they  communicate  a  very 
foul  appearance  to  the  water  for  some  distance,  yet  contain  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  solid  matter,  and,  if  discharged  into  a  stream  of 
considerable  size,  are  soon  disseminated  through  it,  and  diluted  to  a  very 
great  extent. 

The  compounds  of  soda,  potash,  lime,  etc.,  which  go  to  waste  are,  as  a 
rule,  harmless.  In  fact,  it  sometimes  happens  that,  if  the  stream  is  already 
somewhat  polluted,  positive  advantage  may  come  from  the  refuse  of  some 
manufacturing  operations.  Thus,  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  discharged 
into  a  stream  polluted  with  sewage  might  actually  improve  the  water,  al- 
though it  would  not  make  it  fit  to  drink.  Much  dejDends,  of  course,  upon 
the  size  of  the  stream  into  which  the  refuse  is  thrown.  Thus,  it  has  been 
calculated  that  into  the  Merrimack  river,,  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  even  during 
the  summer,  it  would  be  necessary  to  throw  more  than  100  tons  of  solid 
matter  daily  in  order  to  increase  the  amount  in  the  water  by  one  grain 
to  the  gallon;  but  another  and  smaller  stream  might  be  hopelessly  fouled 
by  a  single  factory. 

Different  in  character,  however,  from  much  of  the  refuse  of  manufac- 
turing establishments  is  the  sewage  coming  from  dwellings,  or  the  sewage 
(in  its  more  restricted  sense,  of  excremental  matter  from  animal  sources) 
which  comes  from  factories.  In  fact,  this  foul  material  coming  from 
establishments  employing  a  large  number  of  operatives,  is  likely,  in  many 
cases,  to  have  a  more  injurious  effect  upon  the  stream  into  which  it  is 
thrown  than  the  refuse  from  the  manufacturing  operations.  There  are, 
however,  some  branches  of  industry  which  discharge  refuse  material  offen- 
sive and  dangerous  to  health ;  such  material  is  discharged  from  tanneries, 
wool-pulling  and  hide-dressing  establishments,  slaughter-houses,  and  ren- 
dering-houses. With  the  present  feeling  of  the  liability  of  injury  from 
the  presence  of  decomposing  organic  matter  in  drinking-water,  and  of  the 
possibility  of  the  propagation  of  specific  diseases  by  excremental  matter 
thus  introduced  into  the  system,  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
importance  of  preventing  the  discharge  of  such  refuse  and  of  sewage  in 
its  more  restricted  sense  into  any  stream  or  pond  used,  or  likely  to  be  used, 
as  a  source  of  water-supply. 

The  difficulties  at  present  in  the  way  of  the  satisfactory  purification  or 
utilization  of  sewage  and  of  many  forms  of  manufacturing  refuse,  make  it 
impossible  absolutely  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  all  such  matter  into  run- 
ning streams,  and  it  seems  inevitable  that  certain  streams  should  be  sacri- 
ficed and  allowed  to  serve  as  carriers  of  waste.  Of  course  there  must  be 
a  limit  even  here,  and  the  stream  should  not  be  allowed  to  approach  the 
condition  of  the  Aire  and  Calder,  mentioned  above,  and  tlius  become  an 
actual  nuisance. 

The  use  of  the  same  stream  as  a  carrier  of  waste  and  as  a  source  of 
supply  is  to  be  deprecated,  and,  on  this  account,  it  is  manifestly  unjust 
that  one  town  should  be  allowed,  at  its  own  option,  to  discharge  its  sewage 
into  a  stream  which,  lower  down  in  its  course,  would  otherwise  afford 
suitable    drinking-water   to   other    towns.      If    certain    streams   must  be 


230      ON    DEIJSTKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATEK-SUPPLIES. 

devoted  to  the  baser  use,  this  should  be  done  by  convention  or  bv  some 
central  authority.  Indeed,  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  if  the  entire 
question  of  water-supply  and  disposal  of  sewage  for  a  certain  drainage 
area  or  water-shed  were  under  direction  of  some  central  board  or  some  one 
officer.  The  kingdom  of  Wtirtemberg,  with  its  area  of  7,500  square  miles, 
took  a  step  in  this  direction  in  the  year  1869,  when  it  created  a  new  office, 
that  of  "  Staats-Techniker  filr  offentliche  Wasserwerke."  It  was  made 
the  duty  of  the  Staats-Techniker  to  superintend  the  planning  and  con- 
struction of  all  public  works  for  the  utilization  of  the  available  river  and 
spring  waters,  and  to  advise,  in  matters  of  water-supply,  the  local  authori- 
ties of  any  village,  town  or  city  within  the  kingdom — this  advice  includ- 
ing the  preparation  of  plans  and  estimates,  and  being  without  cost  to  the 
community  asking  the  advice.  We  have  already  alluded  (page  222)  to 
the  water-supply  of  the  district  of  the  "  rauhe  Alb,''''  which  was  one  of 
the  results  of  the  establishment  of  this  office. 

Stelf-piirijication  of  'Water. 

But  it  is  said  that,  even  admitting  the  liability,  or  even  possibility,  of 
injurious  efiPects  following  the  use  of  water  polluted  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree— of  water  which  gives  evidence  to  the  eye  or  to  the  taste  of  the 
presence  of  a  marked  amount  of  impurity — may  not  this  water  subse- 
quently become  suitable  for  use  by  the  action  of  natural  processes  ?  It  is 
indeed  often  stated  that  "  if  sewage  matter  be  mixed  with  twenty  times 
its  bulk  of  ordinary  river-water,  and  flow  a  dozen  miles,  there  is  not  a  par- 
ticle of  that  sewage  to  be  discovered  by  chemical  means."  This  may  be 
true.  The  statement  rests,  however,  upon  a  fallacy  and  an  assumption. 
The  fallacy  consists  in  supposing  that  a  water  to  be  unwholesome  or  dan- 
gerous must  contain  enough  animal  matter  to  be  recognized  readily  by 
chemical  tests — enough,  in  fact,  to  be  expressed  in  figures  ;  the  assump- 
tion is  that  the  injurious  portion  of  the  organic  matter  is  that  which 
undergoes  rapid  decay.  This  last  assumption  may  be  probable,  but  it  is 
by  no  means  proved. 

The  alleged  self-purification  of  running  streams  may  be  investigated 
by  laboratory  experiment  and  by  observation  on  actual  rivers.  By  pass- 
ing water  in  a  small  stream  from  vessel  to  vessel,  the  Rivers  Commission 
in  England  have  shown  that,  not  only  is  a  flow  of  twelve  miles  insufficient 
to  destroy  the  organic  matter  of  sewage  when  mixed  with  water  in  the 
above  proportion  of  one  to  twenty,  but  also  a  flow  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty  miles  is  far  from  sufficing  for  that  purpose.  We  know  very  well 
that  when  an  organic  mixture  like  dilute  sewage  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
decomposition — chemical  change — soon  sets  in,  and  many  of  the  substances 
are  altered  in  character.  It  would,  liowever,  probably  take  an  almost  in- 
finite time  in  a  dilute  solution  for  the  oxidation  to  proceed  far  enough 
for  all  the  nitrogen  and  carbon,  which  are  the  characteristics  of  the  organic 
matter,  to  escape  as  carbonic  acid,  free  nitrogen  or  ammonia,  or  to  remain 
as  inorganic  compounds,  i.  e.,  as  nitrates  and  carbonates.      Some  organic 


ON    DEINKING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       231 


substances  are  readily  decomposed  in  water.  Thus,  urea,  a  compound 
which  occurs  in  urine,  decomposes  so  rapidly  into  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
that  it  is  rarely  found  in  the  most  polluted  waters.  On  the  other  hand, 
bits  of  muscular  fibre,  or  of  epithelium,  will  remain  for  months  in  water 
and  still  be  readily  recognized  under  the  microscope.  Even  substances 
which  decompose  with  rapidity  when  in  a  concentrated  condition,  are  toler- 
ably permanent  when  diluted.  The  Rivers  Pollution  Commission  mixed 
some  urine  with  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  of  urine  to  3,077 
gallons  (imperial)  of  water.  The  mixture  was  agitated  from  time  to  time 
and  samples  taken  for  analysis.  The  results,  expressed  in  parts  in 
100,000,  were  as  follows  : 


Immediately  after  mixture,  Feb.  17,  1874 0.282 


18, 
19, 

24, 

25, 

28, 


Organic 

Organic 

carbon. 

nitrogen 

0.282     . 

..     0.243 

0.298     . 

. .     0  251 

0.244     , 

..     0.255 

0.225     . 

..     0.253 

0.214     . 

..     0.259 

0.214     . 

..     0.276 

In  spite  of  these  experiments,  however,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  some 
chemical  change  does  take  place  in  a  polluted  stream,  and  the  question 
arises,  whether  the  readily  decomposed  substances  are  the  ones  which 
cause  the  injurious  effects  ascribed  to  impure  waters,  or  whether  the  pro- 
ducts of  their  decomposition  or  the  more  permanent  of  the  polluting  sub- 
stances may  be  equally  injurious.  Then,  if  the  germ  theory  is  correct, 
and  if  what  we  know  of  the  permanence  of  other  germs  whose  growth  is 
traceable  can  serve  for  analogy,  we  should  infer  that  these  germs  might 
well  resist  the  action  of  the  air  or  of  the  oxygen  dissolved  in  the 
water. 

If  we  leave  the  laboratory  for  the  field,  we  shall  find  many  streams 
where  the  impurity  seems  to  decrease  as  the  stream  flows  ;  it  is,  however, 
diflBcult  to  find  one  which  flows  for  a  considerable  distance  without  receiv- 
ing tributaries.  Of  the  two  cases  presented  in  the  table  on  the  following 
page,  the  Blackstone  receives  several  unpolluted  afiluents,  and  the  distance 
between  the  extreme  points  on  the  Merrimack  is  only  11  or  12  miles. 

The  Blackstone  receives  nearly  all  the  sewage  of  Worcester,  and  a  few 
miles  below  the  city  it  is  very  foul ;  but  at  Blackstone  it  has  become  quite 
different,  and  has  even  been  proposed  as  a  source  of  water-supply.  Lowell 
and  Lawrence  are  both  large  manufacturing  towns,  and  all  the  liquid 
waste  from  the  factories  and  from  the  cities  themselves  is  discharged  into 
the  Merrimack.  The  question  then  arises:  "What  has  become  of  the  sewage 
of  Worcester,  and  why  does  not  the  Merrimack  show  more  contamination 
from  the  cities  and  manufactories  of  Lawrence  and  Lowell  ? 

The  principal  causes  which  contribute  to  the  apparent  disappearance 
of  the  refuse  received  by  the  river  are  three,  and  these,  in  what  seems  to 
be  the  inverse  order  of  their  importance,  are  oxidation,  deposition,  and 
dilution. 


232      ON   DEINKING- WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

EXAMINATION  OF  FLOWING   STREAMS. 
(Results  expressed  in  parts  per  100,000.) 


Locality. 


11 


Solid  residue. 


Inor-      Organic     Total  TI 

ganic.   I     and  at  .§ 

Volatile.   212°  F.         5 


Blackstone  River. 
(1873.) 

A  few  miles  below  Worcester 0 .  370  0 .  041 

At  Milbury,  about  5  miles  lower  down  on 

the  river 0.025  0.022 

At  Blackstone,  about  20  miles  lower  down  /   0 .  005  0 .  015 

stream [  0.004  0.016 

Merbiiiack  River. 
(1873.) 
Mean  of  11  examinations  above  Lowell. . . .  I0.0047j0.0114 
Mean  of  12  examinations  below  Lowell  and 

above  Lawrence |0. 00440. 0110 

Mean  of  11  examinations  below  Lawrence.  lO.OOSl  0.0127 


9.00     2.70    11.70:  1.60 


3.30 

3.88 
2.76 


3.20 
3.20 
2.33 


2.37  I  1.73 

2.41      1  69 
2.64     1  79 


6.50'-  0.68 


6.08 
5.08 


4.10 

4.10 
4.43 


0.53 
0.40 


0.14 

0.20 
0.18 


Oxidation. — Although  it  is  not  practicable,  in  the  case  of  a  runniiis; 
stream  like  the  Merrimack,  to  trace  the  progress  of  the  destruction  of  the 
organic  material  by  oxidation,  yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  an  appreciable 
amount  is  so  destroyed.  Moreover,  a  considerable  amount  of  the  organic 
matter  is  consumed  by  fishes  and  by  the  microscopic  animals  which  inhabit 
the  water,  or  is  converted  into  simpler  compounds  through  the  agency  of 
plants  of  higher  or  lower  order. 

Deposition. — Much  waste  material  thrown  into  rivers  is  made  up 
wholly  or  in  part  of  substances  insoluble  in  water.  A  portion,  and  a  very 
considerable  portion,  even  in  a  running  stream,  is  deposited  upon  the 
bottom  or  stranded  upon  the  banks.  This  deposition  can  often  be  very 
plainly  observed  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  points  of  dis- 
charge. Other  chemical  changes,  besides  that  of  oxidation  alluded  to 
above,  take  place,  especially  where  the  refuse  is  that  from  manufactories. 
Waste  liquors  from  different  manufacturing  operations  meet  and  cause 
the  formation  of  new  and,  in  many  cases,  insoluble  compounds.  Sup- 
pose, for  instance,  that  we  have  a  wire-working  establishment  or  any 
other  iron-works,  where,  for  any  purpose,  the  iron  is  cleaned  by  sulphuric 
acid,  and,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  copperas,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  is  allowed 
w^holly  or  in  part  to  go  to  waste.  Suppose  there  is  a  tannery  below,  the  spent 
liquors  from  Avhich  run  into  the  same  stream.  The  result  may  be  that  the 
.stream  is  converted  into  ink  by  the  chemical  action  which  takes  place  be- 
tween the  two  waste  liquors;  the  ink  may  be  very  dilute,  to  be  sure,  but 
the  water  might  be  too  black  to  drink  or  to  use  for  any  domestic  purpose. 
If  the  stream  is  discolored  by  this  alone,  it  may  become  perfectly  clear 


ON"   DEINKING-AVATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       233 

again  after  a  flow  of  a  dozen  miles,  or  even  less.  In  such  a  case,  no  doubt, 
the  chief  cause  of  the  clearing  of  the  water  is  the  deposition  of  the  colored 
particles  which  make  up  the  ink.  Every  one  knows  that  some  varieties  of 
ink  become  blacker  on  exposure  to  air.  The  ink  formed  by  mixing  cop- 
peras and  tannery  waste  would  change  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
air,  but  there  would  be  no  considerable  destruction  of  organic  matter;  the 
improvement  in  appearance  would  be  due  to  subsidence. 

There  are  a  great  many  substances  which,  when  treated  with  water, 
form  a  sort  of  imperfect  solution;  the  resulting  mixture  appears  to  be 
transparent,  as  though  the  solution  were  perfect,  but  the  substances 
themselves  are  readily  removed  from  the  solution  by  forces  which  seem  to 
be  mechanical,  especially  by  adhesion  to  other  substances  where  no  chemi- 
cal action  can  be  distinguished.  This  is  especially  true  of  organic  sub- 
stances, and  it  is  well  known  that  almost  any  finely  divided  solid  matter, 
as  it  deposits  in  a  solution  of  organic  coloring  matter,  will  drag  down 
more  or  less  of  the  coloring  matter  with  it.  Such  a  deposition  is  continu- 
ally going  on  in  rivers  and  ponds. 

Dilution. — By  far  the  most  important  reason  of  the  apparent  disap- 
pearance of  sewage  and  other  waste  auaterial,  is  the  fact  that  the  amount  of 
solid  matter  is  so  small,  compared  with  the  volume  of  water  into  which  it  is 
thrown,  that  it  is  disseminated  through  the  mass,  and  thus  lost  to  observa- 
tion, and,  in  many  cases,  to  chemical  tests.  If  we  refer  to  the  table  on  page 
232,  and  compare  the  results  obtained  in  the  examination  of  the  Merrimack 
river  above  and  below  Lawrence,  we  shall  not  find  any  such  increase  in 
the  amount  of  organic  matter  as  we  should  anticipate  from  a  knowledge 
of  the  fact  that  between  these  two  points  the  river  receives  the  refuse 
from  nearly  all  the  manufacturing  establishments,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  excreta  of  the  factory  operatives,  and  a  portion  of  the  sewage  of  Law- 
rence. Moreover,  when  the  examinations  were  made,  the  lower  station  was 
so  short  a  distance  below  the  city,  that  no  chemist,  probably,  would  believe 
that  any  considerable  destruction  of  organic  matter  could  take  place  in 
the. rapid  flow  for  so  short  a  distance;  and  if,  from  chemical  grounds,  the 
evidence  was  not  sufficient,  the  floating  soap-suds,  with  still  unbroken 
bubbles,  and  other  materials  borne  down  upon  the  current,  showed  the 
same  thing.  Here,  at  any  rate,  dilution  must  be  supposed  to  play  a  very 
important  part,  as  may  be  also  shown  by  considering  the  relative  amounts 
at  the  two  points  of  some  inorganic  constituent  which  could  not  decrease 
in  amount,  except  as  a  result  of  dilution.  Such  a  constituent  we  have  in 
chlorine,  compounds  of  which  (especially  chloride  of  sodium — common  salt) 
occur  in  all  sewage  and  in  most  forms  of  manufacturing  refuse.  All  the 
chlorine  used  in  the  process  of  bleaching  is  eventually  washed  away,  and 
that  contained  in  the  various  compounds  of  this  element  which  are  used  in 
dye-houses  and  print-works,  finds  its  way  in  the  end  into  the  drains  of  the 
establishments. 

Now,  although  large  quantities  of  chlorine  compounds  are  thrown  into 
the  river  at  Lawrence,  yet  there  is  no  apparent  increase  of  the  proportion 
of  chlorine  in  the  water  below  the  city.     In  this  case  we  have  a  substance 


234      ON    DEINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

readily  traced.  The  chlorine  cannot  escape  from  the  river  in  gaseous 
form,  nor  does  it  deposit  in  insoluble  combination,  and  yet  the  first  in- 
spection of  the  analytical  results  would  lead,  perhaps,  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  was  no  real  increase  of  impurity.  From  these  considerations 
it  is  evident  that  in  the  case  of  the  soluble  organic  matter  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  any  destruction  or  decomposition;  the  apparent  decrease 
or  lack  of  increase  may  be  explained,  as  in  the  case  of  chlorine,  by  the 
fact  of  dilution;  and  where  the  distance  between  the  two  points  of  ex- 
amination is  so  short,  as  in  the  instance  now  under  discussion  (above  and 
below  Lawrence),  this  is  no  doubt  the  main  cause  concerned. 

From  a  calculation  made  in  1873,^  it  appears  that,  even  in  summer, 
when  the  river  is  at  its  lowest,  as  much  as  100  tons  of  dry  material  would 
have  to  be  thrown  daily  into  the  river,  in  order  to  increase  the  solid 
matter  in  solution  to  the  extent  of  one  grain  to  the  gallon.  From  this 
we  can  see  how  large  an  amount  of  refuse  matter  could  be  thrown  in  with- 
out producing  a  noticeable  effect,  for  the  volume  of  water  is  continually 
increasing  as  the  stream  flows  on;  moreover,  this  100  tons  of  dry  refuse 
stands  for  an  enormous  amount  of  such  material  as  is  actually  discharged. 
The  waste  liquors  from  many  manufacturing  operations  are  very  dilute, 
and  although  sometimes  the  stream  into  which  the  refuse  is  poured  is 
colored  for  a  considerable  distance,  yet  the  actual  amount  of  solid  coloring 
matter  may  not  be  very  large.  With  reference  to  sewage  matter  proper, 
it  may  be  said  that  urine  contains  only  about  4  per  cent,  of  solid  mat- 
ter, faeces  only  about  27  to  30  per  cent.,  and  the  mean  amount  of  dissolved 
solids  in  Boston  day-sewage  was,  in  1872,  only  six  one-hundredths  of  one 
per  cent.  (0.06  per  cent.). 

It  would  appear  from  what  precedes,  that  there  is  liability  of  over- 
rating the  amount  of  spontaneous  purification  to  which  a  running  stream 
is  subject,  and  it  is  certain  that  we  cannot  decide  with  confidence  as  to 
when  a  stream,  once  polluted,  becomes  fit  to  drink;  moreover,  as  it  is  not 
possible  by  any  practicable  chemical  treatment  or  by  any  process  of  filtra- 
tion to  make  a  polluted  water  wholesome,  it  is  safer  not  to  use  as  a  source 
of  domestic  supply  a  water  which  is  known  to  have  been  seriously  pol- 
luted. 

On  Ponds  and  Lakes  as  a  Source  of  Supply. 

In  the  general  character  of  the  water,  ponds  and  lakes  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  rivers,  and  on  some  accounts  they  are  to  be  preferred  to 
rivers  as  sources  of  supply,  especially  because  they  are  less  likely  to  be 
turbid  from  time  to  time,  and  are  also  less  liable  to  become  polluted.  The 
running  streams  furnish  advantages  in  the  way  of  water-power,  and  afford 
a  ready  means  of  disposing  quickly  of  waste  substances,  so  that  their  banks 
are  more  likely  than  the  shores  of  a  pond  to  become  the  seat  of  manu- 
facturing industries. 


I  See  Report  of  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health,  1874,  p.  80. 


ON    DKINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATEK-SUPPLIES.       235 

In  preferring  lakes  or  great  ponds  to  rivers  as  sources  of  sujjply,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  objection  is  not  to  the  river  as  such.  A 
river  may,  considered  by  itself,  afford  a  most  excellent,  a  jjerfectly  unob- 
jectionable, supply  of  water.  Its  sources  may  be  clear  and  pure  moun- 
tain-streams; it  may  flow  over  a  rocky  or  gravelly  bed,  uncontaminated 
by  refuse  from  the  habitations  and  factories  of  men,  and  free,  or  nearly 
so,  from  vegetable  matter;  it  may  be  so  situated  that  no  liquid  refuse 
finds  its  way  to  it,  without  being  first  purified  by  filtration  through  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  natural  soil.  In  this  case  no  objection  can  be  made  to 
using  the  water  for  all  domestic  purposes.  On  the  other  hand,  a  pond  or 
lake  may  be,  in  itself,  a  very  objectionable  source  of  supply,  especially  if 
so  situated  as  to  receive  direct  drainage,  or  if  fed  by  streams  which  are 
used  as  sewers.  It  is  an  indispensable  condition  in  the  choice  of  any 
stream  or  lake  as  a  source  of  water-supply,  that  the  source  should  not 
only  be  free  from  actual  present  contamination,  but  should  also  be  so 
situated  as  to  render  it  possible  to  protect  it  from  contamination  in  the 
future. 

There  is  one  trouble  to  which  the  water  of  ponds  is  much  more  liable 
than  that  of  rivers,  namely,  to  growths  of  minute  vegetable  organisms. 
This  is  a  matter  which  concerns  especially  the  water-supply  of  the  East- 
ern and  Middle  States,  where  the  preference  is  for  a  very  soft  water,  and 
where  surface-water  from  natural  or  artificial  ponds  is  largely  employed. 
No  natural  water  which  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  light,  whether  in  pond 
or  river,  is  ever  entirely  free  from  vegetable  and  animal  life,  but  the  lower 
orders,  both  of  animals  and  plants,  flourish  most  abundantly  in  still  water. 
If  the  water  is  at  the  same  time  shallow,  so  as  to  be  readily  warmed  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  growth  may  be  very  luxuriant. 

We  are  not  now  concerned  with  the  j^lants  of  higher  order,  many  of 
which  live  in  the  water.  The  plants  which  are  known  as  eel-grass,  pond- 
weed,  j)ickerel-weed,  etc.,  which  have  roots  and  leaves,  and  also  at  the 
proper  season  flowers,  are  in  themselves,  while  growing,  of  no  disadvan- 
tage to  the  pond  or  reservoir  in  which  they  grow. 

There  are  also  many  harmless  plants  which  rank  much  lower  in  the 
scale.  Such  are  the  so-called  "  confervoid  "  growths,  caused  by  jDlants  of 
filamentous  structure,  grass-green,  or  in  some  cases  bluish-green  in  color, 
forming  tangled  masses  readily  removed  from  the  water,  and,  when  so  re- 
moved, shrinking-  enormously  in  apparent  bulk,  and  drying  away  to  a 
grayish  or  colorless  mass,  in  some  cases  looking  almost  like  coarse  paper. 
These  belong  to  the  class  of  cryptogamous  (non-flowering)  plants  which 
the  botanists  call  algai — plants  which  grow  in  the  water,  or  in  moist 
places,  and  usually  contain  chlorophyll  {green  coloring  matter)  or  some 
allied  substance.  Plants  of  this  character  grow  in  almost  all  reservoirs, 
or  other  bodies  of  water  exposed  to  the  light  and  air,  both  in  still  and 
running  water;  they  either  float  about  in  masses,  or  are  attached  more  or 
less  firmly  to  rocks  and  stones  and  other  solid  objects.  By  their  growth 
they  do  no  harm  to  the  water  in  which  they  flourish  ;  and  as  they  are 
readily  arrested  by  ordinary  wire  screens,  or  easily  removed  by  rakes  or 


236      ON   DRINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-SUPPLEES. 

scoop-nets,  their  presence  causes  no  serious  inconvenience  in  water  used 
for  town-supply. 

Fig.  2  shows  several  sorts  of  these  algee  as  they  appear  when  mag-- 
nified:  a  is  a  spirogyra ;  b  a  zyg?iema  ;  and  c  an  oedogonium  ;  the  first 


Fig.  8. 

two  being  shown  in  the  process  of  conjugation.  The  different  species  oc- 
cur of  a  variety  of  sizes.  These  particular  specimens  are  magnified  be- 
tween 80  and  100  diameters. 

The  vegetable  organisms  which  cause  the  most  trouble  and  inconve 
nience  are  those  which  appear  as  greenish  specks,  or  minute  straight  or 
curved  threads,  diffused  through  the  water — visible  enough  if  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water  be  looked  at,  but  perhaps  almost  escaping  notice  in  the 
small  quantity  which  would  be  taken  up  in  a  single  glass.  It  is  true  that 
the  individual  plants  are  in  some  cases  distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye; 
but  their  form  and  structure  can  be  made  out  only  by  use  of  the  micro- 
scope. If  collected  together  as  a  scum,  which  often  happens,  especially 
on  the  windward  shore  of  a  pond,  the  scum  is  not  coherent,  is  easily 
broken  up,  either  by  a  wind  setting  in  the  opposite  direction,  by  a  shower 
of  rain,  or  by  artificial  agitation.  The  appearance  has  been  sometimes 
described  as  that  of  meal  or  of  fine  dust  scattered  through  the  water. 
The  number  of  individuals  is  almost  infinite;  and  under  favorable  condi- 
tions they  increase  with  great  rapidity.     Their  presence  gives  a  decidedly 


ON    DKINKING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       287 

green  or  greenish  yellow  tinge  to  large  bodies  of  water;  and.  their  death 
and  decay  often  cause  considerable  offence  to  the  sense  of  smell  of  those 
sojourning  in  the  neighborhood,  and  to  the  sense  of  taste  of  those  obliged 
to  drink  the  water. 

While  very  many  species  of  the  minute  algce  j)resent  this  general  ap- 
pearance, the  number  of  species  which  are  known  to  increase  to  such  a 
great  extent  as  to  comj)letely  fill  the  waters  of  ponds  of  many  acres  area, 
and  to  cause  sensible  inconvenience,  is  comparatively  small — the  most 
common  in  New  England  seeming  to  be  the  Clathrocystis  mrughiosa  /  but 
certain  plants  referable  to  the  N'ostocJmiece  are  not  uncommon  alone,  or 
in  company  with  the  Clathrocystis. 


Fig. 


Fig.  3,  c  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  Clathrocys- 
tis mruginosa  when  magnified  some  300  diameters.  This  plant  is  often 
found  in  much  larger  masses  than  indicated  in  the  cut;  in  fact,  the  little 
sack-like  masses  are  sometimes  large  enough  to  be  made  out  by  the  un- 
aided eye,  although  no  idea  of  the  structure  can  be  thus  obtained.  Fig. 
3,  a  attempts  to  give  an  idea  of  the  Anahcena  circinalis,  one  of  the 
NostochinecB  ;  this  plant  occurs  very  frequently  in  ponds  and  in  sluggish 
streams.  Another  common  variety  of  the  same  genus  is  similar,  except 
that  the   filaments   are  straight,  instead  of  curved;  and  there   are   other 


238      ON    DRINKING -AVATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

genera  of  algm  which  occur  in  the  same  way  as  the  Anahana,  and  present 
a  similar  appearance. 

There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  jDresence  of  these  minute  algcp^ 
gives  an  unwholesome  ^  character  to  the  water;  and  the  inconvenience 
caused  by  their  presence  and  decay  is  fortunately  of  short  duration, 
being,  as  a  rule,  for  only  a  few  weeks  of  the  year.  They  are  not  a  sign 
of  impurity,  as  they  grow  in  jDonds  which  are  far  removed  from  all  sources 
of  contamination;  still  a  jDond  known  to  be  subject  to  such  growths  would 
be,  on  this  account,  less  desirable  as  a  source  of  supply.  There  is  no  means 
known  of  preventing  the  growth,  but  by  a  properly- conducted  filtration 
the  water  may  be  made  much  more  acceptable  to  the  eye  and  to  the  taste. 

Impoundmg  reservoirs. — Many  towns  in  this  country,  some  in  Eng- 
land, and  a  very  few  on  the  continent,  supply  themselves  with  water  from 
artificial  ponds  made  generally  by  damming  a  brook  or  small  stream  which 
flows  through  a  valley,  across  which  a  dam  can  be  conveniently  and  safely 
built.  Streams  which  seem  to  the  uneducated  eye  altogether  inadequate 
are  thus  made  to  furnish  a  uniform  and  considerable  sujDply.  The  disad- 
vantage of  this  method  is  that  the  reservoirs  are  very  often  made  by  flood- 
ing land  which  is  under  cultivation,  or,  at  any  rate,  covered  with  more  or 
less  vegetable  growth.  The  land-plants  being  killed  by  submersion,  under- 
go decay  and  communicate  to  the  water  for  some  time  an  unpleasant  appear- 
ance and  a  disagreeable  taste.  Again,  in  such  new-made  reservoirs,  it  is 
apt  to  happen  that  there  is  a  considerable  portion  about  the  edges  of  the 
pond  where  the  water  is  very  shallow,  and  where,  consequently,  there  is 
opportunity  for  the  growth  and  subsequent  deca}^  of  aquatic  plants.  It 
would  be  a  great  advantage  if  in  these  reservoirs  there  were  never  less 
than  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  of  water,  although  even  if  this  were,  in  all 
cases,  practicable,  it  would  not  prevent  the  growth  of  minute  algfe  such 
as  have  been  described  as  of  frequent  occurrence  in  natural  ponds.  These 
artificial  ponds,  as  time  passes,  become  more  and  more  like  natural  ponds 
fed  by  surface-waters,  and  are  open  to  the  same  general  objections  and 
require  the  same  care  to  protect  them  from  polluting  influences. 

On  the  Ground-  Water  as  a  Source  of  Supply. 

Whenever  the  rain  falls  upon  a  deposit  of  sand  or  gravel,  or  other 
material  which  affords  little  resistance  to  the  passage  of  water,  it  quickly 
disappears  from  view,  and  if  there  be  an  underlying  impervious  stratum, 
such  as  of  clay,  the  water  accumulates  above  it  to  form  what  is  called 
the  ground-ioater  of  the  locality.  The  distance  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground  to  the  surface  of  the  water  in  any  particular  place  is  dependent  in 

'  There  is  one  case  on  record  where  cattle  have  been  killed  hj  drinking  pond-water 
which  contained  large  quantities  of  a  species  of  Nodulnria.  a  plant  which  has  some- 
thing of  a  resemblance  to  the  Anali(ena.  (See  Nature,  XVIII.,  1878.  p.  11.)  This  was 
in  Australia.  No  such  cases  have  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  -writer  here.  When 
the  algce  are  alive  and  fresh,  horses  and  cattle  drink  the  water  readily,  in  preference  to 
spring-water  :  when  decay  takes  place,  the  water  sometimes  becomes  so  offensive  that 
they  refuse  to  drink  it.     In  this  condition  it  is  manifestly  unsuited  for  domestic  u^e. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLrES.       239 

a  measure  upon  the  amount  of  water  which  falls  as  rain  or  snow,  and  is 
consequently  subject  to  considerable  variations;  but  while  the  height  of 
the  ground-water  is  subject  to  variation,  a  very  uniform  relative  level  is 
often  maintained  over  wide  areas.  The  height  of  the  ground-water  and  its 
fluctuations  are  important  factors  in  the  sanitary  condition  of  any  locality. 
For  limited  distances  the  water-surface  may  be  nearly  horizontal,  and 
sometimes  this  deposit  of  water  can  be  regarded  as  an  underground  lake 
or  pond  filling  a  basin  of  impervious  materials.  More  often,  however, 
there  is  not  only  an  inclination  in  the  surface  of  the  ground-water,  but 
also  a  movement,  a  sluggish  flow,  toward  a  lower  point  where  water 
appears  to  the  eye  in  pond  or  river.  Most  rivers  of  any  size  flow  for  a 
portiqn  of  their  course  through  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  which  have  been 
deposited  by  the  river  itself  at  an  earlier  stage  of  its  history,  and  many 
ponds  and  lakes  are  situated  in  similar  deposits.  In  any  such  case,  near 
the  banks  the  water  stands  at  approximately  the  same  level  in  the  gravel 
and  in  the  river  or  pond  ;  and,  as  we  recede  from  the  banks,  the  water- 
level  is  found  to  rise  more  or  less  regularly  according  to  the  character  of 
the  deposit.  The  ground-water  contributes  in  no  inconsiderable  amount 
to  the  volume  of  the  pond  or  river,  issuing  as  a  rule  unobserved,  but 
sometimes  in  springs  or  streamlets.  It  is,  however,  important  to  notice 
that  a  river  does  not  generally  cut  entirely  through  the  water-bearing 
stratum,  and  often  there  is  beneath  its  bed  a  dejDosit  of  water  differing  in 
character  from  that  of  the  stream  itself.  In  fact,  it  is  well  known  that  the 
beds  of  some  modern  rivers  are  many  feet  above  their  ancient  beds,  and 
the  intervening  deposits  are  filled  with  water  moving  slowly  toward  the 
mouth  of  the  visible  stream.  Again,  in  regions  where  the  rivers  disap- 
pear during  the  dry  season,  it  is  often  possible  to  obtain  water  by  digging 
into  the  river-bed  when  there  is  no  longer  surface-water  to  draw  upon. 


^^^ impervious  stratum 

Fig.  4. 


Fig.  4  will  illustrate  some  of  the  relations  of  the  visible  river  to  the 
ground- water. ^     Of  course,  in  this  diagram  the  vertical  scale  is  much  ex- 

'  From  the  I.  Bericht  der  vom  Stadtmagistrate  Miinchen  niedergesetzte  Commis- 
sion fiir  Wasserversorgung,  Canalisation  und  Abfuhr  in  den  Jahren  1874-75  ;  Municli, 
1875.  The  profiles  in  Figs.  4  and  5  are  selected  from  a  great  number  which  appear 
in  the  reports  of  this  commission. 


240      ON    DRINKING-WATEE    AISTD    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES, 


aggerated,  but  it  shows  plainly  that  the  depth  of  water  ia  the  river  is 
very  small  compared  with  that  of  the  entire  ground-water. 

The  inclination  of  the  ground-water  depends  mainly  upon  the  character 
of  the  water-bearing  stratum  itself  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  allows 
water  to  pass  through  it.  When  the  water-bearing  stratum  is  thin  the 
configuration  of  the  underlying  impervious  stratum  also  exerts  an  influence 
in  the  matter,  especially  in  determining  the  direction  of  the  flow;  but  that 
very  considerable  irregularities  may  exist  in  the  surface  of  the  impervious 
stratum  itself  without  altering  the  general  inclination  of  the  ground-water, 
is  evident  from  Fig  5.  The  configuration  of  the  surface  of  the  ground 
has  little  influence  in  the  matter,  and  it  is  seldom  possible,  from  surface 
observations,  to  argue  as  to  the  conditions  obtaining  below  the  soil  except 
in  a  general  way. 


Pig.  5. 
On  the  Ground-  Water  as  a  Source  of  Household  Supply. 

The  ground-water  has  been  made  use  of  as  a  source  of  water-supply 
from  time  immemorial.  When  obtained  by  sinking  a  well  into  a  stra- 
tum of  sand  or  gravel  which  has  not  been  artificially  disturbed,  it  is,  as  a 
rule,  bright  and  clear,  and  free,  or  nearly  free,  from  organic  matter.  Al- 
though originally  coming  from  the  atmosphere,  in  its  slow  passage  into 
and  through  the  ground  the  water  has  been  subjected  to  a  long  process 
of  sedimentation  and  filtration,  combined  with  processes  of  oxidation.  In 
this  sense  the  water  may  be  said  to  have  been  purified  by  nattiral  filtra- 
tion; the  process,  however,  is  not  brought  about  by  the  means  taken  to 
collect  and  utilize  the  water,  but  has  been  practically  completed  before 
the  demand  is  made  upon  it. 

The  objection  to  such  shallow  wells  as  a  source  of  drinking-water  is 
mainly  on  account  of  their  liability  to  contamination.  This  liability  will 
be  best  understood  by  a  consideration  of  what  happens  when  water  is 
drawn  from  such  a  well. 

Of  course,  the  pumping  of  water  from  the  well  causes  the  lowering  of 
•the  natural  water-level;  and  if  the  pumping  be  regulated  so  as  to  keep 
the  level  of  the  water  in  the  well  at  a  certain  fixed  point,  as  at  a,  Fig.  6, 
the  ground-water  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  well  also  assumes  a  constant 
level,  as  indicated  in  the  figure  by  the  curved  line  a  h.  The  influence  of 
the  jDumping  will  be  felt  in  all  directions,  as  indicated  by  the  plan.  Fig.  7o 


ON"    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SLTPPLtES. 


241 


If  the  demand  made  upon  the  well  be  increased — that  is,  if  the  level  of 
the  water  in  the  well  is  kept  constantly  at  a  lower  point — the  circle  of  in- 
fluence is  extended.     The 


distance  to  which  the  meas- 
urable influence  of  the 
pumping-  is  felt,  in  any 
case,  depends,  other  things 
being  equal,  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  water-bearing- 
deposit. 

The  taking  of  water 
from  this  underground  sup 
ply  resembles  in  many  re- 
spects the  taking  of  water 
from  a  pond  or  lake.  Sup- 
pose that  we  have  a  lake  or 
pond,  as  there  are  many, 
generally  situated  in  val- 
leys, with  no  considerable 
visible  inlet,  and  yet  from 
which  experience  has  shown 
that  a  certain  number  of 
gallons  daily  can  be  with- 
drawn without  affecting  its 
level:  if  this  lake  be  now 
filled  with  sand  and  gravel, 
we  can  still  pump  the  same 
daily  quantura  (even  more,  owing  to  lessened  evaporation) ;  but,  owing 
to  the  resistance  of  the  material,  the  level  of  the  water  does  not  equalize 
itself  at  once,  although,  if  the  pumping  cease,  the  water  in  the  well  soon 
rises  to  the  normal  level  of  the  ground-water. 

In  order  that  the  well  should  give  a  uniform  supply,  the  amount  of 
rainfall  received  over  the  region  drained,  and  over  the  region  which  con- 
tributes to  the  underground  supply,  should  be  uniform.  The  level  of  the 
ground-water  is  subject  naturally  to  some  variations,  according  as  the  sea- 
son is  wet  or  dry.  If  there  were  no  rainfall,  or  if  the  amount  supplied  by 
the  rainfall  were  less  than  the  amount  pumped,  the  ground-water  would 
be  lowered  eventually  throughout  the  entire  water-bearing  stratum,  prac- 
tically to  very  nearly  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  well;  or,  to  refer  to 
Fig.  6,  the  point  h  would  recede  farther  and  farther,  until  for  some  dis- 
tance the  curve  a  h,  the  straight  line  a  b,  and  the  straight  line  a  c  would 
all  three  practically  coincide;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  lake  which  we  took 
for  comparison  were  no  lake,  but  a  cistern,  it  would  be  eventually  pumped 
dry,  or  to  the  level  of  the  suction-main. 

It  is  quite  evident  that,  in  the  case  of  shallow  wells  such  as  are  now 

under  consideration,  if  a  cesspool  or  privy-vault  be  situated  within  the 

circle  of  influence  of  the  well,  any  liquid  which  soaks  from  it  into  the 
Vol.  I.— 16 


^m 


Fig. 


242      ON   DEINKING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

ground  will  be  likely  to  find  its  way  into  the  well,  unless  the  amount  of 
liquid  be  too  small  to  saturate  the  soil  into  which  it  soaks.  In  this  case, 
the  water  is  held  by  capillarity,  and  slowly  evaporated,  leaving  in  the  soil 
a  continually  increasing  amount  of  objectionable  organic  matter,  which  is 
liable,  on  the  occurrence  of  heavy  rains,  to  be  washed  into  the  well.  This 
explains  what  has  actually  been  found  to  be  the  fact,  namely,  that  some 
wells  are  noticeably  bad  after  heavy  rains,  while  at  other  times  the  water 
seems  to  be  good.  On  the  other  hand,  where  there  is  a  more  direct  pas- 
sage of  offensive  matter  into  the  well,  a  heavy  rain  may  dilute  the  water 
so  that  it  will  be  better  than  in  a  dry  time.  In  wells,  as  in  almost  every- 
thing else,  dijfference  of  condition  gives  difference  in  the  result. 

In  the  case  of  a  well  supplying  one  or  two  families  only,  the  circle  of 
measurable  influence,  as  far  as  the  height  of  the  ground-water  is  con- 
cerned, is  quite  small;  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  circle  of  possible  con- 
tamination, for  the  water  drawn  from  the  well  is  not  taken  from  that 
which  falls  within  this  limited  area,  but  is  taken  from  that  portion  of  the 
ground-water  which  happens  at  the  time  to  be  passing  through  the  well, 
so  to  speak.  In  most  cases,  as  has  already  been  stated,  there  is  a  move- 
ment of  the  ground-water,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  source  of 
contamination  may  be  very  near  the  well  without  affecting  it,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  direction  of  this  movement  is  such  as  to  carry  the  drain- 
age away  from  the  well.  If  the  sujDply  of  water  be  abundant,  it  may  be 
possible  for  offensive  or  injurious  matter  to  be  so  diluted  that  no  per- 
ceptible effect  is  produced  on  the  well;  but,  as  the  ground  becomes  more 
and  more  charged  with  decaying  substances,  the  danger  of  future  con- 
tamination becomes  greater. 

Most  wells  are  dug  simply  with  the  view  of  obtaining  water  and  of 
having  it  as  convenient  to  hand  as  possible;  the  cesspools  are  dug  simi- 
larly, with  a  view  to  convenience,  except  that  the  demand  here  is  that  the 
liquid  contents  shall  readily  drain  away.  Provided  the  well  furnishes  an 
abundance  of  water,  and  the  cesspool  allows  the  liquid  refuse  to  soak 
away,  and,  on  this  account,  seldom  requires  cleaning  out,  there  is  little 
concern  as  to  what  goes  on  unobserved  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  well-water  is  discovered  to  be  impure,  either  by 
a  bad  taste,  or  by  analysis  which  has  been  grudgingly  ordered  owing  to  the 
suspicious  sickness  of  some  who  have  drunk  the  water. 

There  are  other  shallow  wells  which  do  not  draw  their  supply  from 
the  ground-water,  properly  speaking,  but  are  sunk  so  as  to  intercept  the 
water  flowing  through  a  rocky  fissure,  or  are  sunk  into  the  rock  so  as  to 
form  a  collecting  basin  or  reservoir.  Such  wells  are  in  some  respects 
even  more  liable  to  contamination  than  the  wells  sunk  into  the  ground- 
water, for,  in  the  pores  or  interstices  of  a  gravelly  soil,  there  is  a  continu- 
ally changing  body  of  air  which  affords  more  or  less  opportunity  for  the 
oxidation  of  the  organic  matters,  so  that  the  process  of  rendering  the 
well  unfit  for  use  is  a  gradual  one  ;  and  often  a  well  will  furnish  good 
water  for  a  long  time  and  then  become  suddenly  bad — suddenly,  it  seems 
to  those  who  have  not  been  aware  of  the  progress  of  the  pollution.     On 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.        243 

the  other  hand,  a  well  which  is  sunk  into  the  rock  may  receive  from  a  con- 
siderable distance  sewage-matter  which  has  found  its  way  almost  directly 
into  the  well  along  the  surface  of  the  rock,  or  through  some  fissure. 

A  great  many  instances  might  be  brought  forward  where   cases  of 
sickness  have  been  supposed  with  good  reason  to  be  due  to  drinking  pol- 


FiG.  8. 


luted  well-water.  Figs.  8  and  9  represent  the  situation  of  two  wells  in 
Lynn,  Mass.  The  figures  are  taken  from  a  paper  by  Dr.  Pinkham,  in  the 
Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the    Massachusetts    State   Board   of   Health. 


Fig.  9. 


"Five  cases  of  typhoid  fever  occurred  in  1875  in  the  house  shown  in  Fig. 
8,  and  seven  more,  with  one  death,  among  other  persons  using  the  water. 
The  house  became  the  centre  of  infection  for  the  whole  neighborhood." 


244      ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

Analysis  proved  the  water  to  be  highly  polluted,  and  the  figure  shows 
how  favorably  the  well  is  situated  for  receiving  both  surface-drainage  and 
soakage  from  the  privy.  In  1876  five  cases  of  typhoid  fever  occurred  in 
the  house  which  drew  its  water  from  the  well  shown  in  Fig.  9,  and  led  to 
the  examination  of  the  water,  which  proved  to  be  badly  contaminated. 
These  two  cases  are  but  illustrations  of  what  exists  in  hundreds  of  other 
localities.  In  digging  shallow  wells  the  site  should  be  chosen  so  as  to 
avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  all  contamination;  the  top  of  the  well  should  be 
protected  by  a  cover,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  well-hole  should  be 
thoroughly  cemented  in  order  to  prevent  the  direct  entrance  of  surface- 
drainage. 

It  ought  also  to  be  said,  in  this  connection,  that  there  are  some  close, 
especially  clayey  soils,  which  do  not  allow  free  passage  of  water,  and  the 
line  where  the  soil  seems  saturated  is  not  the  level  of  a  true  ground- 
water. In  such  locations  the  opening  of  the  well  serves  in  a  measure  to 
drain  the  soil  and  lower  the  level  of  saturation,  even  when  little  water  is 
pumped.  If  the  water-bearing  deposit,  however,  is  open,  and  allows  free 
passage  of  the  water,  the  mere  opening  of  the  well  has  no  effect.  These 
"  drainage-wells  "  are  liable  to  contamination,  like  other  shallow  wells, 
and  the  water  is  naturally  inferior  to  that  obtained  from  a  freely  moving 
ground-water. 

On  the  Ground-  Water  as  a  Source  of  Town-Supply. 

When  a  village  or  town  is  so  located  that  an  abundant  supply  of  water 
can  be  secured  from  the  ground-water  without  going  to  a  distance,  it  is 
much  better  to  supjDly  the  whole  community  from  one  or  several  large 
wells  than  it  is  for  each  family  to  have  its  individual  well.  This,  of  course, 
involves  some  expense,  but  gives  greater  security  from  contamination; 
for,  while  the  individual  wells  are  very  liable  to  become  polluted,  the  site 
of  the  larger  wells  can  be  so  chosen  as  to  make  the  risk  from  this  source 
A'ery  small.  It  is  generally  desirable,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  necessary,  to 
determine  by  experimental  investigation  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the 
ground-water.  A  large  well  drawing  its  supply  from  the  ground-water 
is  located  in  Prospect  Park,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  It  is  about  35  feet  in  dia- 
meter, and  supplies  250,000  gallons  daily.  The  water  is  not  used  for 
domestic  supply;  but  there  are  other  localities  in  the  country  where  such 
wells  are  in  use.  The  supply  of  water  procured  in  this  way  may  often  be 
very  much  increased  by  sinking  a  series  of  wells  at  short  distances  apart, 
or  by  having  a  single  well,  and  running  from  it  galleries  into  the  water- 
bearing deposit.  A  comparison  of  Figs.  7  and  10  will  show  the  effect  of 
such  a  series  of  wells,  or  of  a  collecting  gallery  where  there  is  a  free  flow 
of  water. 

The  most  favorable  situation  for  a  gathering  well  or  gallery  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  river  (or  lake),  for  two  reasons:  first,  because  at  such  a 
place  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  a  decided  movement  of  the  ground- 
water toward  the  stream;  and,  in   the  second  place,  the  water  from  the 


ON   DRIJ^rKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       245 


^' 


^'///llllllllllllllllllllllllll.uxx 

Fig.  10. 

river  can  make  up  any  deficiency  caused  by  removal  of  the  ground-water, 
by  filtering  through  the  bank  and  bed  of  the  river. 

For  these  reasons,  the  locality  most  commonly  chosen  is  on  the  bank 
of  a  running  stream  in  a  deposit  of  gravel.  The  simplest  form  of  collect- 
ing-works is  the  open  basin;  but  in  an  open  basin  the  water  is  exposed  to 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and,  in  summer,  becomes  heated  above  its 
natural  temperature;  this  favors  vegetable  growth,  and  in  some  places 
inconvenience  has  arisen  from  this  cause.  It  is  unquestionably  better, 
and  in  warm  climates  it  is  essential,  to  have  the  basins  covered. 

Another  method  of  utilizing  the  ground- water  is  to  construct  a  covered 
gallery  which  shall  permit  the  percolation  of  water  into  it,  and  from  which 
the  water  can  flow  to  the  pump-well;  for,  as  is  indeed  ordinarily  the  case, 


Fig.  11. — Filter-gallery,  Lowell,  Mass. 


when  the  supply  is  taken  from  rivers,  pumping-works  are  almost  always 
a  necessary  part  of  such  a  scheme.  There  are  many  examples  of  collect- 
ing-galleries in  Europe  and  in  this  country.  A  single  example  will  suffice 
for  illustration.     The  accompanying  cut,  taken  by  permission  from  Fan- 


*>i>jy. 


^;,x.^;g:}V,j 


246      ON    DPvINKIJSTG-WATEE    AJSTD    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

ning's  "  Water- Supply  Engineering,"  represents  the  gallery  at  Lowell, 
Mass.  This  is  on  the  northerly  shore  of  the  Merrimack  river,  and  jDarallel 
"with  it,  about  100  feet  from  the  water's  edge.  Its  length  is  1,300  feet, 
"width  8  feet,  and  height  (inside)  8  feet.  The  side-walls  and  the  semi- 
circular brick  arch  are  intended  to  be  water-tight;  and  the  water  enters 
at  the  bottom,  which  is  covered  with  coarsely-screened  gravel-' 

Another  method  of  coUectino-    the 

o 

ground-water  consists  in  employing, 
instead  of  such  a  gallery  as  has  been 
described,  a  line  of  iron  pipes,  i.  e.,  prac- 
tically water-mains,  cast  with  a  great 
number  of  narrow  longitudinal  slits, 
and  laid  with  loose  joints.  These  pipes 
collect  the  water,  and  conduct  it  to  re- 
ceiving-wells, from  which  the  supply  is 
pumped.  In  filling  the  trench  in  which 
the  pipes  are  laid,  the  pipes  are  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  with  coarse  material 
of  too  large  a  size  to  fall  into  or  through 
the  sHts,  and  the  trench  is  then  fiUed 
with  screened  material  of  decreasing 
size.  The  figure  (Fig.  12)  will  give  some 
idea  of  this  method.  A  less  elaborate 
mode  of  applying  the  same  principle 
consists  in  substituting  for  the  iron 
pipes  ordinary  cement  or  other  unglazed 
drain-pipes,  laid  loosely.  At  Arling- 
ton, Mass.,  such  an  arrangement  is  in  operation,  the  pipes  being  laid  in 
the  gravelly  bed  of  an  artificial  reservoir,  made  by  damming  a  small 
brook. 

Sometimes  the  collecting  galleries  or  pipes  are,  as  in  the  instance  just 
mentioned,  placed  actually  beneath  the  bed  of  a  river  or  pond.  The  fig- 
ure (Fig.  13),  represents  the  section  of  a  collecting  gallery  (or  filter  gal- 
lery, as  it  is  called),  which  is  in  actual  use  at  a  paper-mill  on  the  Westfield 
river,  in  Massachusetts.     The  description  of  the  gallery  is  as  follows  : 

"  The  water  is  obtained  from  a  gravel  or  sand  bed  which  lies  within 
the  bed  of  the  river  when  the  water  is  high,  although  not  covered  with 
water  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  In  this  gravel-bed  a  trench  of 
250  feet  long  was  dug  of  such  depth  as  to  bring  the  bottom  of  it  as  low 
as,  or  lower  than,  the  bottom  of  the  river  at  its  deepest  part,  and  of  6 
feet  or  more  in  width.  The  trench  was  then  filled  to  the  depth  of  a  foot 
with  stones  of  various  sizes,  from  small  cobble  to  coarsest  gravel  stones, 
making  the  surface  as  even  as  possible,  though  \dth  a  slight  grade  down- 
stream. 


Fig.  13. 


'  For  a  fuller  description,  see  the  Third  Annual  Eeport  of  the  Water  Commissioners 
of  the  City  of  Lowell,  January,  1873. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       247 

"  On  this  foundation  a  line  of  timbers  6  by  6  inches  is  laid  on  each 
side  of  the  trench,  4  feet  apart.  Across  these  are  placed  and  firmly 
nailed  on,  3  feet  apart,  square  frames  4  feet  wide  by  3  feet  high,  made  of 
timber  6  by  6  inches,  each  frame  strengthened  in  the  centre  by  a  standard 
3-|-  by  6  inches  from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  The  top  and  two  sides  of  this 
row  of  frames  are  covered  with  hemlock  plank  2^  inches  thick,  and  thus 
a  filtering-gallery  250  feet  long,  3  feet  high,  and  4  feet  wide,  is  made. 


C^rrvf^ 


S»oe< 


,>^ 


^Sieceljsrzan 


Fig.  13. 


On  the  outside  of  this  gallery,  at  the  bottom,  a  filling  of  8  inches  of  ex- 
celsior is  lightly  tramped  down,  and  then  the  trench  is  filled  up  with  the 
gravel,  and  the  filter  is  complete.  From  this  filter  600  gallons  per  minute 
of  the  clearest  water  are  obtained.  The  filtration  is  upward  and  through 
the  stone  bottom  :  the  gallery  is  kept  full  in  low  water  by  taking  water 
through  canals  over  the  filter  from  a  point  in  the  river  above."  ' 

The  account  of  this  gallery  has  been  given  with  some  detail,  to  show 
that  at  a  comparatively  small  expense  it  might  often  be  possible  for  a  vil- 
lage or  small  town  to  procure  a  supply  of  water  of  superior  quality.  The 
use  of  the  so-called  '*  excelsior,"  i.  e.,  practically  fine  wood-shavings,  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  nor  would  it  be  necessary  if  the  materials  used  in 
filling  the  trench  were  properly  screened  and  graded — the  coarsest  being 
put  first  and  the  finest  on  top  of  all.  Of  course  it  would  be  necessary, 
in  any  particular  case,  to  ascertain  by  experiment  whether  there  was  a 
suitable  place  for  the  location  of  such  a  gallery. 


'  Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  p.  180. 


248      ON   DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

On  the  iSoiirce  of  the  Water  obtained  by  "  Nattiral  Filtration.'''' 

The  water  obtained  by  any  of  the  methods  which  have  just  been  de- 
scribed is  to  be  considered  as  "  ground- water."  Even  when  the  locality 
chosen  is  near  to  a  stream,  or,  in  fact,  in  the  very  bed  of  the  stream,  the 
water  is  taken  in  considerable  measure  from  the  underground  supply,  from 
the  ground- water  rather  than  from  the  river  itself.  In  most  cases,  no  doubt, 
some  water  passes  from  the  river  into  the  adjacent  deposits,  and  contributes 
to  the  supply,  but  generally  the  larger  proportion  is  hot  obtained  from  the 
river.  This  method  of  water-supply  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  method  of 
"  natural  filtration,"  and  the  water  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  stream  (or  lake)  by  simple  filtration  through  the  interven- 
ing bank.  This  view  is  incorrect,  and  the  experience  gained  from  arti- 
ficial filtration  would  show  that  such  a  filtering  bank,  if  it  really  did  the 
work  which  it  is  supposed  by  some  to  do,  would  soon  become  clogged  up 
and  allow  only  a  trifling  amount  of  water  to  pass  through,  except  where  a 
tolerably  rapid  current  prevented  the  lodging  of  sediment.  In  fact,  in  a 
number  of  places  attempts  have  been  made  to  procure  a  supply  of  water 
by  natural  filtration  through  the  banks  of  a  stream,  and  the  attempts 
have  failed  in  all  cases  where  there  has  been  no  sufficient  ground-water 
supply. 

In  explaining  the  source  of  a  water  which  is  obtained  from  a  collecting- 
gallery,  such  as  has  been  described  on  previous  pages,  it  evidently  is  not 
necessary  in  all  cases  to  call  upon  the  neighboring  river  or  pond,  because, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  there  are  some  gathering-wells  which  are  near  no 
body  of  water,  and  which  still  furnish  an  abundant  supply.  The  well  in 
Prospect  Park,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  is  nearly  two  miles  from  tide-water,  and 
the  level  of  water  in  the  well  is  considerably  above  tide.  Here  the  250,000 
gallons  which  are  daily  pumped  are  evidently  not  filtered  sea-water,  but 
fresh  water  which  would  otherwise  find  its  way  into  the  sea  or  into  strata 
underlying  the  salt-water. 

Now,  wherever  a  tolerably  pervious  and  homogeneous  deposit  exists  in 
the  neighborhood  of  any  river  or  pond,  it  is  quite  certain  that  there  will 
be  a  ground-water  which  is  moving  more  or  less  slowly  and  regularly  to- 
ward the  visible  body  of  water.  If  a  well  be  opened  into  this  deposit,  it 
will  be  possible  to  intercept  and  remove  a  certain  quantity  of  water  daily 
without  drawing  any  water  from  the  river '  into  the  ground.  The  taking 
of  the  water  would  affect  the  level  of  the  ground-water  to  a  greater  or  less 
distance,  as  already  shown  by  Figs.  G,  7,  and  10,  the  distance  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  water-bearing  stratum,  and  the  abundance,  or 
rather  the  natural  rate  of  motion,  of  the  ground- water. 

Figs.  7  and  10  are  taken  from  Salbach's  Reports  of  the  Dresden  Water- 

'  Hereafter,  in  speaking  of  "  collecting-wells  near  the  banks  of  a  stream  or  river," 
it  will  be  understood  that  the  term  "well"  shall  include  also  open  or  covered  galleries 
or  basins,  and  that  the  term  "stream"  or  "river"  shall  also  include  "ponds"  or 
"lakes."     The  essential  points  are  the  same  in  all  of  these  cases. 


0]Sr    DRINKING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.        249 

Works.  The  experiments  on  which  they  are  based  were  carefully  con- 
ducted in  the  alluvial  deposit  on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe,  from  which  the 
water  has  been  taken  for  the  supply  of  the  city.  It  was  found  that  when 
the  water  in  an  experimental  well  was,  by  pumping,  kept  constantly  2.5 
metres  below  its  normal  level,  the  height  of  the  ground-water  was  affected 
in  every  direction  for  a  distance  of  60  metres  (about  200  feet),  and  that 
the  curve  which  the  level  of  the  ground-water  assumed  was  the  same  as 
represented  in  Fig.  G.  (If  the  figure  is  to  apply  to  this  particular  case, 
the  vertical  scale  is  to  the  horizontal  as  ten  to  one,  and  the  diameter  of  the 
circle  is  120  metres.)  Beyond  this  point  the  effect  was  inappreciable.  In 
this  case  the  gravel  was  extremely  porous  and  the  well  was  very  near  the 
bank  of  the  river.  The  amount  of  water  necessarily  pumped,  in  order 
to  keep  the  level  at  the  point  indicated,  was  1.56  cubic  metres  per  minute 
(about  600,000  United  States  gallons  per  day).  More  recent  experiments 
have  confirmed  the  earlier  views  as  to  the  source  of  the  main  portion  of 
the  water.' 

In  applying  the  principles  of  Figs.  6  and  7  to  the  case  of  a  well  situ- 
ated near  a  stream,  if  the  river-bank  were  perfectly  water-tight,  the  "  cir- 
cle of  influence  "  would  become  a  semicircle,  or  at  least,  a  segment  of  less 
than  a  whole  circle;  otherwise  things  would  be  as  before.^  The  bank  is 
not,  however,  as  a  rule,  even  practically  water-tight;  but  in  the  natural 
condition  there  is,  as  v/e  have  seen,  a  continual  passage  of  the  ground- 
water into  the  stream,  except  in  case  of  sudden  flood.  No  doubt,  how- 
ever, other  things  being  equal,  the  passage  of  water  from  the  ground  into 
the  river  is  much  more  easy  than  its  passage  from  the  river  into  the 
ground;  for  the  particles  of  silt  deposited  on  the  bed  of  the  river  choke 
the  passages  between  the  grains  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  become,  as  it 
were,  wedged  in.  Pressure  from  the  outside  tends  to  make  the  mass  more 
compact  and  less  pervious;  but,  if  pressure  be  applied  from  the  inside,  the 
particles  of  silt  are  forced  out  or  lifted  as  valves  from  their  seats. 

The  main  reasons  for  believing  that  the  water  obtained  by  the  method 
of  "  natural  filtration  "  is  better  designated  as  "  ground- water  "  are  three 
in  number.  In  the  first  place,  the  general  facts  with  reference  to  the 
ground-water  which  have  just  been  stated,  as  well  as  those  mentioned  on 
page  239,  lead  to  this  conclusion;  in  the  second  place,  the  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  well  or  gallery  differs  from  that  in  the  river,  being  higher 
in  winter  and  lower  in  summer,  and  varying  within  narrow  limits  unless  the 
water  is  received  in  an  open  basin  and  exposed  in  a  comparatively  shallow 
surface  to  the  atmosphere;  in  the  third  place,  the  water  in  the  well  gen- 
erally differs  in  a  marked  degree  in  the  character  or  amount  of  the  dis- 
solved substances. 


^  See  the  Jabresbericht  der  cbem.  Centralstelle  in  Dresden,  vi.  u.  yii.,  1878,  p.  62. 

^  If  tbe  level  of  tbe  water  in  tbe  well  were  kept  below  the  bottom  of  the  river,  the 
circle  of  inflaence  might  then  be  completed  on  the  other  side  of  the  stream  :  if  by  so 
doing  the  tendency  was  to  lower  the  level  of  the  ground-water,  and  leave  a  vacuous 
space  under  the  bed  of  the  river,  the  river- water  would  work  its  way  down  to  fill  the 
gaps,  and  in  that  way  water  would  be  obtained  from  the  stream. 


250      ON    DKINKING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

In  respect  to  the  temperature  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  single  ex- 
ample :  Waltham,  Mass.,  takes  its  water-supply  from  an  open  basin  near 
the  Charles  river.  The  basin  is  shallow,  with  a  sandy  bottom,  and  exposed 
freely  to  the  sun  and  wind.  During  four  days  in  August,  1876,  the  aver- 
age temperature  of  the  water  in  the  river  was  74°  Fahr.,  and  the  water 
pumped  from  the  basin  averaged  62.8°  Fahr.  In  February,  1877,  when 
the  river  was  frozen,  the  temperature  in  the  basin  was  48''  Fahr.  The 
bank  is  here  only  about  100  feet  wide.  That  the  water  in  the  basin  would 
approach  that  in  the  river  in  temperature  if  the  water  were  drawn  contin- 
uously through  the  gravel,  we  do  not  only  believe  on  theoretical  grounds, 
but  know  from  experience.  The  city  of  Toulouse,  in  France,  is  supplied 
by  a  number  of  filtering-galleries  in  a  gravel-deposit  on  the  banks  of  the 
Garonne.  The  original  gallery  was  built  in  182-,  at  a  distance  of  about 
GO  meters  (200  feet)  from  the  river.  This  furnished  water  acceptable  in 
quality,  but  deficient  in  quantity;  an  increase  of  the  length  of  the  gallery 
failed  to  furnish  a  corresponding  increase  in  quantity  of  water  obtained. 
A  second  filtering-gallery,  or  rather  series  of  connected  wells,  was  con- 
structed nearer  to  the  river,  at  a  distance,  in  fact,  of  only  10  metres.  In 
this  case  the  water  obtained  manifestly  did  come,  in  part  at  any  rate, 
from  the  river;  the  water  was  somewhat  turbid,  and,  what  is  very  instruc- 
tive, the  passage  through  a  bank  of  thirty  feet,  and  admixture  of  course 
with  some  ground-water,  failed  to  bring  the  water  to  anything  like  the 
uniform  temperature  of  the  other  galleries.  The  temperature  fell  in  win- 
ter to  2°  C.  (36°  Fahr.),  and  in  summer  rose  above  21°  C.  (70''  Fahr.).* 
This  gallery  was  therefore  abandoned,  and  others  constructed  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  stream.  These  furnish  water  which  is  satisfactory,  ex- 
cept when,  in  time  of  flood,  the  river  covers  the  whole  territory  in  which 
the  galleries  are  built. 

It  must  not  be  understood  from  the  foregoing  that  the  river  in  no 
case  contributes  to  the  supply  of  water  obtained,  for  it  often  does  and  to 
a  considerable  extent.  In  such  cases  river-water  may  pass  into  the  ground- 
water stratum  for  some  distance  along  its  banks,  and  thus  make  up  the 
deficiency  caused  by.  pumping  ;  often,  however,  the  river  may  affect  the 
level  of  the  ground-water  by  virtue  of  its  hydrostatic  pressure,  without 
actually  mingling  its  waters  with  those  of  the  well. 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  matter  under  discussion,  we  may  con- 
sider wells  which  are  near  salt  water.  Sometimes,  as  we  know,  springs 
of  fresh  water  issue  from  the  sand  even  below  low-water  mark,  and  often 
wells  of  soft  water  are  dug  close  to  the  water's  edge.  Even  when  there 
is  no  higher  ground  behind,  the  mere  effect  of  the  rain  which  falls  upon 
the  sand  is  to  create  a  deposit  of  fresh  water  which  crowds  out  or  pre- 
vents the  entrance  of  salt  water.  Darwin,  in  the  voyage  of  the  "  Beagle," 
found  this  to  be  the  case  in  low  coral  islands  of  the  Pacific,  close  to  the 
sea  ;  and  Amsterdam,  the  Hague  and  Leyden  in  Holland,  obtain  their 
water  from  collecting-canals  in  the  sand-dunes  which  form  an  almost  bar- 

'  Daubisson  :  Annales  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  1838. 


ON"    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       251 

ren  strip  of  country  from  2  to  5  kilometres  wide,  and  having  only  a  few 
elevations  of  surface.  Wells,  near  the  salt  water,  often  rise  and  fall,  show- 
ing the  influence  of  the  tide,  but  the  water  remains  fresh.  This  is  easily 
explained,  and  may  perhaps  be  made  clear  by  the  diagram,  Fig.  14. 


Fig.  14. 

Let  A.  be  the  most  remote  point  at  which  the  effect  of  the  tide  is  felt, 
and  A  S  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  ground  at  high  tide.  As  the  tide 
falls  successively  to  B,  C,  D,  E,  J^the  water  will  be  at  the  levels  indicated 
by  the  lines  joining  A  with  these  points.  When  the  tide  rises  from  F  to 
^the  water  level  rises  from  A  F  to  A  ^and  so  on.  This  diagram  is  the 
result  of  a  particular  experiment,  and  the  results  obtained  in  any  case 
would  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  volume  of  the 
ground-water.  The  general  character  of  the  surface  of  the  curves  A  JB, 
A  C,  etc.,  would  be  essentially  the  same  wherever  there  is  any  considerable 
movement  of  the  ground-water.  Under  certain  circumstances,  especially 
if  the  ground-water  supply  be  very  small,  there  is  a  strip  of  ground  into 
which  the  salt  water  finds  its  way  at  high  tide  and  from  which  it  drains 
at  low  tide.  Wells  sunk  into  this  strip  give  only  brackish  water,  and  by 
pumping  a  large  amount  of  water  from  a  well  near  the  shore,  it  is  possible 
to  cause  the  infiltration  of  salt  water  to  a  distance  to  which,  under  normal 
conditions,  it  would  not  j^enetrate. 


Character  of  the  Ground-  Water. 

In  New  England  generally,  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the  United 
States,  the  ground-water,  when  sufficiently  abundant,  is  of  good  quality; 
but  in  limestone  regions  it  is  often  so  hard  as  to  be  unsuited  for  use,  and 
sometimes  the  presence  of  streaks  or  beds  of  clay  makes  it  impossible  to 
obtain  clear  water.  Other  substances  which  are  present  in  the  ground 
may  render  the  water  inferior,  so  that,  as  a  rule,  it  is  necessary  to  submit 
it  to  chemical  examination.  Wherever  experiment  shows  that  this  method 
can  furnish  a  supply  of  water  suitable  in  respect  to  quality  and  quantity, 


252      0]Sr    DEINKIJSrG-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

it  is  to  be  recommended  in  preference  to  artificial  filtration.  The  water 
in  the  collecting- well  is  usually  quite  free  from  organic  matter,  and  gener- 
ally contains  a  larger  amount  of  mineral  substances  than  the  river-water. 
This  difference  almost  always  makes  itself  known  by  difference  in  "  hard- 
ness "  when  the  water  is  employed  in  steam-boilers  or  used  for  washing. 
To  show  this  difference  between  the  river-water  and  the  neighboring 
ground-water,  a  few  examples,  selected  from  many,  will  suffice.  Bel- 
grand'  gives  the  following  figures  with  reference  to  certain  French  locali- 
ties: 

Hardness  in 
degrees. 

"Water  of  Rhone,  at  Lyons 16 

Water  of  filtering-gallery  at  Lyons 17.94 

Water  of  Loire,  at  Nevers 4.96 

Water  of  collecting-well 20.70 

Water  of  Loire,  at  Blois 7.76 

W^ater  of  the  gallery  (which  is  beneath  the  bed  of  the  river).   14.45 

Sharpies  lias  found  •'  that  the  water  in  the  filter-gallery  near  Little 
Pond,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  contains  nearly  twice  as  much  lime  as  that  of 
the  pond,  and  instances  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely.  In  the  case  of 
the  Dresden  water-supply,  before  alluded  to,  the  river-water  is  harder 
than  that  obtained  from  the  collecting-wells.^ 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  practicable  to  procure  a  supply 
by  the  method  of  "natural  filtration"  only  in  localities  where  the  ground- 
water is  of  good  quality,  free  from  possibility  of  pollution,  and  of  suffi- 
cient depth  and  extent.  Although  there  is  less  liability  to  pollution  than 
in  the  case  of  small  shallow  wells  sunk  near  dwellings,  slaughter-houses, 
factories,  or  stables,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  ground-water  is  fed 
by  the  percolation  into  it  of  the  atmospheric  water,  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  pollute  even  a  large  body  of  water.  This  fact  should  be  taken  into 
account  in  choosing  a  locality  for  the  collecting- wells. 

There  is  great  danger  of  overestimating  the  amount  of  water  which 
can  be  permanently  obtained  from  a  chosen  source  of  supply,  unless  the 
preliminary  examinations  are  carefully  conducted  by  persons  who  are  fully 
conversant  with  such  matters.  It  is  always  important  to  obtain  informa- 
tion as  to  whether  the  supply  must  be  drawn  mainly  from  the  rainfall 
over  the  region  drained  by  the  gathering  well,  or  whether  there  is  suffi- 
cient movement  to  the  underground-water  to  practically  increase  this  area. 
Where  the  level  of  the  well  is  not  below  that  of  neighboring  ponds  or 
streams,  it  is  generally  the  rainfall  alone  over  the  drainage  area  of  the 
well  which  furnishes  the  supply.     This  admits  of  being  calculated  with 

'  La  Seine,  etc.,  p.  463  et  seq. 

°  Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cambridge  Water  Board,  for  the  year  1876,  Bos- 
ton, 1877,  p.  30. 

^  Salbach  :  Das  Wasserwerk  der  Stadt  Dresden,  3  Theil,  p.  7. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       253 

some  degree  of  accuracy,  if  the  general  character  of  the  land  is  known. 
Sometimes  higher  land,  even  at  a  considerable  distance,  may  cause  the 
yield  to  be  greater  than  calculation  would  ascribe  to  the  apparent  drainage 
area.  As  a  rule,  the  amount  obtained  from  any  such  well  is  greater  at 
first,  as  it  requires  time  to  drain  out  the  water  naturally  occupying  the  ter- 
ritory which  hereafter  is  to  flow  into  the  well,  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be 
years  before  the  well  falls  to  what  may  be  considered  its  normal  delivery. 

On  Deep-seated  Water  as  a  Source  of  Supply. 

Under  this  head  we  shall  include,  with  natural  springs  and  artesian 
wells,  all  wells  which  do  not  draw  their  supply  from  the  ground-water 
proper,  with  the  exception  of  such  shallow  wells  as  have  been  already  con- 
sidered. 

Driven  loells. — In  many  localities,  a  shallow  well  dug  into  the  ground 
reaches  the  ground- water  at  no  great  depth,  and  if  the  well  be  carried  to 
the  bottom  of  the  water-bearing  stratum,  an  impervious  bed  of  clay  is 
reached,  beneath  which  a  second  bed  of  gravel  may  be  found,  also  water- 
bearing. This  second  supply  of  water  may  be  of  very  different  character 
from  the  grovind-water  proper,  and  under  ordinary  circumstances  is  less 
liable  to  pollution.  A  very  common  method  of  obtaining  water  from  such 
a  source,  and  one  that  is  employed  also  in  some  cases  in  utilizing  the 
ground-water  itself,  is  that  of  "  driven  wells,"  "  tube-wells,"  or,  as  they 
are  sometimes  called  abroad,  "  American  "  or  "  Abyssinian  "  wells.  These 
wells  are  made  by  forcing  wrought-iron  (or  galvanized  iron)  tubes,  such  as 
are  used  for  gas-  or  water-pipes,  into  the  stratum  from  which  the  water  is  to 
be  taken  (see  Fig.  15).  The  pipe  is  generally  from  1:^^  to  2  inches  in  diame- 
ter and  is  furnished  at  its  lower  end  with  a  wrought-iron  or  steel  point; 
above  this  point  the  pipe  is  perforated  for  some  distance  w^th  holes  to 
admit  the  water.  The  pipes  are  usually  driven  with  a  mallet  (sometimes 
by  means  of  a  falling  weight),  and  when  the  top  of  one  tube  has  come  to 
be  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  a  second  length  is  attached  to  it  with  a 
common  coupling  and  the  driving  is  continued  until  water  is  reached. 
In  order  for  such  a  well  to  be  successful  the  deposit  into  which  it  is  sunk 
must  be  quite  porous,  so  as  to  allow  a  free  passage  to  the  water;  this  is 
especially  the  case  where  the  water  is  required  in  considerable  quantities 
for  manufacturing  purposes  or  for  town-supply. 

Fig.  16  represents  the  method  for  town-supply  adopted  in  Sycamore, 
Illinois.  Here  a  well,  lined  with  masonry,  is  excavated  to  the  hard-pan, 
and  through  this  hard-pan  tubes  are  driven  into  the  water-bearing  stratum 
beneath,  which  is  some  seventy  feet  from  the  surface.^  In  other  places 
the  water  is  taken  in  part  from  the  ground-water  by  a  collecting- well,  and 
in  part  from  lower  strata  by  tubes  dri\en  into  the  bottom  of  the  well. 
This  is  the  case  at  Attleborough,  Mass. 

Artesian  vjells. — An  artesian  well   is  a  well  which  is  sunk  or  bored 

'  See  Scientific  American  Supplement,  No.  27,  July  1,  1876. 


254      OK    DKLNKDTG-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATEE- SUPPLIES. 

through  impervious  strata,  so  as  to  reach  a  water-bearing  stratum  in  which 
the  water  is  under  sufficient  hydrostatic  pressure  to  be  forced  to  the  sur- 
face, or  nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  w^hen  the  well  is  opened. 
The  term  is  not  generally  employed  unless  the  impervious  strata  are  of 
rock  and  the  depth  of  the  well  considerable.     Thus  a  driven-well,  20  or 


Fig.  16.— Sycamore  water-supply. 

25  feet  deep,  would  hardly  be  called  an  artesian  well,  even  if  the  tube 
passed  through  an  impervious  stratum  of  clay.  The  general  principle  of 
the  artesian  wells  is  illustrated  by  the  diagram.  Fig.  17. 

The  strata  A  B  and  CD  are  both  impermeable  to  water,  while  K  K  is 
permeable.  The  water  which  falls  upon  the  "  outcrop  "  of  the  pervious 
stratum  KK  tends  to  sink  to  the  lowest  portion  of  the  stratum,  and 
gradually  to  saturate  with  water  the  entire  deposit.     The  water  at  the 


ON   DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       255 

lowest  part  of  the  basin  is  under  a  very  considerable  hydrostatic  pressure, 
and  when  an  opening  is  made  through  the  superincumbent  strata,  by  bor- 
ing or  otherwise,  the  water  rises  in  the  opening,  and,  in  many  cases,  over- 
flows. The  height  to  which  the  water  will  rise  depends  upon  the  height 
of  the   line  of  saturation  of   the  water-bearing  stratum,  at  least  in  a 


Fig.  17. — ^Principle  of  artesian  wells. 

measure;  owing  to  friction,  to  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  sometimes  to 
leakage  into  the  upper  strata,  the  water  will  never  rise  to  the  height  of  its 
source. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  permeable  stratum  in  which  the  water  is 
found  should  be  of  the  nature  of  gravel;  many  wells  draw  their  supply 
from  rock  strata.  In  the  first  place,  all  rock  deposits  are  more  or  less 
fissured  and  seamed,  thus  affording  passage  for  water,  and,  in  some  rocks, 
especially  of  limestone,  the  solvent  and  erosive  action  of  the  water  wears 
channels  and  reservoirs.  It  is  well  known  that  limestone  regions  abound 
in  caves  and  often  in  underground  streams.  Independently  of  seams  and 
fissures,  however,  large  quantities  of  water  may  be  stored  in  rock  deposits 
by  virtue  of  the  porosity  of  the  rocks  themselves.  Some  rocks  are  so 
compact  that  they  'can  absorb  but  little,  while  others  may  take  into  their 
pores  as  much  as  one-third  of  their  own  bulk  of  water.  This  porosity 
is  possessed  not  only  by  sandstones,  but  also  by  limestones,  dolomites,  and 
even  by  some  varieties  of  shales  and  other  argillaceous  rocks. ^ 

The  source  of  the  water  obtained  is  not  always  traceable  directly  to 
the  rain  and  snow  which  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  some 
instances  the  formation  is  charged  with  water,  which  for  ages  has  been 
confined  in  the  stratum,  the  remainder  of  ancient  seas  or  lakes.  When  an 
opening  is  made  into  such  a  deposit,  the  water  is  forced  out,  owing  to  the 
pressure  of  the  water  accumulated  in  other  parts  of  the  same  stratum,  or 
in  communicating  strata,  but  it  may  take  a  very  long  time  to  exhaust  the 
subterranean  reservoir.     In  some  cases,  near  the  sea,  there  may  be  commu- 


'  For  a  number  of  experiments  on  the  porosity  of  rocks,  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  see  Re- 
port of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  1 868-' 66,  pp.  381-283,  or  Hunt's  Chemical 
and  Geological  Essays,  Salem,  1878,  pp.  164-167. 


256       ox    DRIXKIXG-AVATER    AXD    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

nication  with  the  ocean,  which  may  thus  produce  the  hydrostatic  pressure, 
but  which  may  not  contribute  by  its  waters  directly,  or  at  least  not  for  a 
long  time  after  the  well  is  opened.  Some  deep  wells  near  the  sea  gradu- 
ally become  more  brackish,  probably  from  the  fact  that  the  purer  water 
which  originally  filled  the  pores  of  the  rocks,  and  perhaps  subterranean 
reservoirs,  is  gradually  exhausted,  and  other  water — in  this  case  sea  water 
— comes  in  to  replace  it. 

Of  course  there  is  very  much  with  reference  to  the  history  and  con- 
struction of  artesian  wells  which  is  of  interest,  but  which  is  not  pertinent 
to  the  work  now  in  hand.  As  sources  of  water-supply,  no  single  general 
statement  can  be  made  with  reference  to  the  availability  of  artesian  wells, 
because  there  are  many  circumstances  which  have  a  bearing  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  water. 

One  feature,  which  is  common  to  most  of  the  deeper  wells,  is  that  of  the 
elevated  temperature  of  the  water.  It  is  well  known  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth  increases  somewhat  regularly  from  the  surface,  and  the 
effect  of  this  is  felt  upon  the  waters  which  are  obtained  at  considerable 
depths.  The  temperature  of  the  water  which  flows  from  the  widely- 
known  well  at  GreneUe,  Paris,  which  is  about  1,800  feet  deep,  has  a 
temperature  of  27°  C.  (80.6°  Fahr.).  The  water  of  an  artesian  well  in 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  which  is  2,086  feet  deep,  has  a  temperature  of  76.5° 
Fahr.^  There  are,  however,  some  wells  which  seem  to  form  an  exception  to 
this  rule,  and  different  wells  do  not  show  the  same  rate  of  increase  in 
temperature  from  the  surface  downward.  Of  course  a  water  with  a 
temperature  of  80°  Fahr.,  while  admirably  suited  for  some  purposes,  is 
not  fit  to  drink  unless  artificially  cooled. 

There  is  another  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  use  of  artesian  wells  for 
domestic  supply — namely,  the  large  amount  of  dissolved  mineral  matter 
which  the  water  from  such  wells  is  likely  to  contain.  As  almost  all  rocks 
are  more  or  less  soluble,  we  should  expect  that  water  which  had  traversed 
so  great  a  distance  under  ground  would  be  highly  charged  with  mineral 
matter.  Of  course  the  character  and  amount  of  the  dissolved  substances 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  strata  passed  through.  Sometimes  the 
water  is  absolutely  unfit  for  domestic  use,  although  it  may  answer  for  ex- 
tincruishing  fires  and  watering  streets  or  for  irrigation.  In  other  instances, 
the  only  difficulty  may  be  that  the  water  is  too  hard;  if  otherwise  suitable, 
such  water  may,  in  some  cases,  be  softened  by  a  process  which  will  be  de- 
scribed later.     (See  page  284.) 

Artesian  wells  are  common  the  world  over.  In  Egypt  and  in  China 
there  are  such  wells  of  unknown  antiquity,  and  during  the  last  fifty  years 
great  numbers  have  been  sunk  in  Europe  and  in  America.  Of  these  the 
larger  number  have  been  sunk  by  private  parties  in  order  to  obtain  water 
for  manufacturing  or  other  purposes.  The  wells  differ  greatly  in  depth 
and  in  character  of  the  water.  In  some  cases  the  water  is  so  strongly 
charged  with  common  salt  that  it  can  be  treated  as  brine ;  in  other  cases 

>  Silliman's  Am.  Joum.  Sci  ,  [2J  XXVII.,  p.  174. 


cm    DKINKING-WATEIi    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       257 

the  water  contains  a  variety  of  salts,  and  is  used  as  mineral  water,  while 
in  still  other  cases  a  soft  water  fit  for  all  domestic  purposes  is  obtained. 
The  following  table  includes  facts  with  reference  to  a  few  of  these  wells: 


Locality. 


Birkenhead,  Eng 

Birmingham,  Eng 

"  (another  well)  .  . . 

Bradford,  Eng 

Brighton,  Eng 

Liverpool  (Bootle  Well) , 

London  (Albert  Hall) 

' '       (Trafalgar  Square) 

/ 
Grenelle,  Paris 

Passy,  Paris 

Boston,  Mass.^ 

Chicago,  111 

Louisville,   Ky.   (Dupont's  Well) 

St.  Louis,  Mo." 

(Asylum  Well)'". 


Depth 

Temp,  in 

Total 

centigrade 

Hard- 

dissolved 

degrees. 

ness. 

solids. 

527 

5.7 

14.2 

800 

10.3 

15.8 

31.3 

400 

10.8 

15.1 

19.4 

360 

13.8 

14.1 

55.4 

1,385 

9.9 

4.4 

35.4 

813 

10.4 

13.6 

34.4 

401 

5.6 

61.7 

883 



5.9 

83.4 

1,806  ■' 

37 

14.2 

1,914== 

38 

14.1 

1,750 

.. 

1,878.7 

700 

14 

3,086 

24.5 

1,570. 

3,199 

23 

, , 

879.1 

8,843.5 

105 

Authority. 


Rivers  Pollution 
Commission. ' 


Peligot,  1857.3 

j  Poggiale  and  Lam- 

I    bert.  1863.3 
J.  M.  Merrick,* 

(?)3 
J.  Lawrence  Smith. ' 
A.  Litton,  M.D.3 
G.  C.  Broadhead.'' 


Several  of  the  wells  alluded  to  in  the  foregoing  table  are  used  for 
town-supply,  such  as  the  Bootle  Well,  Liverpool,  and  the  well  at  Grenelle. 
One  portion  of  the  city  of  London  is  supplied  by  the  Kent  Waterworks 
Co.,  which  furnishes  upwards  of  9,000,000  gallons  daily,  taken  from  wells 
in  the  chalk,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city.  The  water  is  quite  hard, 
and  hence  ill  suited  for  use  in  washing,  but  is  clear  and  colorless  and 


^  Sixth  Report  of  the  Rivers  Pollution  Commission. 

-  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  depth  of  these  wells.  Spon  (Practice  of  Sinking  and 
Boring  Wells)  gives  sections,  and  states  the  depth  of  the  well  at  Grenelle  as  1,806'  10", 
and  of  the  well  at  Passy  as  1,933'  8  ". 

3'Ferreira  :  Hydrologie  generale,  Paris,  1867,  p.  136. 

^  The  Boston  well  is  in  the  property  of  the  gas-works,  and  is  used  only  to  quench 
the  coke  taken  from  the  gas-retorts. 

'-  Proceedings  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XVII.,  p.  486. 

'  This  well  discharges  380,000  gallons  of  water  in  34  hours,  and  throws  it  to  a  height 
of  170  feet.  The  temperature  of  the  flowing  water  is  76.5"  Fahr.  ;  the  temperature 
at  the  bottom  of  the  well  is  83.5°  Fahr.  The  probable  outcrop  of  the  water-bearing 
stratum  is  at  a  distance  of  75  miles  and  at  an  elevation  of  500  feet  above  the  mouth 
of  the  well. 

^  Am.  Journ.  Sci.,  [3]  LXXVI.,  p.  174. 

^  This  well,  sunk  at  the  sugar-refinery  of  Belcher  and  Brothers,  at  a  cost  of  $10,000, 
furnishes  about  75  gallons  a  minute  of  water  highly  charged  with  salts,  and  emitting  a 
strong  odor  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen — utterly  useless  for  the  purpose  of  the  refinery 
or  for  domestic  supply. 

9  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Sci.,  L,  p.  80. 

'°  This  well  was  not  a  success.  The  water  was  not  fit  for  use,  and  did  not  rise  to 
the  top  of  the  well. 

"  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Sci.,  III.,  p.  216. 
Vol.  I.— 17 


258      ox   DRE^KIIsrG-WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

wholesome.  There  would  be  no  difficulty  in  softening  the  water;  in  fact, 
a  portion  of  the  supply,  when  some  of  the  wells  were  in  the  hands  of 
another  comjDany,  was  softened  by  Clark's  process  (p.  284)  to  the  extent 
of  1,000,000  gallons  (English)  per  day. 

The  last  royal  commission  which  has  had  to  do  with  water-supply — 
namely,  the  Rivers  Pollution  Commission — speaks  strongly  in  favor  of 
abandoning  the  Thames  and  other  rivers  altogether,  and  thinks  it  feasible 
to  obtain  the  entire  supply  for  the  metropolis  from  deep  wells  within  a 
thirty-mile  circle.  That  this  could  be  done  without  decreasing  the  vol- 
ume of  the  existing  streams,  which  are  in  part  supplied  by  springs  from 
the  same  formation,  they  do  not  pretend;  but  they  assert  that  the  water 
thus  obtained  would  certainly  be  wholesome;  while  the  river  water  is,  to 
say  the  least,  undesirable  as  a  beverage. 

Liability  of  pollution. — Provided  the  well  be  protected  from  surface 
water,  the  liability  to  pollution  is  comparatively  small.  Generally  the 
outcrop  of  the  water-bearing  stratum  is  at  some  distance  from  the  point 
at  which  the  boring  is  made  ;   it  may  be  several  hundred  miles.     Fig.  18 


Fig.  18. — Geological  section  of  the  Paris  Basin. 


represents  the  strata  which  form  or  underlie  the  Paris  basin  in  which  numer- 
ous artesian  wells  have  been  sunk.  The  horizontal  scale  is  about  80  miles 
to  the  inch,  and  the  vertical  scale  2,000  feet  to  the  inch.  The  wells  are  sunk 
into  the  lower  greensand;  and  any  impurities  which  enter  the  stratum  at 
its  outcrop  —  say  at  Verdun  —  have  to  travel  underground  nearly  200 
miles  before  reaching  Paris. 

The  water  of  deep  wells  does  not,  however,  always  have  circumstances 
so  much  in  its  favor.  If  the  well  draws  its  supply,  as  many  deep  wells  do, 
from  what  is  an  underground  flowing  stream,  the  liability  of  contamination 
is  increased.  That  such  underground  streams  do  exist  is  evident  from 
various  facts.  The  total  disappearance  of  some  good-sized  rivers  into 
clefts  of  the  rock,  the  emergence  of  full-grown  streams  in  other  localities, 
and  the  occurrence  of  flowing  water  in  the  larger  caves,  all  show  the  same 
thing.     Further  evidence  is  afforded  by  observations  which  have  been 


ON    DRINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       259 

made  on  artesian  wells.  At  Tours,  in  1830,  a  well  was  perforated  right 
through  the  chalk,  when  the  water  suddenly  brought  up,  among  other 
things,  stems  of  marsh  plants,  with  roots  and  seeds  of  the  same,  which 
were  in  such  a  state  of  preservation  that  they  could  not  have  remained 
more  than  three  or  four  months  in  the  water;  and  it  is  said  that  the  seeds 
when  planted  sprouted  and  grew.  It  was  supposed  that  the  water  must 
have  flowed  a  distance  of  150  miles  during  the  time  that  these  objects 
were  immersedo  At  Reimke,  near  Bochum,  in  Westphalia,  the  water  of  an 
artesian  well  brought  up  from  a  depth  of  156  feet  several  small  fish,  three 
or  four  inches  long,  the  nearest  streams  being  several  leagues  distant. 
The  same  thing  has  happened  in  other  places,  the  fish  not  being  blind,  as 
those  which  inhabit  subterranean  caverns,  but  having  perfect  eyes.' 

It  will  appear  from  these  facts  that,  in  projecting  artesian  wells  for 
town-supply,  it  is  important  to  know  the  geological  character  of  the  local- 
ity where  the  boring  is  to  be  made,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  the  source  of 
the  water.  Indeed,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  probable  character  of 
the  particular  locality,  sinking  a  well  is  like  investing  in  a  lottery,  and 
hardly  justifiable  as  a  municipal  undertaking.  It  is  true  that  many  wells 
are  sunk  without  the  advice  of  competent  authority,  and  some  of  them  are 
successful;  as  a  rule,  they  end  in  failure.  The  instance  of  the  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  well,  mentioned  on  page  257,  where  $10,000  was  sunk  in  the  well, 
is  instructive  in  this  connection. 

Besides  the  possibility  of  direct  communication  with  surface  streams, 
there  is  danger  of  contamination  from  another  source — namely,  from  the 
practice,  which  is  in  vogue  in  some  places,  of  sinking  wells,  not  as  a  means 
of  obtaining  water,  but  as  a  means  of  disposing  of  liquid  refuse  from 
manufactories,  etc.  Any  well  which  does  not  overflow  may  be  used  as 
such  an  absorbing  well  [indts  absorbent),  and  the  amount  which  it  will  ab- 
sorb may  be  approximately  calculated. 

Suppose  we  have  a  well  in  which  the  water  rises  just  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  but  does  not  overflow,  and  that  if  100  gallons  per  minute  be 
pumped  regularly,  the  water-level  is  lowered  a  distance  of  five  feet;  the 
same  well  may  be  made  to  absorb  100  gallons  per  minute  by  extending  the 
tubing  five  feet  above  the  normal  water  level.  When  the  natural  level  of 
the  water  is  much  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  an  enormous  amount 
of  liquid  may  be  disposed  of  for  an  indefinite  time,  provided  the  refuse  be 
not  of  such  a  nature  as  to  clog  the  pores  of  the  absorbing  stratum  into 
which  the  liquid  finds  its  way,  or  provided  the  well  is  frequently  cleaned. 
There  is  a  well  of  this  kind  at  Bondy,  near  Paris,  which  is  74  metres  in 
depth.  Such  a  method  of  disposing  of  refuse  should  not  be  allowed,  un- 
less it  is  absolutely  certain  that  the  stratum  into  which  the  water  finds  its 
way  carries  naturally  water  which  is  totally  unfit  for  use,  and  which  will 
never  be  called  upon  for  water-supply,  and  unless,  further,  there  is  secu- 
rity that  the  well  does  not  pass  through  strata  which  contain  water  fit  for 

^  The  foregoing  facts  are  taken  from  Lyell's  Principles  of  G-eolcgy,  llth  edition, 
Vol.  I.,  p.  390. 


260      ON    DRINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

i;se.  It  is  well  known  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  prevent  the  leakage  of 
the  water  which  rises  in  artesian  wells  into  the  upper  strata,  and  this 
leakage  often  causes  a  very  considerable  diminution  of  the  amoUnt  of 
water  which  would  otherwise  reach  the  surface. 

The  sinking  of  a  pump- well  and  an  absorbing-well  into  the  same 
stratum '  is  like  using  the  same  river  as  a  carrier  of  sewage  and  a  source 
of  water-supply.  The  intimate  connection  between  artesian  wells  sunk 
into  the  same  water-bearing  stratum  is  readily  proved;  for,  by  the  oj^ening 
of  new  wells,  there  is  often  effected  a  very  considerable  diminution  of  the 
supply  furnished  by  the  older  wells. 

The  opening  of  the  artesian  well  at  Passy  caused  a  diminution  to  the 
extent  of  30  per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  water  flowing  from  the  well  at 
Grenelle,  although  the  two  points  were  about  3^  kilometres  distant  from 
each  other.  In  Venice,  seventeen  wells  were  bored  between  1847  and 
1856.  The  increase  in  number  of  wells  has  decreased  the  amount  supplied. 
Eight  of  the  wells  have  ceased  to  flow,  and  of  the  others,  one  which  de- 
livered formerly  247  litres  per  minute  gives  only  76  litres,  and  the  delivery 
of  another  has  fallen  from  320  litres  to  67.^  It  thus  appears,  as  we  should 
expect,  that  there  must  be  some  limit  to  the  yield  of  artesian  wells,  al- 
thovigh  that  limit  may  not  in  all  cases  be  approached  in  practice.  Where 
a  large  demand  is  made  upon  any  underground  supply,  the  fact  of  such  a 
limit  becomes  evident,  either  by  the  smaller  yield  of  the  wells  or  by  the 
fact  that  to  obtain  the  same  amount  of  water  the  wells  are  kept  pumped 
down  to  a  lower  point.  This  has  often  been  noticed,  among  other  places 
in  the  chalk  of  the  London  basin.  "  In  1838  the  total  supjaly  obtained 
from  the  chalk  near  London  was  estimated  at  6,000,000  gallons  a  day,  arid 
in  1851  at  nearly  double  that  amount,  the  increase  being  accompanied  by 
an  average  fall  of  no  less  than  two  feet  a  year  in  the  level  to  which  the 
water  rose.  The  water  stood  commonly,  in  1822,  at  high -water  mark,  and 
had  sunk,  in  1851,  to  forty-five,  and  in  some  wells  to  sixty-five  feet  below 
high-water  mark.  This  fact  shows  the  limited  capacity  of  the  subter- 
ranean reservoir." '  The  water  of  artesian  wells  is  subject  to  variation 
from  time  to  time.  Belgrand  ^  found  from  1857  to  1860  that  the  water 
of  the  well  at  Grenelle  varied  from  9°  to  12°  in  hardness,  and  that  it  was 
harder  after  a  dry  year — i.  e.,  when  the  rainfall  was  less  abundant.  The 
published  analyses  of  the  water  of  the  same  well  by  Payne,  in  1841,  Bou- 
tron  and  Henry,  in  1848,  and  Peligot,  in  1857,  show  nearly  the  same  total 
amount  of  dissolved  matter,  but  considerable  differences  in  the  quantities 
of  the  various  components.     Some  of  the  wells  in  Liverpool,  England,  show 


'  This  is  exactly  what  is  done  continually,  as  far  as  the  ground-water  stratum  is 
concerned,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  242),  and  this  is  why  shallow  wells  are  unsafe. 

-  Konig :  Anlage  und  Ausfiihrung  von  Wasserleitungen  u.  s.  w.,  2te  Auflage, 
bearb.  v.  Ludwig  Poppe,  Leipzig,  1878,  p.  203.  The  original  authority  for  this  state- 
ment is  not  at  hand. 

3  Lyell's  Geology,  11th  ed.,  1872,  Vol.  I.,  p.  387. 

*  La  Seine,  etc.,  p.  99. 


ON   DlilNKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       261 

a  continual  increase  in  the  amount  of  dissolved  salts.     Thus  the  well  at 
Rainf ord  Square  contained,  at  different  dates,  as  follows : ' 

1867.  1871.  1878.  Rive  Mersey. 

Total  solids  330  394.8  555.2  2,150.0 

Chlorides  ...  341.3  487.7  1,907.0 

The  quantity  of  water  pumped  has  increased  of  late  years,  and  there  is 
drawn  into  the  well  a  larger  proportion  of  the  water  of  the  Mersey,  which 
is  800  yards  distant. 

With  reference  to  the  storage  of  deep-well  water,  it  has  been  found 
in  many  cases  that  there  is  great  liability  of  vegetable  growth  when  the 
water  is  exposed  to  air  and  sunlight,  so  that,  if  it  becomes  necessary  to 
stor^  the  water  before  distribution,  covered  reservoirs  must  be  used  for 
the  purpose,  at  least  in  warm  climates. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  chief  advantage  of  artesian  wells 
as  a  source  of  town-supply  is  in  localities  where  the  only  water  really  fit 
to  drink  is  stored  rain-water  or  water  from  some  very  limited  source.  In 
such  a  case  it  is  advisable,  if  possible,  to  procure  in  this  way  a  sujDply  of 
water  which  shall  answer  for  most  public  uses  and  for  many  manufacturing 
purposes,  although  it  is  true  that  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  always  attends 
the  sinking  of  the  first  well  which  is  bored  in  any  particular  locality. 

On  Springs  in  General. 

Every  one  knows  that  springs  differ  greatly  in  the  character  of  the 
water  which  they  bring  to  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Some  furnish  pure 
water  devoid  of  peculiar  taste,  others  furnish  water  highly  charged  with 
dissolved  mineral  substances,  so  as  to  be  of  noticeable  and  often  of  dis- 
agreeable taste;  these  are  called  mineral  springs,  and  many  of  them  are 
held  to  be  highly  valuable  as  medicinal  agents.  In  some  springs  a  single 
ingredient  is  the  prominent  one,  as  in  brine  springs,  which  are  utilized  in 
the  production  of  common  salt ;  in  others  there  are  a  variety  of  substances 
coexisting  in  considerable  quantities.  In  some  springs  the  water  is  forced 
violently  into  the  air  by  the  gas  (generally  carbonic  acid)  with  which  the 
water  is  charged;  others  flow  quietly  and  contain  little  or  almost  no  dis- 
solved gases.  Some  springs  are  cold  and  some  are  hot;  some  furnish  an 
enormous  volume  of  water,  while  others  are  of  small  account;  some  are 
constant,  and  some  are  intermittent. 

With  all  this  variety  in  the  characteristics  which  appeal,  many  of  them, 
even  to  the  casual  observer,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  causes  to 
which  we  owe  the  appearance  of  the  spring  at  all.  We  may  illustrate  a 
few  of  the  conditions  under  which  springs  are  produced. 

Whenever  a  stratum  of  permeable  material  is  exposed  at  a  lower  level 
than  that  at  which,  in  another  locality,  it  appears  at  the  surface,  springs 

'  Isaac  Roberts,  F.G-.S. :  Paper  read  before  British  Association,  Dublin,  1878. 


262    ojst  drinkiitg-water  and  public  water-supplies. 

are  likely  to  be  found.    In  the  diagram,  Fig.  19,  the  water  falling  upon  the 
permeable  stratum,  C  D   at  D  passes  downward,  and  may  issue  in  springs 


^-^y^ 


Fig.  19. 


at  C,  provided  that  A  B  is  impermeable.  When  the  material  is  homo- 
geneous and  gives  free  passage  to  water,  the  water  may  issue  all  along 
the  line  of  the  lower  outcrop  without  forming  any  springs  of  great  size. 
In  this  way  the  ground  water,  as  has  been  already  seen,  contributes  to 
the  volume  of  rivers  and  lakes.  If,  however,  the  permeable  stratum  is  of 
rock  which  is  fissured,  or  if  the  water  has  formed  channels  by  erosion  or 
by  solution,  then  springs  of  large  size  may  appear  at  individual  points. 
The  figure  also  shows  how  a  spring  may  issue  at  a  point,  such  as  S,  the 
water  passing  up  through  a  fissure  which  has  been  formed  in  the  deposit 


«v^;S^?W^3r 


.a^ 


Fig.  20. 


A,  A. — ^Laurentian  rocks. 

B,  B. — Potsdam  sandstone. 

C,  C— Calciferous  sandrock. 


D. — Trenton  limestone. 

E. — Hudson  and  Utica  shales. 

S. — Saratoga  Valley. 


overlying  the  water-bearing  stratum.  Again,  if  a  trap-dyke  intersect  the 
various  strata,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  figure,  the  water  fall- 
ing at  D  and  accumulating  in  C  D  would  meet  an  obstacle  in  this  dyke 
and  the  water  would  appear  as  springs  at   S.     Not  unfrequently  water 


ON    DKINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       263 

rises  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  from  great  depths,  the  springs  then  re- 
sembling artesian  wells  except  that  the  orifice  or  fissure  through  which 
the  water  issues  is  natural  and  not  artificial.  Sometimes  the  appearance 
of  a  spring  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  due  to  what  geologists  terra  a 
"  fault,"  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  20. 

This  figure,  according  to  Professor  Chandler,  represents  the  conditions 
which  give  rise  to  the  mineral  springs  of  Saratoga,  N.  Y.  Here  there  has 
been  formed  a  fissure  along  the  line  of  the  valley,  and  the. strata,  which  were 
once  continuous,  now  are  at  different  levels  on  either  side  of  the  fault. 
The  water  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  on  the  right  of  the  fault,  meeting 
the  less  pervious  underlying  rock,  would  tend  to  rise  to  the  surface,  and, 
if  not  carried  off  by  the  pervious  strata  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  their 
upturned  edges,  would  appear  as  springs.  A  number  of  the  Saratoga 
springs  have  been  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  boring  of  artesian  wells 
and  tubing  them  properly  so  as  to  keep  out  the  water  coming  from  nearer 
the  surface  and  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  the  mineral  water. 

On  Springs  as  a  Source  of  Water-supply. 

Such  springs  as  do  not  rise  from  too  great  a  depth  in  the  earth's  crust 
are  of  nearly  uniform  and  comparatively  low  temperature,  and  in  summer 
are  cool  and  refreshing.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  as  sources  of  water-sup- 
ply, springs  stand  in  the  first  rank,  although  they  are  by  no  means  to  be 
considered  the  only  suitable  sources.  Their  advantages  are  their  uniform 
temperature  and  their  comparative  immunity  from  pollution;  their  disad- 
vantage, as  a  class,  is  their  liability  to  contain  an  objectionable  amount  of 
dissolved  solid  substances. 

In  Germany  there  has  been  a  great  feeling  in  favor  of  spring  water, 
and,  at  the  Danzig  meeting  of  the  German  Public  Health  Association 
(1874),  a  resolution  was  passed,  after  much  discussion,  to  the  effect  that 
"  spring  water  alone,  either  that  coming  to  the  surface  naturally,  or 
reached  by  sinking  properly  constructed  and  properly  protected  wells,  is 
the  only  admissible  source  of  water-supply."  The  next  year  this  dictum 
was  altered,  so  as  to  state  that  spring  water,  ground  water,  and  filtered 
river  water  may  fulfil  the  conditions  required  of  a  good  drinking-water. 

As  already  said,  spring  water  is  liable  to  contain  an  objectionable 
amount  of  mineral  matter,  but  is  usually  quite  free  from  organic  sub- 
stances, and  although  it  is  somewhat  less  liable  to  contamination  than  the 
water  of  deep  wells,  for  purposes  of  water-supply  the  same  considerations 
are  involved  in  both  cases.  Natural  springs  often  occur  under  such  cir- 
cumstances that  the  water  may  be  delivered  by  gravitation,  which  is  of  a 
certain  advantage. 

One  of  the  most  recent  instances  of  the  utilization  of  spring  water  on 
the  large  scale  is  in  the  case  of  the  new  water-supply  of  Vienna,  opened 
in  the  fall  of  1873.  Here  the  water  is  obtained  from  two  springs  which 
issue  from  the  spurs  of  the  Alps,  one  at  a  distance  of '90  kilometres,  and 
the  other  of  about  70  kilometres  from  the  city.    The  waters  of  the  two  aque- 


264      ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

ducts  are  united  some  66  kilometres  from  the  city,  and  flow  together  fpr 
that  distance.  The  works  were  calculated  for  a  maximum  supply  of  141,- 
500  cubic  metres  per  day,  the  average  necessary  amount  being  fixed  at 
92,800  cubic  metres,  Practicall}^,  after  the  opening  of  the  works,  it  was 
found  that  the  amount  obtained  fell  short  of  the  estimates,  and  that  it 
would  be  necessary  to  extend  the  work  so  as  to  include  other  springs.  It 
is  to  be  said  that  it  is  proposed  not  to  rely  for  all  purposes  upon  the 
spring  water,  but  for  watering  streets,  flushing  sewers,  etc.,  to  use  the 
water  of  the  Danube  taken  directly  from  the  river,  or  that  obtained  by 
a  process  of  "  natural  filtration." 

Ox   THE    AeTIFICIAL   lilPKOVEMEXT    OF    NATURAL   WaTEE. 

Soft  spring  water,  ground  water,  and  sometimes  deep  spring  Avater, 
are  suitable  for  domestic  supply,  just  as  they  are  obtained  from  the 
natural  sources.  All  other  sources  of  supply  are  liable  to  leave  something 
to  be  desired  in  the  quality  of  the  water.  AVhile  no  method  of  treatment 
can  afford  perfect  security  if  a  water  is  polluted  by  sewage,  there  are 
several  processes  by  which  a  natural  water  may  be  improved  and  rendered 
more  fit  for  domestic  use.     We  shall  consider: 

1.  Sedimentation  (and  aeration). 

2.  Filtration  on  the  large  and  on  the  household  scale. 

3.  Clark's  process  for  softening  hard  water. 

4.  Other  (chemical)  processes. 

Sedimentation  and  Filtration. 

These  processes,  which  are  in  the  main  mechanical,  are  particularly 
needed  in  the  case  of  water  taken  from  running  streams;  for,  as  has 
already  been  stated,  and  is  indeed  well  known,  rivers  generally  carrj^ 
more  or  less  of  floating  material.  Much  of  this  floating  or  suspended 
matter  is  of  so  coarse  a  character  as  to  be  readily  intercepted  by  wire 
strainers,  or  other  such  devices;  but  a  considerable  amount  is  so  finely 
divided  as  to  require  more  elaborate  arrangements  for  its  removal.  Be-' 
fore  discussing  the  matter  in  detail,  it  is  important  that  there  should 
be  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  a  clear  idea  as  to  the  use  of  certain  terms 
which  have  been  already  employed,  namely,  the  terms  "  in  solution  "  and 
"  in  suspension."  At  the  same  time  it  will  be  important  to  distinguish 
between  the  terms  "clear"  and  "  colorless,"  which  are  by  no  means 
synonymous. 

The  accurate  use  of  the  terms  can  probably  best  be  made  plain  by 
illustrations.  If,  for  instance,  we  put  some  common  salt  into  a  quantity 
of  water,  after  a  time  the  salt  disappears,  the  ultimate  particles  being  dis- 
tributed through  the  water,  so  that  they  are  no  longer  distinguishable  by 
the  eye,  even  aided  by  the  most  powerful  microscope:  the  salt  cannot  be 
removed  by  simple  filtration;  and,  although  the  solution  is  somewhat  less 
mobile  than  water,  it  is  still  transparent.     This  is  a  case  of  solution.     Sup- 


ON    DKINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATEK-SUPPLIES.       265 

pose,  instead  of  the  salt,  we  take  a  quantity  of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of 
copper).  The  phenomena  would  be  similar;  but  the  blue  color  of  the 
compound  would  show  itself  in  the  solution.  If  the  solution  were  satu- 
rated, i.  e.,  if  the  water  had  dissolved  as  much  as  it  could,  the  transparency 
of  the  liquid  would  be  diminished  on  account  of  the  depth  of  color:  it 
would  be  easy,  however,  to  take  a  very  thin  layer  of  the  solution  and 
satisfy  one's  self  of  its  transparency.  Such  a  liquid  is  colored,  but  is  also 
clear. 

Suppose,  now,  we  take  some  clay,  shake  it  with  water,  and  then  allov/ 
it  to  settle.  The  grosser  particles  will  subside  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
but  the  finer  particles  will  remain  in  suspension.  Very  finely-divided 
clay  will  refuse  to  settle  for  weeks,  and  sometimes  even  for  months.  In 
such  cases  the  liquid  appears  somewhat  turbid  and  opaque ;  and,  although 
the  individual  particles  are  too  fine  to  be  readily  removed  by  ordinary 
filters,  and  too  small  to  be  distinguished  as  particles  by  the  eye,  still  the 
clay  has  not  dissolved;  and  the  very  turbidity  or  opacity  of  the  liquid 
shows  the  presence  of  solid  particles,  although  they  are  extremely  minute. 
Such  an  appearance  is  not  to  be  described  as  "being  colored,"  although 
finely-divided  clay  and  other  material  may  be  suspended  in  a  liquid  which 
does  of  itself  possess  a  distinct  color.  One  often  meets  with  the  expres- 
sion, and  that  too  in  standard  works,  "the  water  is  discolored  by  clay," 
when  really  it  is  a  question  of  a  colorless  water  carrying  particles  in 
suspension.  The  water  in  many  streams  is  at  seasons  highly  colored  by 
vegetable  extractive  matter  in  solution;  while  the  water  may  at  the  same 
time  be  perfectly  clear  and  transparent.  On  the  other  hand,  our  pond 
waters  are  often  decidedly  gi'een;  but  simple  filtration  gives  a  colorless 
water,  and  shows  the  green  color  to  have  been  due  to  particles  of  green 
(vegetable)  matter  which  were  suspended  in  the  liquid. 

Sedimentation. — Much  of  the  matter  which  a  running  stream  bears 
along  in  suspension  is  of  higher  specific  gravity  than  the  water  itself; 
and  if  the  water  is  allowed  to  stand  quietly  in  basins  or  reservoirs,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  suspended  particles  will  subside.  Many  lakes 
illustrate  this  fact;  the  stream  which  enters  at  the  head  of  a  lake  may 
be  very  turbid,  while  the  outlet  of  the  lake  is  bright  and  clear.  The 
Romans,  in  their  water-works,  recognized  the  advantage  of  subsidence. 
Precautions  were  taken  in  many  cases  at  the  sources  themselves  to  insure, 
as  far  as  possible,  freedom  from  turbidity;  and  there  were  constructed  at 
intervals  in  the  aqueducts  what  were  called  piscinm  limarim.  Fig.  21 
represents  one  of  these  piscince,  through  which  the  water  of  the  Anio 
Novus  passed  at  its  entrance  into  Rome.  The  direction  of  the  water  is 
shown  by  the  arrows.  The  channel  of  the  aqueduct  coming  at  a  toler- 
ably high  level  entered  the  right-hand  upper  chamber.  From  this  cham- 
ber the  water  passed  (possibly  over  a  large  waste-pipe)  into  the  chamber 
beneath,  and  thence  into  the  left-hand  lower  compartment  through  per- 
forations in  the  wall.  Through  the  roof  of  this  chamber  there  was  a  hole, 
and  the  water  passed  upward,  of  course  finding  the  same  level  at  its  exit 
as  that  at  which  it  entered  the  jnscitia.     By  the  aid  of  sluice-gates  the 


266      ON    DEINKIWG-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 


water  could  be  passed  through  tie  two  upper  comj^artments  without  en- 
tering the  lower  ones.  Access  was  obtained  by  an  opening  to  the  cham- 
bers beneath,  and  the  mud  was  from  time  to  time  cleaned  out.  These 
piscinae,  have  been  spoken  of  as  "  filtering-places  ; "  '  but  this  is  incorrect. 


Fig.  21. 

The  openings  in  the  wall  between  the  two  lower  chambers  were  small, 
and  may,  as  Parker  suggests,  have  been  covered  by  some  sort  of  a  grating; 
but  it  is  evident  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  insert  in  the  course  of  a 
stream  of  the  size  of  that  which  flowed  in  the  aqueduct  anything  Avhich 
could  act  otherwise  than  as  a  coarse  strainer.  No  doubt  the  efficiency  of 
these  piscince  was  due  to  the  opportunity  given  for  subsidence. 

In  many  modern  works  the  water  of  a  turbid  stream  is  allowed  to  stand 
in  settling-basins  for  a  few  hours  or  days.  Hamburg,  on  the  Elbe,  St. 
Louis,  on  the  Mississippi,  submit  the  river  water  which  they  use  to  no 
other  treatment.  As  a  means  of  purification,  such  a  process  is,  as  a  rule, 
utterly  inadequate.  Even  as  a  means  of  clarification,  subsidence  alone 
has  proved  insufficient.  In  spite  of  the  jnscincelimarim,  we  learn  that  the 
water  often  reached  Rome  in  a  turbid  condition,'^  and,  in  modern  cities, 
where  reliance  is  placed  on  subsiding  basins  alone,  the  water  is  frequently 
supplied  in  an  objectionable  condition,  and  the  water-takers  are  driven  to 
the  use  of  household  filters. 

The    writer    had    recently    an    opportunity    to    inspect   some    of   the 

'  The  Archaeology  of  Rome,  by  John  Henry  Parker,  O.B.,  Part  VIII.  :  The  Aque- 
duct.    See  p.  71.     See  also  Popular  Science  Monthly,  May,  1877,  p.  31. 

^Frontinus:  De  aquseductibus  uxbis  Rom«,  §15:  "Sic  quoque,  quotiens  imbres 
superveniunt,  turbida  pervenit  in  urbem."  Frontinus  was  superintendent  of  the  aque- 
ducts (  curator  aquarwn)  under  Domitian  and  Nerva,  and  died  A.D.  107. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       267 

water-mains  in  Hamburg,  which  were  being  removed  in  the  course  of 
some  repairs.  The  pipes  contained  a  quantity  of  sedimentary  matter,  and 
the  interior  was  almost  literally  lined  with  masses  of  mussels.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  the  condition  of  the  water  is  the  subject  of  a  great  deal  of 
complaint.  At  Altona,  however,  which  is  situated  a  few  miles  lower 
down  on  the  same  stream,  the  Elbe,  and  where  the  water  is  filtered,  it  is 
stated  by  the  chief  engineer  and  superintendent  of  the  water-works,  Herr 
Ktimmel,  that  the  pipes  are  perfectly  clean,  and  that  there  is  no  animal  or 
vegetable  life  in  the  filtered  water.  While  sedimentation  alone  is  unsatis- 
factory, the  process  is  of  great  value,  and  often  practically  indispensable 
as  a  preliminary  to  successful  filtration. 

Aeration. — Where  a  natural  water  is  stored  in  open  basins  or  reser- 
voirs in  order  that  the  suspended  matter  may  subside,  other  actions  are 
at  the  same  time  concerned,  and  notably  the  action  of  air  and  light.  Al- 
though, as  has  already  been  seen,  the  storage  of  surface  water  in  shallow, 
reservoirs  is  often  attended  with  great  disadvantages,  owing  to  the  heat- 
ing of  the  water  and  to  the  growth  of  minute  vegetable  organisms,  there 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  advantages  attending  the  storage  of  some  kinds 
of  water.  A  water  which  is  colored  by  dissolved  vegetable  matter,  as 
are  the  streams  which  flow  from  marshes  or  peat-bogs,  loses  a  sensible 
amount  of  color,  and  the  effect  is  the  more  marked  as  the  reservoirs  in- 
crease in  size  and,  other  things  being  equal,  in  depth.  This  action  is  very 
marked  in  many  natural  ponds.  Take,  for  example,  Loch  Katrine,  in 
Scotland,  from  which  the  water-supply  of  Glasgow  is  taken.  Into  this 
lake  there  enter  a  number  of  streams  which  are  so  charged  with  the  ex- 
tractive matter  of  the  peat  as  to  be  quite  brown  in  color.  The  color  of  the 
water  of  the  lake,  however,  where  it  enters  the  conduit,  is  scarcely  notice- 
able, and  the  water  in  the  city  of  Glasgow  is  ordinarily  clear  and  appar- 
ently colorless. 

The  loss  of  color  is  usually  regarded  as  the  result  of  the  action  of 
sunlight;  but  as  such  loss  of  color  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  deposit 
of  more  or  less  sediment,  even  when  the  water  has  seemed  clear,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  chemical  action  takes  place,  in  which  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  plays  a  part. 

The  effect  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  as  a  means  of  purification  in  the  case 
of  running  streams  has  already  been  discussed.  It  has  been  jDroposed  to 
aerate  artificially  the  water  of  storage  reservoirs  and  other  water  used  for 
domestic  supply,  and  it  is  no  doubt  of  advantage  in  the  case  of  small  un- 
covered reservoirs  to  arrange  the  outlet  and  inlet  so  as  to  promote  a  con- 
tinual circulation  of  the  water  and  to  avoid  stagnation;  beyond  this  it  is 
doutful  if  very  much  is  to  be  gained  by  artificial  exposure  of  water  to  the 
air. 

A  water  which  contains  no  dissolved  gases  is  flat  and  insipid,  so  much 
so  that  where  distilled  water  is  prepared  for  drinking,  as,  for  instance,  on 
shipboard,  it  is  necessary  to  aerate  the  water.  There  is,  moreover,  no  doubt 
that  the  oxygen  gas  which  any  water  dissolves  from  the  air  when  it  is  in 
contact  with  it  plays  an  important  part  in  the  destruction  of  organic  mat- 


268      OlSr   DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

ters  derived  from  various  sources.  But  this  oxidizing  action  has  been 
overrated,  and  no  artificial  process  of  aeration  can  suffice  to  render  pure 
the  water  from  a  contaminated  source.  Water  absorbs  a  certain  amount 
of  oxygen  rather  freely,  and  with  proper  circulation  in  pipes  and  reser- 
voirs there  is  nothing  to  be  feared  in  the  way  of  a  lack  of  aeration  of  a 
good  water.  Even  water  from  deep  springs  which  issues  from  the  ground 
nearly,  or  in  some  cases  absolutely,  free  from  oxygen,  soon  acquires  its 
proper  amount.  It  is  true  that  stagnant  water  ponded  over  decaying 
vegetable  or  animal  matter  loses  its  oxygen;  but  remove  the  water  from 
over  the  deposit  and  oxygen  is  reabsorbed. 

Allusion  may  be  made  to  a  process  of  purification,  said  to  be  in  use  on 
the  River  Neva,  at  St.  Petersburg,  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  river 
water  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  bank  paper.'  The  apparatus  con- 
sists of  several  troughs,  placed  step-wise  one  above  the  other.  .  Each 
trough  is  divided  longitudinally  by  a  partition,  which  does  not  reach  the 
bottom,  into  two  compartments.  The  inner  or  rear  division  is  covered  with 
wire-gauze,  and  receives  the  water  as  it  flows  from  the  step  or  trough 
above;  from  the  outer  compartment  the  water  falls  some  two  feet  on  to 
the  gauze  of  the  step  below.  The  total  area  of  the  gauze  is  420  feet,  and 
it  has  fifty  meshes  to  the  inch.  The  water  is  treated  to  the  amount  of 
100,000  cubic  feet  in  ten  hours.  The  water,  as  it  begins  its  descent 
through  this  apparatus,  is  said  to  appear  clear  and  pellucid,  but  before 
passing  through  two  sheets  of  gauze  it  becomes  turbid  and  deposits  a  black 
scum  on  the  wires,  which  thus  require  frequent  cleaning.  The  tanks  which 
receive  the  water  are  constantly  covered  with  a  thick  scum,  and  the  water  is 
filtered  through  sand  and  gravel  before  being  used.  It  is  a  question  how 
far  the  action  in  this  case  is  due  to  chemical,  and  how  far  to  mechanical 
action,  to  the  "  flocculation "  of  the  fine  suspended  particles  as  a  result 
of  the  agitation  of  the  water.  Probably  the  latter  action  plays  an  im- 
portant part. 

Filtration.  — By  a  properly  conducted  process  of  filtration  it  is  possible 
to  effect  thorough  clarification.  All  floating  particles  visible  to  the  un- 
aided eye  may  be  thus  removed;  some  substances,  however,  much  more 
readily  than  others. 

The  filtration  of  water  on  the  large  scale  has  been  practised  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent  for  years,  and  filtration  works  are  now  con- 
sidered, as  a  matter  of  course,  a  part  of  any  scheme  for  the  introduction 
of  water  from  a  running  stream.  In  this  country  very  little  has  yet  been 
done  in  this  direction.  In  the  year  1866  James  P.  Kirkwood,  C.E.,  went 
to  Europe  in  the  interests  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  to  study  the  clarifica- 
tion of  river  waters  used  for  the  supply  of  cities.  He  made  an  elaborate 
report  ^  on  the  subject,  giving  details  of  European  practice  and  plans  for 
filtering-beds  for  St.  Louis. 

St.  Louis  has  not  yet  adopted  any  system  of  filtration,  but  several 

'  Proceedings  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  XXVII. ,  1867-68,  p.  46  :  an  account  given  by 
Mr.  C.  E.  Austin. 

^  Kirkwood  :  Filtration  of  River  Waters,  New  York,  Van  Nostrand,  1869. 


OIS"    DKINKING-WATEll    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       269 

other  cities  of  smaller  size  have  clone  so  with  more  or  less  success:  namely, 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  in  1871;  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  in  1874;  Columbus,  O.,  in 
1874;  Toledo,  O.,  in  1875. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  filtering  material  has  proved  practically 
available  on  the  large  scale,  except  sand.  Various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  use  other  substances,  but  hitherto  without  marked  success.  We 
will,  therefore,  consider  the  general  features  of  the  process  of  sand-filtra- 
tion as  practised  at  home  and  abroad. 

Filter-beds,  as  usually  constructed,  are  water-tight  basins,  some  ten 
feet  or  more  in  depth,  the  sides  built  of  masonry,  and  the  bottom  puddled 
or  made  of  concrete,  or  paved  with  brick  and  cemented.  The  area  mav 
be  from  20,000  to  50,000,  or  in  some  cases  even  150,000  square  feet.  In 
building  up  the  filtering-bed,  provision  is  first  made  for  the  ready  collec- 
tion of  the  water  by  constructing  upon  the  floor  of  the  basin  drains  or 
channel-ways  of  stone  or  brick  laid  dry;  then  follows  a  layer  of  broken 
stone,  the  fragments  being  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter.  This  is  suc- 
ceeded by  gravel  screened  so  as  to  be  of  uniform  size,  a  layer  of  coarse 
being  followed  by  one  or  more  layers  of  finer  material;  upon  the  gravel 
rests  sand,  likewise  separated  into  layers  of  uniform  size.  The  exact  thick- 
ness of  the  different  layers,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  separation  intc< 
the  different  sizes  is  carried,  are  subject,  of  course,  to  considerable  varia- 
tion. The  object  of  the  care  bestowed  in  arranging  the  material  of  the 
filters  is  to  prevent  the  fine  sand  from  finding  its  way  into  the  drains,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  have  such  a  body  of  water  below  the  filtering  surface 
as  to  insure  the  gradual  and  uniform  passage  of  the  water  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  drains  without  the  creation 
of  actual  currents  or  streams.  ^^g^^^^ 

The  accompanying  figure.  Fig.  22,  ^^-=^^ 
represents  a  section  of  the  filter-beds  at  g^^^^^^^^^ 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  which  are  con-  =^^=^^=^=^g^ 
structed  on  the  English  model.  There  are  g^^^=^-^^ 
two  filter-beds,  each  200  X  73|-  feet  in  plan  ^=^^^= 
and  12  feet  deep,  built  with  vertical  Avails:  ^;^^^^^ 
each  has,   therefore,  14,700  square  feet        ^il^^^ 

of  filtering  area.     The  six  feet  of  filter-        $s^^?^s|^  Sand 2  ft. 

ing  materials,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the        Wl^^^W^ 

11  T  1  p    n  W^^^-^WS  %  in-  gravel  >, 

bed,  are  disposed  as  follows:  v^W^i^d  \        iq:„ 

^4  inches  ot  sand.  § ■Ji^^^SJsJvv'i  i  in     do     \ 

6  "  :|-  inch  gravel.  g^^^^^'2  in.  stone 6in. 

6  (c  -^  ii  ^^^^^^4  to  Sin.  stone 2  ft. 

6  "         2  inch  broken  stone.        ^^^^^ 

24          "         4  to  8  in.  "  „_  ^.,    «    ,.       .  x,     ,  ^ 

xiG.  SJ. — Section  of  PougKkeepsie 

filter-bed. 

Total,  72  inches. 

The  water  stands  several  feet  deep  over  the  surface  of  the  sand,  and  is 
allowed  to  flow  down  through  the  filter  at  such  rate  as  experience  shows 


270      ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    AVATER-SUPPLIES. 

to  be  most  advantageous.  Naturally,  when  the  sand  is  clean,  a  greater 
quantity  of  water  will  pass  in  a  given  time  than  when  the  sand  has  be- 
come clogged;  practice  differs  as  to  the  maximum  rate;  but  it  is  seldom 
over  six  inches,  vertically,  per  hour,  and  often  less.  At  the  rate  men- 
tioned, each  square  foot  of  surface  would  deliver  12  cubic  feet  (or  89f 
United  States  gallons)  per  day. 

When  the  beds  become  clogged,  so  as  no  longer  to  filter  with  sufficient 
rapidity,  the  water  is  drawn  down  to  from  12  to  24  inches  below  the  upper 
surface  of  the  filtering-beds,  or  is  drained  away  entirely,  and  the  upper 
layer  of  sand,  for  a  depth  of  one-half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  is  re- 
moved. When  by  successive  parings  the  thickness  of  the  sand  has  been 
considerably  reduced,  that  which  has  been  removed  is  washed  and  replaced 
so  as  to  restore  the  original  thickness,  the  waste  of  washing  being  made 
up  with  fresh  sand.  In  the  worst  stages  of  the  English  rivers  a  filter-bed 
has  to  be  cleaned  once  a  week,  rarely  oftener.  When  the  rivers  are  free 
from  turbidity,  cleansing  may  not  be  necessary  more  than  once  a  month, 
or  in  some  cases  once  in  two  months.  Cleaning  of  the  filter-beds  in 
winter  is  attended  with  considerable  inconvenience.  The  European  prac- 
tice, in  locations  where  the  ice  freezes  to  any  thickness,  may  be  learned 
by  the  following  quotation  from  Kirkwood's  account  of  the  Berlin  works: 

"  The  ice  forms  upon  the  filter-beds  15  inches  thick,  and  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  24  inches  thick.  To  protect  the  enclosing  walls  of  each 
filter  from  damage,  the  ice  is  kept  separated  from  the  walls,  6  to  12  inches, 
by  attendants  appointed  to  that  duty;  and,  so  long  as  the  cake  of  ice  is 
kept  floating  in  this  way,  the  masonry  is  safe  from  any  danger  by  its 
thrust."  > 

It  is  becoming  customary  in  Germany  to  cover  the  filter-beds,  and 
thus  to  allow  the  filtration  to  take  place  the  same  in  winter  as  in  summer, 
although  it  is  not  necessary  to  clean  the  beds  as  often  during  the  cooler 
part  of  the  year.  It  would  seem  that,  in  our  climate,  the  filter-beds 
should  always  be  covered,  not  only  to  prevent  the  formation  of  ice  in 
winter,  but  also  to  prevent,  in  some  measure,  the  heating  of  the  water  in 
summer  to  a  high  degree,  and  the  consequent  encouragement  of  vegeta- 
ble growth. 

While  it  is,  in  general,  true  that  the  upper  layer  of  sand  does  most  of 
the  work  in  intercepting  the  various  floating  matters  in  the  water,  it  does 
not  do  the  whole  under  the  conditions  which  occur  in  ordinary  practice. 
Examination  shows  that  the  sand  is  somewhat  affected  to  a  greater  depth, 
and  it  may  occasionally  be  necessary  to  renew  all  the  sand.  The  very 
fact  that  in  all  actual  works  there  are  times  when  the  water  is  imperfectly 
clarified,  shows  that  the  interior  of  a  sand-filter  must  become  more  or  less 
fouled.  The  depth  to  which  the  sand  becomes  sensibly  fouled  depends  upon 
several  conditions,  and  mainly,  in  the  case  of  any  given  water,  upon  the 

'  See  Kirkwood's  Filtration  of  River  Water,  p.  114.  Since  Kirkwood's  report  was 
made,  the  Berlin  works  have  been  much  extended,  and  a  portion  of  the  filters  are  now 
covered. 


ON   DRUSTKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       271 


rate  of  flow,  upon  the  head  under  which  filtration  takes  place,  and  upon 
the  frequency  with  which  the  beds  are  cleansed. 

The  head  under  which  the  water  is  filtered  varies  at  any  works  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  of  the  sand.  The  clear-water  well  is  generally  so 
arranged  that  the  height  of  water  in  it  can  be  lowered  at  pleasure;  and 
the  head  under  which  the  water  is  filtered  is  the  difference  between 
the  level  in  the  bed  and  in  the  clear- 
water  well,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  ac- 
companying cut,  where  the  head  is 
measured  by  the  distance  between  a 
and  b.  While  the  beds  are  clean,  a 
difference  of  from  9  to  12  inches  suffices 
to  cause  a  proper  rate  of  flow;  when 
they  become  clogged  a  much  greater 
pressure  is  required.  There  is  a  limit, 
however,  beyond  which  it  becomes  un- 
desirable to  increase  the  head.  The 
greater  the  pressure,  the  more  densely  mE 
does  the  sand  become  packed;  and  in  ^^= 
cleaning  the  beds,  after  scraping  off  a 
thin  layer  of  foul  sand  at  the  top,  the 
usual  custom  is  to  loosen  the  sand  with 
forks  to  the  depth  of  some  inches 


mm 

Fig.  23. 
The  best  authorities,  however,  regard 
this  as  unadvisable;  and  it  is  a  sign  of  bad  management  when  the  water 
is  filtered  under  such  a  head  that  this  operation  is  rendered  necessary. 
The  increase  of  pressure,  too,  drives  the  impurities  to  a  greater  depth 
into  the  sand;  and  there  is  liability,  in  filtering  under  too  great  a  head, 
when  the  bed  has  become  somewhat  clogged,  especially  if  the  water  in 
the  clear-water  well  is  allowed  to  fall  below  the  level  of  the  sand,  that 
the  water  will  force  its  way  through  the  sand  where  the  clogging  material 
offers  the  least  resistance,  and  thus  pass  downward  irregularly  and  in 
actual  streamlets. 

In  some  places  the  filter-beds  are  cleaned  by«forcing  the  filtered  water 
backward  through  the  filtering  material,  and  stirring  up  at  the  same  time 
the  upper  part  of  the  sand-layer.  The  dirty  water  is  allowed  to  overflow 
and  to  run  to  waste.  This  method  presupposes  an  abundance  of  water 
and  the  ability  to  command  the  necessary  pressure,  and  is  hardly  to  be 
recommended.  It  is  practised  at  Ziirich,  in  Switzerland,  where  the  water 
filtered  is  practically  spring  water  rendered  turbid  by  clay  or  other  min- 
eral matter. 


Object  and  Hesidts  of  Filtration  on  the  JLarge  Scale. 

Having  considered  the  method  of  filtration  in  common  use,  we  may 
now  profitably  inquire  more  closely  into  the  object  which  it  aims  to  ac- 
complish, and  the  results  which  are  actually  obtained. 

Filtration,  in  its  strict  sense,  is  simply  a  mechanical   operation,  and 


272      OJf    DRINEII^G-WATEE   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

directs  itself  to  the  removal  of  such  substances  as  are  carried  in  suspension 
in  the  water.  The  suspended  matter,  which  by  its  presence  in  our  water- 
supplies  makes  filtration  desirable,  is  somewhat  various  in  character. 
Sometimes  the  suspended  matter  will  settle  quite  readily  b}^  virtue  of  the 
comparatively  high  specific  gravity  of  the  particles,  as  will  be  the  case  of 
the  mineral  matter  consisting  of  sand,  mica,  etc.  Such  substances  are 
readily  removed  by  filtration ;  but  we  have  seen  that  it  is  generally  more 
economical  to  subject  the  water  to  a  process  of  sedimentation  first,  and 
settling-basins  are  quite  universally  regarded  as  a  necessary  preliminary 
to  successful  filtration.  It  is  evident  that  without  sedimentation  a  slower 
rate  of  filtration  must  be  employed,  and  the  sand  must  be  cleaned  more 
frequently.  If  the  suspended  matter  is  clay,  it  may  obstinately  refuse  to 
settle;  in  this  case  it  is  almost  impossible  to  filter  the  water  slowly  enough 
to  obtain  good  results  if  the  turbid  water  without  previous  sedimentation 
is  put  directly  upon  the  filter-beds.  Even  with  sedimentation  the  result 
is  not  always  as  good  as  might  be  desired,  and  in  works  which  are  actually 
in  operation  it  not  unfrequently  hapjoens  that  imperfectly  clarified  water 
is  delivered  to  consumers. 

With  respect  to  the  minute  vegetable  organisms  which  occur  in  sur- 
face waters,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  removing  them  completely  by  sand 
filtration,  although  of  course  the  filters  become  rapidly  clogged.  This 
clogging  is  aided  also  by  the  development  upon  the  beds  themselves  of 
confervoid  growth,  which  in  uncovered  beds  become  so  abundant  and 
vigorous  as  to  form  a  sort  of  carj)et  on  the  surface  of  the  sand,  which  can 
be  raked  off  in  coherent  sheets  or  rolled  up. 

"We  are  come  now  to  consider  more  particularly  the  action  of  a  sand- 
filter.  On  the  suspended  matter,  the  action,  although  simple,  is  twofold. 
In  the  first  place,  particles  too  large  to  pass  into  the  interstices  of  the 
filter  are  arrested  at  the  very  outside;  in  the  second  place,  and  with  regard 
to  finer  particles,  the  process  is  one  of  sedimentation  and  adhesion.  It  is 
well  known  that  a  turbid  liquid  will  deposit  sediment,  not  simply  on  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained,  but  also  upon  the  sides.  In 
a  sand  filter,  as  the  wate^  passes  slowly  downward,  not  in  veins,  but  b}^ 
percolation,  the  minute  particles  of  suspended  matter  are  attracted  to  and 
deposited  upon  the  walls  of  the  numerous  vessels  which  are  formed  by  the 
void  spaces  between  the  grains  of  sand.  This  is  true  even  when  the 
material  of  the  filter  is  very  coarse.  If  muddy  water  be  passed  sloidy 
through  a  bed  of  shingle  or  broken  stone,  it  will  clear  much  more  rapidly 
than  if  the  subsidence  takes  place  in  an  unobstructed  basin. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  action  of  a  sand-filter  is  exerted  chiefly  on  the 
substances  which  are  in  suspension,  it  is  also  true  that  some  effect  is  pro- 
duced upon  matter  actually  in  solution.  This  effect  has  been  very  much 
exaggerated;  and  yet  there  is  no  doubt  that,  if  properly  managed,  sand 
filtration  is  competent  to  remove  an  appreciable  amount  of  dissolved  or- 
ganic matter.  The  action  may  be  explained  in  two  ways.  In  the  first 
place,  most  porous  substances  possess  the  power  of  removing  certain 
kinds  of  organic  matter  by  something  which  may  be  called  adhesion.    The 


ON    DKINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    AVATER-SUPPLIES.        273 

absorptive  power  for  any  substance  is  limited  and  soon  reached,  and  the 
substance  thus  removed  may  by  appropriate  means  be  again  brought  into 
solution.  Quartz  sand,  as  we  should  infer,  possesses  the  power  to  a  slight 
degree  only.  The  second  method,  by  which  dissolved  organic  matter  is 
removed  in  the  sand-filter,  is  by  oxidation.  The  substance  is  actually 
burned  more  or  less  completely,  in  part  by  the  oxygen  held  in  solution  in 
the  water,  and  in  part  by  the  air  entangled  in  the  interstices  of  the  sand. 
Although  in  filling  the  beds  with  water,  great  care  is  taken  to  disjolace  the 
air  gradually,  and  as  completely  as  possible,  there  must  always  some  re- 
main in  the  concavities  of  the  individual  grains  of  sand  and  otherwise  en- 
tangled. The  extent  of  the  action  of  a  sand-filter  in  this  direction  depends 
not  only  on  the  thickness  of  the  filtering  medium,  and  the  rate  at  which 
the  filtration  takes  place,  but  also,  and  in  large  measure,  upon  the  frequency 
with  which  the  filter  is  cleansed.  The  cleansing  of  the  filter  not  only 
removes  the  accumulation  of  organic  matter,  which  if  allowed  to  remain 
would  tend  to  injure  the  water,  but  also  involves  the  aeration  of  the  sand. 

Many  analyses  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  sand-filtration 
upon  the  water  filtered.  In  some  cases  the  oxidation  alluded  to  is  suffi- 
cient to  determine  an  appreciable  decrease  in  the  amount  of  dissolved  or- 
ganic matter  which  gives  color  and  unpleasant  taste  to  the  water.  In 
view  of  what  is  actually  accomplished  in  existing  works,  it  seems  to  be 
best  to  regard  the  removal  of  color  and  unpleasant  taste  as  incidental  and 
likely  to  vary  very  much  according  to  the  condition  of  the  filter.  If  a 
sand-filter  removes  completely  all  suspended  matters  without  allowing  the 
matter  at  first  removed  to  contaminate  by  its  decay  the  water  filtered  sub- 
sequently, it  may  be  regarded  as  successful. 

In  order  to  secure  success  in  the  management  of  any  scheme  for  the 
filtration  of  water  on  the  large  scale,  the  works  should  be  under  the  man- 
agement of  a  person  of  intelligence  and  of  some  education  and  experience. 
The  filter-beds  should  be  properly  constructed,  especial  attention  being 
given  to  the  sand  employed,  and  should  be  cleaned  with  suflBcient  frequency. 
Settling-basins  of  sufficient  size  will  generally  be  necessary,  and,  for  the 
best  effect,  the  filter-beds  should  be  covered,  and  the  filtered  water  de- 
livered at  once  to  the  consumers,  or,  if  stored,  it  should  be  stored  in  cov- 
ered reservoirs  of  small  size,  which  can  be  readily  emptied  and  cleaned  if 
occasion  require. 

The  covering  of  the  filter-beds  is  a  great  advantage,  as  has  already  been 
said;  the  covering  of  the  clear-water  basin  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  neces- 
sity, especially  in  case  of  all  waters  which  are  liable  to  considerable  vege- 
table growth.  It  would  seem  that  the  spores  of  the  algae  are  not  removed 
by  the  passage  through  sand;  at  any  rate,  if  the  filtered  water  be  stored 
in  a  reservoir  exposed  to  light,  the  algffi  develop  themselves  anew,  and  the 
advantage  once  gained  is  lost.  It  is,  however,  confidently  asserted  that,  if 
the  water  after  filtration  be  stored  in  covered  reservoirs  only,  no  growth 
will  make  its  appearance.  This  has  certainly  proved  to  be  the  case  in 
Berlin,  Altona,  and  other  places  in  Germany,  and  in  several  localities  in 

England  as  well. 

Vol.  L— 18 


274 


01^    DEINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-SUPPLIES. 


In  Europe  it  is  usual  to  cover  all 
distributing  reservoirs  and  sometimes 
the  filter-beds  by  arching  them  over 
with  masonry  or  brick-work  and  then 
covering  with  earth.  Fig.  24  repre- 
sents a  section  of  the  reservoir  at  Dres- 
den, Germany,  which  has  a  capacity 
of  19,200  cubic  metres.  Fig.  25  is  a 
suggestion  from  Fanning's  Water-Sup- 
ply Engineering  of  a  less  expensive 
form  of  covering.  This  would  be  some- 
what less  serviceable  as  a  means  of 
keeping  a  uniform  temperature  on  the 
beds,  and,  as  far  as  known,  no  such 
coverings  are  in  actual  use. 

As  to  the  extra  expense  of  filter- 
ing the  entire  water-supply  of  any 
town,  much  will  depend  upon  the  ex- 
tent of  the  works.  From  figures  fur- 
nished by  Mr,  The.  W.  Davis,  of  the 
Pougkeepsie  Water-Works,  the  cost 
at  that  place  appears  to  be  from  $2.50 
to  $3.50  per  million  gallons  filtered, 
but  with  larger  works  the  running  ex- 
penses would  properly  be  less> 

Household  Filtration, 


Of  household  filters,  patented  and 
unpatented,  there  has  been  and  is  the 
greatest  variety,  both  in  form  and  ma- 
terial. Many  sorts  of  porous  stone, 
sand,  powdered  glass,  bricks,  iron  in 
turnings,  and  other  forms,  vegetable 
and  animal  charcoal,  sponge,  wool, 
flannel,  cotton,  straw,  saw-dust,  excel- 
sior, and  wire-gauze — these  are  some 
of  the  substances  which  are  used  for 
the  purpose. 

There  are  certain  fundamental  re- 
quirements which  a  filter  must  satisfy 
in  order  to  be  considered  suitable  for 
household  use.  In  the  first  place,  it 
must  be  made  of  a  material  which  can- 
not communicate  any  injurious  or  offensive  quality  to  the  water  which 
passes  through  it;  second,  it  must  remove  all  siispended  particles,  so  as 
to  render  the  water  bria:ht   and  clear;  third,  it  must  either  be  readily 


ON    DKINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       275 

cleaned,  or  the  filtering  material  must  be  arranged  so  as  to  be  readily  re- 
newed.    In  addition  to  these  requirements,  it  is  of  great  advantage  if  the 


Fig.  25. 

filter  is  able  to  remove  a'  noticeable  amount  of  the  dissolved  organic  mat- 
ter which  most  waters  contain. 

Allusion  has  been  already  made  to  the  fact  that  the  action  of  a  filter 
is  either  mechanical  or  chemical.  There  is  a  mechanical  action,  by  virtue 
of  which  solid  particles  which  are  too  large  to  pass  the  pores  of  the  filter 
are  arrested:  other  particles  are  drawn  by  a  force  of  adhesion  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  particles  of  the  filter,  and  are  thus  removed.  This  property  of 
adhesion,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  is  sometimes  exerted  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  remove  substances  which  seem  to  be  completely  dissolved,  without, 
however,  producing  any  apparent  chemical  change  in  them.  The  sub- 
stances so  removed  may  be  again  by  proper  means  recovered  and  brought 
into  solution.  There  is  also  an  unmistakable  chemical  action,  by  virtue 
of  which  some  substances  are  destroyed,  or  rather  are  converted  into  new 
compounds.  This  action  is  mainly  due  to  processes  of  oxidation  which 
take  place,  in  part  at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen  which  is  contained  in  the 
solution,  and  in  part  at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen  mechanically  entangled 
in  the  pores  of  the  porous  substance  employed.     Different  porous  sub- 


276      01^    DRINKING-WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER- SUPPLIES. 


stances  differ  very  much  in  this  respect.  A  mass  of  clean  quartz  sand  can 
produce  little  effect,  while  animal  charcoal  possesses  such  a  power  in  this 
direction  that  it  is  used  in  the  arts  to  decolorize  colored  liquids. 

Household  filters  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  first,  those  of 
small  size,  intended  to  be  attached  to  the  faucet,  where  the  water  is 
brought  in  pipes  either  from  the  service-mains  of  a  general  supply,  or 
from  a  tank  in  the  building;  second,  the  portable  filters  designed  to  oc- 
cupy a  more  or  less  permanent  position,  and  to  be  filled  with  water,  either 
by  a  ball-cock  or  other  similar  arrangement,  or  by  means  of  smaller  sup- 
plies continually  renewed;  third,  the  more  permanent  and  fixed  devices 
which  are  inserted  or  built  into  underground  or  other  cisterns. 

In  the  case  of  filters  of  the  first  class,  i.  e.,  those  which  are  made  to  be 
attached  to  water-taps,  it  is  not  practicable  to  require  anything  more  than 
that  they  shall  act  as  mechanical  strainers  and  arrest  all  suspended  sub- 
stances which  may  be  in  the  water.  There  is  no  material  known  which 
can  be  introduced  into  the  small  space  of  a  tap-filter  and  accomplish  any 
real  pxirification  of  the  water  which  passes  through  at  the  ordinary  rate 
of  flow. 

Of  all  the  patent  contrivances  which  have  been  proposed,  there  is 
probably,  after  all,  none  better  than  the  form  which  has  been  in  use  for 
many  years,  which  is  filled  with  clean  quartz  sand,  and  is  capable  of  being 
readily  reversed  and  thus  cleansed.  Even  animal  charcoal  in  the  quantity 
which  admits  of  being  readily  attached  to  a  faucet  has  no  advantage  over 
such  a  filter. 

Sponge  is  very  efficient  as  a  strainer,  and  admits  of  being  compressed 
into  small  compass.  There  are  several  forms  of  sponge-filters  which  may 
be  screwed  upon  a  common  tap.  If  the  sponge  be  removed  and  washed 
with  hot  water  every  few  days,  these  filters  serve  a  good  purpose:  left  to 
themselves,  however,  they  do  more  harm  than  good.  Another  efficient 
filtering  material  is  common  cotton,  especially  after  chemical  treatment 
with  alkalies  and  acids.  This  is  well  known  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit 
of  collecting,  for  microscopic  examination,  the  mi- 
nute organisms  which  inhabit  fresh  waters — the  dia- 
toms, desmids,  and  other  small  alg«.  A  bag  of 
stout,  finely  woven  cotton  cloth,  or  of  the  so-called 
"  cotton-flannel,"  primitive  and  uncouth  as  it  may 
appear,  makes  a  very  good  tap-filter  where  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  is  not  too  great.  It  may  be  often 
renewed  at  a  trifling  expense,  and  in  summer  the 
odor  of  the  entangled  vegetable  matter  will  probably 
call  attention  to  it,  and  lead  to  its  frequent  washing 
or  renewal. 

All  ordinary  tap-filters  are  open  to  several  funda- 
mental objections,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  Fig.  2G. 
In  the  first  place,  all  those  that  contain  an  inside  box 
to  hold  the  filtering  material  are  liable  to  allow  some  water  to  pass  around 
the  box  and  out  of  the  filter  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  filtering 


CHARCOAL: 


EiG.  26. 


ON    DRIIS'KING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    "WATER-SUPPLIES,       277 

material  at  all.  In  the  particular  filter  shown  in  the  illustration,  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  prevent  this  by  leather  washers.  In  the  second  place, 
the  success  of  such  a  filter  in  the  accomplishment  of  its  legitimate  work 
depends  upon  the  frequency  with  which  it  is  cleaned.  No  filter  can  be 
self-cleaning.  Attention  on  the  part  of  some  individual  is  necessary,  and 
in  the  household,  where  such  matters  are  generally  left  to  the  care  or 
neglect  of  servants,  the  filters  are  more  likely  to  be  neglected  than  to 
be  cared  for.  In  many  cases  a  filter  once  screwed  upon  the  faucet  re- 
mains for  month  after  month  without  being  cleansed,  and  is  thus  worse 
than  useless.  In  the  third  place,  if  the  filter  is  so  arranged  as  to  be 
readily  removed  for  cleaning,  the  chances  are  that  it  will  leak  where  it  is 
attached,  or,  if  it  is  attached  so  tightly  as  not  to  leak,  the  chances  are  that 
it  will  be  difficult  to  remove,  and  thus  fail  to  be  cleaned.  Moreover,  with 
a  filter  of  this  kind  the  flow  of  water  is  more  or  less  obstructed;  and  if 
the  arrangement  is  such  as  to  facilitate  removal  for  cleaning,  the  tempta- 
tion is  always  before  the  servant  to  remove  the  filter  altogether  in  order 
to  obtain  the  water  more  freely. 

It  is  proper  to  say  in  this  connection  that,  in  case  the  water  is  de- 
livered by  service-pipes  from  a  general  supply,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
the  filtration  should  take  place  at  the  faucet,  for  most  of  the  materials 
used  for  filtration  and  mentioned  below  can  be  obtained  arranged  in  fil- 
ters of  large  size  intended  for  insertion  in  the  house  service.  Of  course, 
the  objection  to  this  arrangement  is  the  expense,  and  the  liability  that 
when  the  filter  has  been  once  inserted  it  will  be  dismissed  from  mind,  and 
proper  care  will  not  be  taken  to  maintain  it  in  efficient  condition. 

We  come  now  to  the  larger  forms  of  filters,  to  those  which  are  port- 
able, but  which  are  intended  to  occupy  a  permanent  position  in  the  room, 
or  in  some  cases  to  be  placed  in  the  tank  from  which  the  supply  is  drawn. 
The  material  which,  next  to  simple  sand,  has  probably  been  used  as  long  as 
anything  for  the  purpose,  is  stone.  Some  varieties  of  sandstone  are  par- 
ticularly porous,  sufficiently  so  to  allow  of  the  use  of  slabs  of  the  stone  as 
filters:  other  similar  substances,  such  as  pumice-stone  or  unglazed  earthen- 
ware, have  been  employed;  the  most  common  arrangement  being  to  Insert 
the  stone  as  a  horizontal  partition  in  a  small  tank  or  vessel.  Here  we 
have  to  deal,  in  the  main,  with  simple  mechanical  action.  The  material 
should  not  be  too  porous.  There  is,  at  least,  one  variety  of  artificial  stone 
in  the  market  which  is  so  porous  that  it  offers  almost  no  obstruction  to  the 
passage  of  water,  and  does  not  arrest  anything  but  the  grosser  particles 
of  solid  substances.  In  any  case  these  porous  slabs  are  rather  difficult  to 
clean,  as  the  intercepted  particles  penetrate  to  a  considerable  depth,  and 
are  not  easily  detached. 

As  filters  of  this  second  class  are  not  restricted  in  size  to  such  small 
dimensions,  it  is  here  possible  to  employ  materials  which  shall  perform 
something  more  than  a  mere  mechanical  action.  Of  such  materials  the 
best  known,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  most  efficient,  is  animal  charcoal.  All 
varieties  of  carbon  formed  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  vegetable  or 
animal  matter  possess  the  property  of  removing  organic  matter  from  solu- 


278      OJSr    DEINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

tion,  but  to  a  very  different  extent.  That  prepared  by  the  distillation  of 
wood,  i.  e.,  ordinary  charcoal,  possesses  the  property  in  too  slight  a  degree 
to  be  of  any  service  in  the  construction  of  filters;  but  animal  charcoal, 
prepared  from  bones  by  distilling  them  in  closed  retorts  at  a  rather  high 
temperature,  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  substances  in  this  regard  that  we 
possess.  One  of  the  familiar  uses  to  which  animal  charcoal  is  put  in  the 
industrial  arts  is  in  the  refining  of  sugar,  where  it  is  employed  to  remove 
the  coloring  matter  from  the  crude  sirups. 

There  are  many  forms  of  filter  in  which  animal  charcoal  is  employed. 
One  such  filter,  which  is  constructed  according  to  the  best  principles,  is 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


shown,  in  section  and  in  elevation,  in  Figs.  37  and  38.  This  is  an  English 
filter,  manufactured  by  the  London  and  General  Water  Purifying  Com- 
pany, The  earthenware  filter-box  is  filled  with  animal  charcoal,  in  the 
form  of  charred  bones,  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  freed  from  dust. 
The  water  is  caused  to  pass  upward  through  the 
filter,  in  order  that  matters  spontaneously  settling 
down  may  not  be  deposited  upon  the  filtering  mate- 
rial, and  help  to  clog  its  pores,  but  may  fall  away 
from  it  and  deposit  elsewhere;  the  consequence  of 
this  is,  that  the  filtering  material  requires  less  fre- 
quent cleansing.  When  cleansing  does  become 
necessary,  the  charcoal  can  be  readily  removed  and 
renewed.  This  filter  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the 
better  class  of  those  which  contain  the  charcoal  in 
fragments  rather  than  compressed  into  blocks.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  there  is  no  chamber  for  storing 
the  filtered  water;  the  water  is  filtered  at  the  time  it 
is  drawn  off  for  use,  and  when  the  filter  is  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  39, 
the  water  can  be  iced  before  filtration. 

A  great  many  experiments  have  been  made  with  a  great  variety  of 
waters,  and  by  many  observers,  to  determine  the  effect  of  filtration 
through  bone  coal,  and  there  is  no  question  that  this  material  is  able  to 
remove  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  organic  matter  dissolved  in  a 


Pig.  29. 


ON   DRIlSrKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       279 


water,  and  thus  to  serve,  not  as  a  mechanical  filter,  but  as  an  actual  purify- 
ing agent.  Frankland  at  one  time  proposed  to  filter  the  whole  water-supply 
of  London  by  this  method.  Although  this  would  be  expensive,  it  is  not 
altogether  impracticable.  In  large  works  it  would  be  possible  to  wash 
and  re-burn  the  coal  from  time  to  time,  and  the  dust  could  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  fertilizer.  The  process  would,  however,  undoubtedly  be 
very  expensive. 

For  some  forms  of  filters,  the  bone  coal  is  compressed  into  blocks,  in- 
stead of  being  used  in  fragments;  but,  as  a  rule,  for  filters  of  small  size, 
the  latter  method  is  to  be  preferred.  The  so-called  "  silicated  carbon  "  is 
also  presented  in  the  form  of  blocks,  and 
consists  of  the  residue  of  the  distillation 
of  a  variety  of  bituminous  shale.  Thus  it 
is  a  coke  mixed  with  mineral  matter.  In 
the  common  form  of  household  filters  of 
this  make  the  block  is  cemented  as  a  par- 
tition into  an  earthen  jar,  and  is  not  read- 
ily cleaned.  The  material  is,  however, 
quite  efficient  as  a  chemical  filter,  and  the 
difficulty  of  clogging  is  obviated  in  the 
tank-filters  by  allowing  the  water  to  pass 
first  through  sand,  which  removes  the 
bulk  of  the  suspended  matters. 

Another  material,  which  has  lately 
come  into  use  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  England,  is  what  is  known  as  "spongy 
iron."  It  was  observed  a  long  time  ago 
that  metallic  iron  possessed  the  property 
of  removing  considerable  quantities  of 
organic  matter  from  solutions  containing 
it;  and  iron  in  turnings,  and  in  other 
forms,  has  been  proposed  and  used  to  a 
very  limited  extent  as  a  means  of  purify- 
ing water.  The  material  at  present  al- 
luded to,  and  which  forms  the  essential 
part  of  Bischof's  Patent  Spongy  Iron  Fil- 
ter, is  an  iron  which  has  been  reduced 
from  a  hematite  ore  without  fusion,  and 
is  consequently  in  a  porous  and  finely- 
divided  condition. 

Fig.  30  represents  one  form  of  filter 
where  the  water  is  supplied  from  an  in- 
verted bottle,  which  must  be  refilled  as  often  as  empty.  In  other  forms 
the  reservoir  of  unfiltered  water  is  kept  full  by  being  connected  with  the 
service-pipe  by  means  of  a  ball-cock  attachment.  The  material  of  all  the 
vessels  is  earthenware. 

The  spongy  iron    is  also  employed  on  a  larger   scale  in  tank-filters. 


Fig.  30. — Spongy  iron  filter. 


280      ON   DRINKING-WATEK   AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-SUPPLIES. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  spongy  iron  is  very  efficient  in  destroying  or  at 
least  removing  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  dissolved  organic  matter 
which  occurs  in  natural  waters/  but  the  filters  are  open  to  several  objec- 
tions. First,  there  is  some  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  filtered  water  free 
from  iron.  The  filters  are  constructed  with  a  view  to  the  removal  of  the 
iron  by  the  subsequent  passage  of  the  water  through  fragments  of  flint 
and  quartz  sand,  with  which  has  been  mixed  pyrolusite,  the  native  oxide 
of  manganese.  But  in  spite  of  this,  the  filtered  water  does  contain  iron. 
Moreover,  the  construction  of  the  portable  filters  is  not  such  as  would  meet 
with  favor  in  American  households.  A  filter,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  30, 
which  is  2|-  feet  in  height  and  8  inches  in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  costs 
about  $7.50,  and  delivers  only  nine  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  If 
the  filtered  water  reservoir  were  empty,  it  would  take  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  to  draw  a  quart  of  filtered  water.  Even  with  the  large  sizes 
the  filtration  is  very  slow.  Thus  a  larger  size,  which  costs  about  $26, 
filters  only  sixty-four  gallons  per  day,  that  is  at  the  rate  of  about  a 
quart  in  five  minutes. 

On  the  whole,  there  is  no  better  substance  for  ordinary  household 
filters  than  animal  charcoal.  The  charcoal  should  be  renewed  from  time 
to  time;  how  often,  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  water  and  the 
amount  passed  through  the  filter.  If  the  coal  be  in  blocks,  the  clogging 
of  the  pores  will  indicate  the  necessity  for  cleaning;  if  in  granules  (which 
on  many  accounts  is  preferable),  it  may  be  well  to  renew  the  charcoal 
once  in  six  or  twelve  months,  according  to  the  amount  of  water  used.  In 
the  case  of  a  filter  fixed  with  some  permanence,  it  is  worth  while  to  have 
made  a  simple  chemical  examination,  if  there  is  reason  to  suspect  the 
efficiency  of  the  filter:  this  will  indicate  whether  the  work  is  still  being 
properly  performed.  It  is  true  in  the  case  of  these,  as  of  filters  in  gen- 
eral, that  unless  attention  is  paid  to  them,  and  they  are  cleaned  at  proper 
intervals,  their  presence  is  worse  than  useless. 

We  come  now  to  the  discussion  of  filters  suitable  for  large  tanks  or 
cisterns.  Most  of  the  materials  in  common  use  as  filters  can  be  obtained 
in  forms  suitable  for  insertion  in  ordinary  tanks  or  cisterns,  from  which 
the  filtered  water  can  be  delivered  by  gravity,  but  cisterns  for  the  storage 
of  rain-water  are  more  commonly  built  underground  or  in  the  cellar  of  the 
house.  A  common  method  for  filtering  the  water  from  such  cisterns  is  to 
construct  a  partition  of  porous  bricks,  setting  off  a  portion  of  the  cistern 
as  a  pump-well  into  which  the  water  can  enter  only  by  passing  through 
the  bricks.  One  form  of  construction  is  represented  in  the  accompanying 
cut  taken  from  Scribner's  Monthly  Magazine  for  September,  1877. 

When  the  brick  partition  is  new,  it  is  undoubtedly  of  good  service; 

'  I  am  aware  of  recent  German  experiments  which  tend  to  discredit  the  value  of 
spongy  iron  as  a  purifying  medium  (Dr.  L.  Lewin,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  XIV. 
[1878],  p.  504).  These  experiments,  it  seems  to  me,  were  unfair  to  the  filter,  which 
was  expected  to  perform  that  which  it  never  claimed  to  do.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
is  very  likely  in  England,  on  the  part  of  the  inventor  and  others,  a  tendency  to  over- 
rate the  value  of  the  material. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.        281 

but  it  soon  becomes  clogged,  and  covered  on  the  outside  with  a  deposit  of 
organic  matter,  so  that  after  a  time  the  water  which  passes  through  the 
brick  wall  must  first  have  an  opportunity  to  leach  out  what  it  can  from 
this  mass  of  decaying  matter.  Fortunately  in  many  cases  this  clogging 
so  interferes  with  the  passage  of  water  through  the  wall,  that  attention  is 
called  to  the  fact,  the  cistern  is  cleaned, 
and  the  filtering  wall  is  cleaned  or 
renewed;  but  where  the  filtering  sur- 
face is  large,  and  the  filtered-water 
chamber  of  considerable  size,  the  water 
may  be  in  many  cases  supplied  in  suffi- 
cient amount  long  after  the  process 
of  filtration  is  an  injury  rather  than  a 
benefit.  Some  of  the  deposit  taken 
from  the  surface  of  such  a  filtering- 
wall  recently  came  under  the  observa- 
tion of  the  writer.  It  contained  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  animal  matter  in  _,  „, 
the  remains  of  various  insects,  worms, 

etc.     Chemical  examination  showed  that  it  contained  19.8  per  cent,  of  or- 
ganic matter  (^.  e.,  loss  on  ignition),  and  this  organic  matter  was  very  nitro- 


PiG.  33. 


genous;  in  fact,  the  organic  nitrogen  amounted  to  1,11  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  mass. 

The  objection  made  to  the  arrangement  which  has  been  described  is 
not  to  the  material;  for  porous  brick  is  efficient  in  removing  suspended 


282      ON   DEINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-STJPPLIES. 


matters  from  water  passed  through  it,  and  communicates  nothing  that 
can  be  or  can  become  injurious.  The  trouble  Hes  in  the  fact  that  the  wall 
soon  becomes  clogged,  and  as  a  rule  is  not  readily  accessible.  Moreover, 
when  the  cistern  furnishes  the  whole  or  a  large  part  of  the  household 
supply,  it  is  impossible  to  renew  the  filtering  wall  frequently,  or  even 
to  thoroughly  clean  the  outer  surface.  The  best  that  can  be  done  under 
ordinary  circumstances  is  to  clean  the  outer  surface  of  the  wall  as  thor- 
oughly as  may  be  with  a  stiff  brush  every  few  months,  and  to  renew  the 
wall  whenever  the  probability  of  a  rainy  season  allows. 

The  filtration  in  the  cistern  may,  however,  be  better  accomplished  in. 
other  ways,  two  of  which  will  be  indicated.  First,  to  take  the  place  of 
the  wall,  the  filtering  material  may  be  arranged  in  a  frame  capable  of  slid- 
ing in  a  groove  and  of  being  readily  lifted  from  its  place.  The  filtei'ing 
material  may  consist  of  jDorous  tiles  or  of  blocks  of  animal  charcoal;  and, 
if  duplicate  frames  are  provided,  the  grooves  may  be  so  arranged  that  a 
fresh  frame  can  be  lowered  into  place  before  the  old  one  is  taken  away. 
Fig.  32  ^  represents  a  cistern  constructed  with  such  frames  contain- 
ing blocks  of  animal  charcoal  as  prepared  by  Atkins  &  Co.,  London. 
These  blocks  can  be  readily  cleaned  by  scraping  the  outer  surface  (at  some 
expense,  to  be  sure,  of  the  material  of  the  blocks),  and  they  can  be  re- 
newed when  necessary.  They  are  made  of  various  densities;  the  most 
dense  permitting  the  passage  of  30  to  40  gallons  per  square  foot  joer  day, 
while  the  most  porous  pass  from  250  to  300  gallons.  For  use  in  ordinary 
cisterns  tolerably  porous  blocks  would  probably  answer  well  enough,  and 
for  such  use  as  this  the  charcoal  is  more  conveniently  employed  in  this 
form  of  blocks  than  as  fragments. 

The   arrangement  which   has  been   described  is  rather  expensive  for 

common  use;  although,  if  the 
necessary  provision  were  made 
in  the  original  plan  for  the 
construction  of  the  cistern,  it 
would,  on  the  whole,  be  more 
satisfactory  than  other  plans 
which  involve  less  outlay  at  the 
start.  Various  other  methods 
are  in  use  for  employing  ani- 
mal charcoal  in  cisterns,  one  of 
|-*«*  which  is  represented  in  the 
Sand   woodcut  (Fig.  33).^ 

This  arrangement  is  open  to 
the  common  objection  that  the 
difficulty  of  access   throws  an 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  re- 
newal of  the  material  as  frequently  as    necessary.     A    better   plan    on 

^  Taken  by  permission  from  Farming's  Water-Supply  Engineering. 
-  This  cut  is  taken  from  Scribners  Magazine.     The  writer  there  speaks  of  using 
wood  charcoal :  animal  charcoal  would  be  more  effective. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 


283 


many  accounts  is  represented  in  Figs.  34  and  35.  Here  the  box,  which 
contains  the  sand  and  charcoal,  is  coupled  on  to  the  suction-pipe  of  the 
pump.     The  box  can  be  removed  from  time  to  time,  say  once  a  year  at 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  35. 


least,  and  the  contents  renewed.  These  figures  are  taken  from  Bailey 
Denton's  "  Sanitary  Engineering."  The  same  object  may  be  accom- 
plished by  other  devices,  among  which  are  several  which  rest  on  the  use 
of  the  compressed  blocks  similar  to  those  spoken  of  above. 


On  the  Softening  of  Hard  'Water. 

The  disadvantage  of  hard  water  for  domestic  use  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to.  Hardness  is  not  peculiar  to  water  from  any  one  source;  rivers 
and  lakes,  springs  and  wells,  are  all  liable  to  furnish  hard  water  when 
they  are  situated  in  regions  which  contain  deposits  of  limestone  or  of 
gypsum  or  of  magnesian  minerals.  To  understand  the  processes  em- 
ployed for  softening  hard  water,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  cause 
of  the  property  which  we  designate  as  hardness. 

There  are  many  mineral  compounds  which,  if  present  in  water,  give  to 
it  this  property,  and  thus  render  it  unfit  for  domestic  use.  The  most  com- 
monly occurring  of  these  substances  are  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  the 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  the  sulphate  of  lime  and  the  sulphate  of  magnesia. 
We  will  first  consider  the  effect  of  the  carbonates,  and  in  what  follows 
nearly  all  that  is  said  about  carbonate  of  lime  will  apjDly  also  to  carbonate 
of  magnesia.  Neither  carbonate  of  lime  nor  carbonate  of  magnesia  is 
dissolved  by  pure  water  to  any  considerable  extent ;  if,  however,  the  water 
be  charged  with  carbonic-acid  gas  its  solvent  power  is  very  much  in- 
ci'eased  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  carbonates  will  go  into  solution. 
This  is  generally  explained  by  supposing  that  there  is  actual  chemical 
combination  between  the  carbonic  acid  and  the  carbonate  of  lime,  forming 
what  is  called  a  bicarbonate.  Since  meteoric  water,  in  its  passage  through 
the  air  and  ground,  always  absorbs  carbonic  acid,  and  since  carbonate  of 
lime  is  widely  diffused  as  limestone,  marble,  chalk,  etc.,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  many  natural  waters  are  hard  on  account  of  the  dissolved  bicarbonate 


284      ON   DRINKIISTG- WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

of  lime.  Such  water  may  be  softened  in  several  ways.  If  common  soap 
be  added  to  the  water,  the  water  seems  to  curdle,  but  refuses  to  form  a 
froth  or  "  suds  "  until,  by  the  mutual  action  of  soap  and  bicarbonate  of 
lime  on  each  other,  the  lime  is  nearly  all  converted  into  an  insoluble  lime- 
soap  which  forms  the  curd  alluded  to.  After  this  point  is  reached,  any 
additional  soap  becomes  available  for  washing,  but  this  method  of  soften- 
ing is  an  expensive  one.  Another  method,  often  employed  in  the  house- 
hold, consists  in  adding  ordinary  carbonate  of  soda  (washing  soda,  soda 
crystals)  to  the  water.  The  chemical  eSect  of  adding  carbonate  of  soda 
to  the  bicarbonate  of  lime  is  to  form  bicarbonate  of  soda,  which  is  soluble 
in  water,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  practically  insoluble,  and  which, 
by  this  means,  is  removed  to  a  large  extent  from  the  water  and  settles  as 
a  fine  powder  if  the  water  is  allowed  to  stand.  A  simpler  method  than 
either  of  the  two  foregoing  consists  in  boiling  the  water  for  half  an  hour 
or  more.  The  boiling  causes  the  expulsion  as  gas  of  the  carbonic  acid, 
the  presence  of  which  enabled  the  water  to  dissolve  the  carbonate  of  lime; 
when  this  carbonic  acid  is  driven  off,  the  carbonate  of  lime  remaining 
settles  out  as  a  fine  white  powder.  The  deposit  which  settles  from  the 
boiling  water  adheres  more  or  less  to  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  vessel 
in  which  it  is  boiled,  and  often  causes  serious  trouble  in  steam-boilers. 

None  of  the  three  methods  just  mentioned  is  practicable  on  the 
large  scale.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  soften  such  water  even  on  the 
scale  necessary  when  dealing  with  a  general  water-supply.  The  method 
emjDloyed  was  invented  and  patented,  about  the  year  1844,  by  Thomas 
Clark,  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen  ;  but  the 
patent  has  now  expired.  The  process  is  a  strictly  chemical  one,  and  may 
be  explained  as  follows:  If  we  take  56  pounds  of  pure  quicklime,  and  ex- 
pose it  to  moist  carbonic  acid,  it  will  absorb  44  pounds  of  carbonic  acid, 
and  unite  chemically  with  it.  After  the  chemical  union,  we  shall  have  as 
a  result  100  pounds  of  carbonate  of  lime.  As  already  said,  this  carbonate 
of  lime  will  not  dissolve  of  itself  to  any  extent  in  water;  but  in  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonic  acid  there  is  formed  soluble  bicarbonate  of  lime;  and  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  necessary  to  convert  100  pounds  of  carbonate  of 
lime  into  bicarbonate  is  44  pounds,  or  an  amount  exactly  equal  to  that 
which  is  already  combined  in  the  100  x>ounds  of  carbonate.  Suppose  that 
we  have  proceeded  in  this  way,  and  have  our  144  pounds  of  bicarbonate  of 
lime  dissolved  in  water.  If  now  we  slake  56  pounds  of  qiiicklime,  and  add 
to  the  solution,  this  will  combine  with  the  44  pounds  of  extra  carbonic 
acid,  and  form  100  pounds  of  carbonate  of  lime,  in  addition  to  the  origi- 
nal 100  pounds,  which,  being  now  robbed  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  kept 
it  in  solution,  will  separate  out  from  the  solution  as  a  white  powder  along 
vdth  the  newly  formed  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  to  be  said  that  carbonate 
of  lime  is  not  absolutely  insoluble  in  water,  and  after  the  softening  a  small 
amount  remains  in  the  softened  water,  not  enough,  however,  to  be  ob- 
jectionable. 

In  the  case  of  any  given  water,  the  amount  of  lime  necessary  may  be 
determined  by  analysis;  or  it  may  be  run  in  until  it  is  evident  from  cer- 


ON"    DEIISTKIIN^G-WATEE    AJN'D    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       285 

tain  simple  chemical  tests  that  enough  has  been  added.  The  lime  is  em- 
ployed as  lime-water,  or,  rather,  milk  of  lime.  After  the  treatment,  the 
water  is  allowed  to  subside  for  from  12  to  24  hours,  and  drawn  off  from 
the  sediment.  The  readiness  with  which  the  finely  divided  carbonate  of 
lime  settles  depends  somewhat  upon  the  character  of  the  water;  and,  as 
it  settles,  it  drags  down  with  it  and  removes  from  the  water  a  not  in- 
considerable proportion  of  the  organic  matter  present;  if  the  water  is 
colored  by  peaty  matter,  a  very  appreciable  decolorization  is  effected. 
Experience,  however,  would  seem  to  show  that  the  process  gives  the  best 
results  with  water  which  is  naturally  clear,  such  as  spring  water;  and, 
in  the  case  of  turbid  river  waters,  the  softening  process  should  be  followed 
by  filtration. 

Whether  the  process  has  been  employed  to  any  extent  in  this  country 
the  writer  is  not  able  to  say.  It  has  been  used  in  England  in  some  locali- 
ties where  it  was  necessary  to  soften  as  much  as  1,000,000  gallons  of 
water  daily,  and  it  could  be  employed  for  larger  quantities.  As  is  the 
case  with  other  similar  operations  conducted  on  the  large  scale,  a  very 
important  c|uestion  is  how  to  dispose  of  the  sediment  or  sludge.  This 
sediment,  if  the  water  is  tolerably  pure,  is  white,  and  when  dried  can  be 
sold  as  whiting  or  for  any  use  to  which  powdered  chalk  or  marble  is  put. 
A  portion  could  be  dried  and  burned  into  lime,  and  thus  be  used  over 
again  in  softening  additional  cjuantities  of  water;  but  there  would  always 
be  a  great  deal  to  dispose  of,  because,  in  addition  to  the  carbonate  of 
lime  formed  from  the  lime  employed,  an  ec[ual  c[uantity  is  taken  from  the 
water  which  is  softened. 

The  expense  of  the  process  depends  upon  the  facilities  for  disposing 
of  the  whiting  produced.  In  some  localities  it  would  be  readily  disposed 
of  and  pay  a  large  proportion  of  the  expense  of  softening  the  water;  in 
other  localities  it  would  probably  beg*  for  a  market.  The  process,  how- 
ever, is  one  which  deserves  a  much  wider  application  than  has  yet  been 
made  of  it.  It  should  be  said  that  the  hardness  caused  by  the  presence 
of  bicarbonate  of  lime  (or  magnesia)  is  called  "temporary"  hardness,  be- 
cause it  may  be  removed  by  boiling.  Some  waters  are  said  to  have 
"  permanent "  hardness;  they  are  not  softened  by  boiling  or  by  Clark's 
process,  and  the  hardness  is  generally  due  to  the  presence  of  siilphate  of 
lime  (gypsum),  although  the  sulphate  and  other  soluble  compounds  of 
magnesia  have  the  same  effect.  There  is  no  economical  process  which  is 
practicable  on  the  large  scale  for  softening  such  waters,  and  a  water  which 
has  a  high  permanent  hardness  is  unsuited  for  general  use.  On  the  small 
scale  such  water  may  be  softened  by  carbonate  of  soda,  which  acts  iipon 
the  soluble  sulphate  of  lime,  converting  it  into  carbonate  of  lime,  which, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water.  The  effect  of  such 
a  hard  water  upon  soap  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  water,  the  hardness  of 
which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  bicarbonate  of  lime,  but  there  is  a  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  character  of  the  deposit  or  incrustation  which  is 
formed  in  steam-boilers.  The  sulphate  of  lime,  although  somewhat  solu- 
ble in  cold  water,  deposits  because  it  is  almost  completely  insoluble  in 


286      OK    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

water  having  a  temperature  of  about  130°  C,  a  temperature  which  is 
reached  when  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler  is  that  of  2^  atmos- 
pheres. It  forms  a  scale  which  is  very  coherent  and  difficult  to  detach, 
while  the  carbonate  of  lime,  in  the  absence  of  other  deposits,  generally 
settles  as  a  loose  sludge,  which,  however,  under  some  circumstances,  be- 
comes tolerably  compact.  A  particular  discussion  of  boiler  incrustation 
and  of  the  equally  important  boiler  corrosion  hardly  comes  within  the 
scope  of  the  present  treatise. 

Chemical  Treatment. 

The  chemical  treatment  of  water,  in  order  to  make  it  potable,  is  seldom 
undertaken  on  the  large  scale,  except  so  far  as  to  remove  the  carbonate 
of  lime  by  Clark's  process,  just  described.  On  the  small  scale  and  under 
peculiar  circumstances,  such  as  in  an  army  on  the  march  or  in  an  enemy's 
country,  where  good  water  cannot  be  had,  chemical  processes  may  be  and 
have  been  carried  out.  Distillation  is  practised  on  shipboard  and  in  a  few 
unfavorable  localities  on  land.  Treatment  with  permanganate  of  potash 
(or  permanganate  of  potassium),  which  can  now  be  bought  quite  pure  in 
the  crystallized  condition,  serves  a  good  purpose  as  far  as  it  goes.  It  acts 
readily  upon  organic  matter  in  a  certain  stage  of  decay,  and  destroys  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  and  other  offensive  gases.  Some  organic  substances, 
however,  are  not  affected  by  it,  and  there  is  no  security  that  a  dangerous 
water  can  be  made  safe  by  its  use.  The  permanganate  of  potash,  which 
is  itself  highly  colored,  is  applied  in  solution,  and  it  is  added  in  successive 
portions  in  quantity  sufficient  to  impart  a  faint  pink  color  to  the  water,  a 
tint  which  remains  permanent  for  five  or  ten  minutes.  By  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  permanganate  there  is  formed  finely  divided  oxide  of  manganese, 
which  may  be  removed  by  filtration,  although  it  is  probably  not  injurious, 
at  least  in  the  quantity  in  which  it  would  thus  be  taken. 

Alum  is  used  very  frequently  with  turbid  waters.  In  many  cases  the 
action  depends  upon  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which,  with  the 
alum,  forms  sulphate  of  lime  and  a  hydrate  of  alumina,  while  carbonic  acid 
is  set  free.  The  hydrate  of  alumina  settles  and  carries  with  it  the  sus- 
pended matter.  In  the  absence  of  carbonate  of  lime,  a  little  calcium 
chloride  and  carbonate  of  soda  may  be  added  to  the  water  after  the  alum 
has  been  added. 

Perchloride  of  iron  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  alum,  and  it  has  been 
projDosed  to  apply  the  method  on  the  large  scale,  adding  first  the  per- 
chloride of  iron  and  then  carbonate  of  soda.  In  this  case  the  precipitate 
is  hydrate  of  iron  (ferric  hydrate),  and  it  drags  down  with  it  the  fine  sus- 
pended matter  as  well  as  a  small  quantity  of  the  dissolved  organic  sub- 
stances. 

The  most  common  and  the  most  simple  method  of  treating  an  impure 
water,  in  order  to  make  it  wholesome,  is  to  boil  it.  Volatile  gases  are 
driven  off  by  this  operation,  and  the  organic  matter  is  somewhat  changed 
in  character.     It  would  seem  that  in  some  cases  dangerous  germs  (if  there 


ON    DEINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       287 

are  such)  are  killed;  at  any  rate  it  has  been  proved  beyond  question  that 
some  particular  waters  cause  sickness  when  drunk  directly,  but  produce 
no  disagreeable  effect  when  drunk  after  being  boiled.  The  effect  seems 
to  be  more  satisfactory  if  tea-leaves  or  other  somewhat  astringent  vege- 
table matters  are  boiled  with  the  water. 

On  the  Effect  of  Conduits  and  Distribution  Pipes  upon  Potable  "Water. 

Most  of  the  questions  arising  with  reference  to  the  conveying  of  water 
in  conduits,  and  its  distribution  by  mains  and  service-pipes,  are  of  an  en- 
gineering character.  There  are  a  few  points,  however,  of  sanitary  impor- 
tance. As  far  as  masonry  conduits  or  aqueducts  are  concerned  little  is  to 
be  said  ;  such  conduits  should  be,  and  generally  are,  covered,  as  a  means 
of  protecting  the  water  from  accidental  defilement.  The  water  has 
some  action  on  the  mortar  or  cement  to  which  it  is  exposed  and  becomes 
appreciably  harder ;  this  is  especially  the  case  while  the  masonry  is 
new. 

The  material  most  commonly  employed  for  the  main  distribution  pipes 
is  cast-iron.  Cast-iron  is  readily  acted  upon  and  caused  to  rust  by  most 
waters,  and  the  water,  by  exposure  to  the  iron,  acquires  more  or  less  of  a 
rusty  character.  The  presence  of  what  little  iron  is  actually  dissolved  is 
of  no  significance,  and  the  suspended  particles  of  iron  rust  can  hardly  be 
regarded  as  deleterious  to  health.  The  water  is,  however,  sometimes  ren- 
dered unfit  for  washing,  and  becomes  objectionable  in  appearance.  The 
action  on  the  pipes  is  so  great,  especially  when  soft  waters  are  conveyed 
through  them,  that  they  are  seldom  used  now  except  the  surface  be  pro- 
tected in  some  way  from  corrosion.  The  process  commonly  employed  is 
that  devised  by  Dr.  R.  Angus  Smith  :  the  newly  cast  pipes,  which  must 
be  free  from  rust,  are  heated  to  a  temperature  of  some  500°  Fahr.,  and 
then  dipped,  perpendicularly,  into  a  hot  bath  of  coal-tar  pitch  mixed  with 
a  small  proportion  of  heavy  coal  oil.  In  this  bath  they  are  allowed  to  re- 
main for  a  short  time  and  then  withdrawn.  The  firmly  coherent  coating 
thus  formed  does  not  afford  absolute  protection  against  rust,  but  it  has 
proved  very  efficient  in  practice.  Of  course,  from  a  sanitary  point  of 
view,  this  surface  is  as  good  a  one  as  could  be  desired. 

It  has  more  recently  been  proposed  by  Professor  Barff,  of  London,  to 
protect  articles  of  iron,  among  other  things  water-pipes,  from  corrosion, 
by  covering  them  with  an  artificial  coating  of  the  black  oxide  of  iron. 
The  coating  is  produced  by  exposing  the  metal  to  superheated  steam  at  a 
high  temperature,  and  when  once  formed  it  protects  the  iron  from  atmos- 
pheric and  other  agencies  which  would  corrode  it.  If  the  process  proves 
practicable  as  far  as  expense  goes,  it  will,  no  doubt,  be  of  great  use,  espe- 
cially in  protecting  iron  service-pipes. 

The  way  in  which  the  pipes  are  connected  together  is  not  without  in- 
fluence on  the  water  transmitted  through  them.  Cast-iron  pipes  are  now 
usually  connected  by  means  of  what  is  called  the  hub  and  spigot  joint, 
one  form  of  which  is  shown  in   Fig,    36.     The   joints  are  usually  first 


288      ON   DEINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

packed  with  tow  or  jute,  and  then  melted  lead  is  run  in  and  driven  up 
with  a  set. 

In  the  case  of  long  mains  the  tow  may,  for  a  considerable  time  after 

the  pipe  is  laid,  impart  an  un- 
pleasant taste  to  the  water  which 
passes  through.  Trouble  has 
been  experienced  in  England  on 
this  account,  and  the  Rivers  Pol- 
lution Commission  recommend 
that,  in  the  case  of  all  mains  of 
sufficient  size,  the  joints  should 
be  carefully  pointed  up  with 
Portland  cement  from  the  in- 
side, so  that  the  water  cannot 
come  into  contact  vnth  the  tow- 
packing.  This  action  will,  per- 
haps, explain  in  part  the  fact  of  the  deterioration  of  water  in  "  dead-ends," 
which  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  stagnation  of  the  water. 

In  this  country,  wrought-iron  pipes,  coated  within  and  without  with 
cement,  are  used  in  many  places,  and  at  times  such  pipes  can  be  laid  much 
more  cheaply  than  cast-iron  pipes.  There  is  some  question  as  to  their 
durability,  but  most  of  the  apparent  failures  are  due  to  imperfections  in 
the  original  work,  especially  in  applying  the  cement,  or  in  mixing  the  ce- 
ment with  sand — a  practice  which  seems  to  be  unwise.' 

The  pipes  are  made  of  sheet-iron,  with  the  edges  rolled  together  and 
riveted,  as  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  37.     By  the  use  of  a  longitudinal  rib. 


Fig.  37. 

as  shown  in  Fig.  38,  or  by  other  devices,  the  pipe  may  be  made  water- 
tight, even  under  a  very  considerable  pressure.  Where  the  lengths  of 
pipe  come  together,  the  joint  is  usually  covered  with  a  wrought-iron  sleeve 
filled  in  with  cement,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39.  Sometimes,  however,  the  ends 
of  the  pipes  are  shaped  in  such  a  manner  that  the  lengths  can  be  tele- 
scoped together  so  as  to  form  a  lap  of  several  inches.  However  arranged, 
the  result  is  a  continuous  coating  of  cement  within  the  pipe,  and  the  effect 

^  See  a  discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  Report  of  the  Board  of  Water  Commission- 
ers of  the  City  of  Springfield,  Mass..  1876. 


ON    DRUSTKIJSTG-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       289 

upon  the  water  is  such  as  has  been  described  in  the  case  of  aqueducts  of 
masonry. 

The  service-pipes,  by  which  the  water  is  conveyed  from  the  street 
mains  to  the  houses,  are  most  frequently  made  of  lead.     On  account  of 


the  known  poisonous  character  of  the  soluble  compounds  of  lead,  the 
question  of  the  propriety  of  such  use  has  often  arisen,  and  has  been  often 
discussed.  It  is  true  that  all  natural  water  acts  upon  bright  lead  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  but  in  the  case  of  most  potable  waters  the  action 
on  the  pipes  soon  becomes  almost  imperceptible.  This  decrease  in  the 
rapidity  of  the  action  is  due  to  the  formation,  in  the  interior  of  the  pipes, 
of  a  protecting  coating  of  various  insoluble  compounds  of  lead.  Although 
for  many  years  lead  pipes  have  been  almost  universally  used  in  city  dis- 
tribution, cases  of  lead-poisoning  from  this  cause  are  of  very  rare  occur- 
rence. The  water  of  Lake  Cochituate,  as  supplied  in  Boston,  Mass., 
through  lead  pipes,  always  contains  traces  of  lead  in  solution,  but  it  is 
said  that  there  is  no  well-authenticated  case  of  lead-poisoning  from  the 
use  of  this  water.'  Analysis  has  shown  that  the  amount  of  lead  taken  up 
by  the  water  in  passing  through  some  150  feet  of  pipe,  which  has  been  in 
use  for  some  years,  is  only  0.03  parts  in  100,000,  or  less  than  0.02  grain  in 
the  U.  S.  gallon.  Water  which  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  pipe  for 
some  time,  or  is  drawn  from  the  hot-water  faucets,  may  contain  as  much 
as  0,1,  or  even  0.2  part  in  100,000  (from  O.OG  to  0,12  grain  in  the  gallon), 
and  wherever  lead  distribution  pipes  are  in  use  it  is  safer  always  to  run 
to  waste  enough  water  to  clear  the  pipes,  and  never  to  use,  for  drinking 
or  for  cooking,  water  which  has  passed  through  the  pipes  while  hot.  The 
amount  of  lead  necessary  to  produce  injurious  effects  cannot  be  stated,  as 
there  is  very  great  difference  in  the  susceptibility  to  lead-poisoning;  some 
authorities  hold  as  little  as  one-fortieth  of  a  grain  in  the  gallon  to  be  un- 
safe, although  few  persons  would  be  sensibly  affected  by  this  amount. 
The  Croton  water  supplied  to  New  York  City  is  similar  to  the  Boston 
water  in  its  action  on  lead,^  although  at  least  one  case  of  poisoning  has 
been  reported,  which  was  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  daily  use  for  some 
time  of  water  which  had  stood  over  night  in  the  pipes. 

The  water  of  many  wells  acts  violently  on  lead,  so  that  it  may  be  stated^ 
as  a  general  rule,  that  lead  pipes  should  not  be  used  for  conveying  well- 

1  See  Report  of  the  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health,  1871. 
'^  See  Report  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Health,  New  York,  1869,  p.  420. 
Vol.  I.— I'J 


290      ON    DRESTEHSTG- WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

water.  Moreover,  a  portion  of  any  suction-pipe  drawing  water  from  a 
well  is  exposed  to  the  alternate  action  of  air  and  water,  and  such  circum- 
stances are  very  favorable  for  corrosion. 

Other  materials  besides  lead  have  been  and  are  used  for  service-pipes. 
Block  tin  is  perhaps  as  good  as  any,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view;  but 
when  laid  in  moist  ground  it  is  rather  rapidly  corroded;  it  is,  moreover, 
somewhat  expensive.  The  tin-lined  lead-pipe  affords  most  of  the  advan- 
tages possessed  by  the  block-tin:  it  is  important  that  the  tin  used  in  its 
manufacture  be  pure,  and  that  the  connections  be  made  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  expose  any  lead  to  the  action  of  the  water.  Since  in  the  ordinary 
process  of  connecting  the  pipes  there  is  liability  of  exposing  the  surface 
of  lead,  peculiar  couplings  have  been  devised,  but  they  are  by  no  means 
generally  employed. 

Various  sorts  of  "  enamelled  "  wrought-iron  pipes  are  in  the  market. 
The  coating  or  enamel  is  generally  some  preparation  of  coal  tar,  with  or 
without  linseed  oil,  and,  where  it  is  properly  applied,  it  is  quite  durable, 
and  protects  the  iron  from  the  action  of  water.  This  sort  of  pipe  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  use  in  wells,  where  a  portion  of  the  outer  surface  is 
exposed  alternately  to  the  action  of  air  and  water. 

Zinced  or  "  galvanized  "  iron,  as  it  is  called,  is  often  used  as  a  material 
for  water-pipes.  It  is  prepared  by  dipping  the  iron,  previously  well 
cleaned  by  means  of  dilute  acid,  into  a  bath  of  melted  zinc.  The  zinc  ad- 
heres firmly  to  the  surface  of  the  iron,  and  j)enetrates  it  to  a  certain 
extent,  so  that  we  do  not  deal  with  a  simple  coating,  such  as  we  have  on 
tinned  iron,  or  on  the  various  forms  of  enamelled  pipe.  When  the  zinced 
iron  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  water,  corrosion  begins  at  once,  and  goes 
on  with  greater  or  less  rapidity.  At  first  the  action  is  on  the  zinc  alone, 
provided  the  original  iron  was  free  from  rust,  and  the  treatment  with  zinc 
was  thorough ;  but  after  a  time  the  zinc  which  remains  will  cease  to  pro- 
tect the  iron,  and  iron  rust  will  begin  to  form.  As  regards  this  action, 
it  is  simply  a  question  of  time.  Water  that  has  passed  through  zinced 
pipes  will  be  found  almost  always,  if  not  invariably,  to  contain  zinc  com- 
pounds, either  in  solution  or  in  suspension;  the  amount,  however,  is  so 
small  that  it  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  deleterious  to  health.' 

Impure  Ice. 

In  connection  with  a  discussion  of  matters  relating  to  water-supply, 
something  should  be  said  about  impure  ice.  Ice  is  used  to  an  enormous 
extent  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.  Where  the  water  is  taken 
from  running  streams  or  from  ponds,  or  is  stored  in  uncovered  reservoirs, 
it  becomes  in  summer  very  warm.  In  fact,  even  in  the  Northern  States 
the  water  is  sometimes  so  warm  as  to  require  an  equal  weight  of  ice 
in  order  to  make  it  cold  enough  to  drink.  It  is  very  important  that 
the  ice  should  be  of  good  quality.     It  is  well  known  that  water  in   freez- 

'  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  subject,  see  Dr.  Boardman's  paper  in  the  Report  of 
the  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health  for  1874. 


OI!^'   DRIXKlNG-WATEll    AND    PUBLIC    AVATEE-SUPPLIES.        291 


ing  excludes  foreign  substances,  and  that  ice  is  always  purer  than  the 
Avater  on  which  it  forins;  on  this  account  there  is  really  little  cause  to 
suspect  contamination  of  the  ice  when  it  is  cut  in  moderately  deep  joonds. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  the  minute  algie,  which  were  spoken  of  on 
page  237,  float  up  to  the  top  of  the  pond  in  Avinter,  and  are  frozen  into  the 
ice.  This  may  make  the  ice  unmarketable  on  account  of  its  appearance; 
that  it  is  injurious  to  health  is  doubtful;  but  if  the  algce  are  in  the  ice,  the 
water  should  be  filtered  when  used. 

There  have  been  cases  of  sickness  which  have  been  attributed  to  the 
use  of  impure  ice,  but  in  such  cases  the  ice  has  been  cut  from  stagnant 
pools  unfit  for  the  purpose.  In  the  summer  of  1875,  at  Rye  Beach,  a  sea- 
shore watering  place  in  the  State  of  New  Hampshire,  there  was  an  out- 
break of  sickness  among  the  guests  of  one  of  the  large  hotels,  which  was 
ascribed  by  the  attending  physician  to  the  ice  which  was  used.  The  sickness' 
was  described  as  "  a  disturbance  of  the  digestive  system,  characterized  by 
a  sensation  of  giddiness  and  nausea,  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  severe  abdominal 
j^ain,  all  of  which  was  accompanied  by  fever,  loss  of  appetite,  continued 
indigestion,  and  mental  depression."  After  the  ice  was  suspected  as  the 
cause,  it  was  found  that  it  had  been  cut  from  a  small  stagnant  pond  situ- 
ated near  the  sea,  until  within  a  short  time  connected  with  the  ocean, 
and  into  which  a  small  brook  entered,  bringing  a  quantity  of  sawdust  from 
several  saw-mills.  The  pond  contained  a  large  amount  of  decomposing 
matter,  and  the  gases  arising  from  it  in  summer  were  very  offensive. 

A  portion  of  the  ice  was  carefully  melted,  and  was  found  to  contain 
considerable  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  suspension.  A  chemical  ex- 
amination was  made,  with  the  following  results,  which  are,  for  comparison, 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  results  obtained  from  the  examination  of  ice  of 
good  quality : ' 

RESULTS  EXPRESSED  IN  PARTS  IN  100,000. 


Eye  Beach  Ice. 

Boston  Ice. 

Unfiltered. 

Filtered. 

Unfiltered. 

Ammonia 

0.0208 
0.0704 

7.80 
5.72 

0.0213 
0.0165 

G.88 
2.84 

0.0045 

Albuminoid  ammonia 

Inorganic  matter 

Organic  and  volatile  matter 

0.0050 

0.45 
0  31 

Total  solids  at  212°  Fahr 

Chlorine 

13.52 

9.72 
3.23 

0.76 
0  02 

It  thus  appears  that  ice  cut  upon  a  very  foul  pond  was  itself  foul, 
although,  of  course,  the  ice-water  was  not  as  bad  as  the  pond-water.     A 

'  See  a  paper  by  A.  H.  Nichols,  M.D.,  in  the  Seventh  Report  of  the  Mass.  State 
Board  of  Health,  1876,  p.  465. 


292      OjST    DEINKIITG-WATER    AXD    PUBLIC    WATEE-STJPPLIES. 

sample  of  the  latter  was  examined  in  the  summer  of  1875,  taken  under  as 
favorable  conditions  as  possible,  with  the  following  results: 

Ammonia 0.0197  in  100,000  parts. 

Albuminoid  ammonia 0.0597  " 

Chlorine 34.00 

Total  dissolved  solids 72.96  " 

These  results  should  be  compared  with  the  filtered  ice-water  above, 
and  it  will  be  evident  that  the  water  in  freezing  rejects  some  foreign  sub- 
stances. This  is  not,  however,  a  purifying  action,  but  amounts  practicaUT 
to  diluting  the  objectionable  matter  or  bringing  a  smaller  amount  at  one 
time  into  the  system.  On  this  account,  safety  demands  that  ice  should 
not  be  cut  for  domestic  use  on  ponds  or  streams  which  are  so  polluted  as 
to  be  rejected  for  water-supply. 

The  question  with  artificial  ice  is  somewhat  different  from  that  which 
has  been  discussed,  because,  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  ice,  the  water 
is  frozen  solid,  and  whatever  substances  are  dissolved  in  the  water  remain 
in  the  ice.  Therefore,  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  ice,  it  is  particu- 
larly important  that  unobjectionable  water  should  be  employed. 

The  Sa^s^itaet  Examination  of  Watee. 

Occasion  for  the  sanitary  examination  of  water  arises  in  two  ways.  In 
the  first  place,  it  may  be  a  question  of  introducing  a  new  system  of  water- 
supply,  or  of  extending  a  system  alread}'  existing  by  connecting  additional 
sources.  In  the  second  place,  it  may  be  a  question  whether  a  water  al- 
ready in  use  is  contaminated,  or  is  in  danger  of  becoming  so. 

In  either  case,  an  important  aid  in  the  sanitary  examination  is  offered 
by  chemical  analysis,  although  it  happens  comparatively  seldom  that 
chemistry  alone  is  sufficient  to  decide  absolutely,  as  will  appear  from  what 
follows.  In  discussing  the  chemical  examination  of  water,  we  shall  con- 
sider— first,  in  a  general  way,  the  analytical  methods  which  are  in  common 
use,  and  afterwards  the  interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  analysis  ac- 
cording to  the  various  methods  employed  and  in  connection  with  the  ex- 
amination of  different  classes  of  waters. 

In  considering  the  various  methods  employed  in  water  analysis,  we 
may  classify  the  substances  occurring  in  a  natural  water  according  to  the 
following  scheme: 

1.  Suspended  matter -j  q     ^  •      '  j  Animal. 

^       °  (  Vegetable. 

2.  Dissolved  matter -j  ^^f^^""'-  j  J^^^Jg^^^^^-  j  Animal. 

^       °  /  Vegetable. 

Suspended  matter. — The  determination  of  the  suspended  matter  is 
quite  simple.     A  paper-filter  is  dried  at  100°  C,  and  weighed.     A  meas- 


OlSr   DRINKING-WATER   AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       203 

ured  quantity  of  the  water  is  then  passed  through  it,  and  the  filter  with 
its  contents  is  dried  at  the  same  temperature  as  before,  and  again  weighed. 
The  difference  in  weight  is  the  weight  of  the  total  suspended  matter.  The 
filter  is  then  burned  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and  the  residue  is  rather 
strongly  heated;  the  weight  of  what  remains,  minus  the  weight  of  the  ash 
which  the  filter  is  known  to  leave,  gives  the  weight  of  the  inorganic  mat- 
ter in  suspension. 

Another  method,  which  is  quite  commonly  employed,  consists  in 
evaporating  equal  quantities  of  the  water  before  and  after  filtration.  The 
difference  in  the  weight  of  the  residues  when  dried  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture may  be  regarded  as  representing  approximately  the  amount  of  matter 
in  suspension.  Of  course,  in  this  way,  all  the  error  of  the  determination 
falls  upon  the  suspended  matter.  Moreover,  it  is  difficult  to  take  two 
specimens  of  water  at  the  same  time  which  shall  contain  the  same  amount 
of  susj^ended  matter,  so  that  no  very  great  accuracy  in  its  determination 
is  required,  and  the  estimation  is  principally  valuable  with  reference  to  the 
question  of  filtration. 

When  we  come  to  express  in  figures  the  results  of  this  and  of  other 
analytical  determinations,  we  find  that,  unfortunately,  there  is  consider- 
able diversity  of  practice.  The  following  are  the  principal  modes  of  ex- 
pression: 

(1)  In  grains  to  the  English  (impei'ial)  gallon,  which  measures  277 
cubic  inches  and  is  equivalent  to  10  lbs,  or  70,000  grains  of  pure  water. 
This  method  is  still  quite  common  in  England. 

(2)  In  grains  to  the  U.  S.  gallon,  which  measures  231  cubic  inches  and 
is  equivalent  to  58,372  +  grains  of  pure  water.  This  method  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  United  States. 

(3)  On  a  decimal  basis,  either  as  so  many  parts  in  100,000  or  in  1,000,- 
000,  or  as  so  many  milligrammes  in  a  litre,  which  is  the  same  thing  as  parts 
in  a  million.  This  method  is  common  in  France  and  in  Germany,  and  is 
coming  into  use  very  extensively  in  England  and  in  this  country. 

Besides  these  methods,  there  are  others  used  by  individual  authors,  or 
to  a  limited  extent.  Thus,  in  at  least  one  work  on  mineral  waters  the  saline 
constituents  are  expressed  in  grains  to  the  pint,  and  at  least  one  analyst 
states  his  results  as  so  many  pounds  in  a  million  U.  S.  gallons.  This 
last  method  is  not  without  reason,  and  is  certainly  better  than  employing 
grains  to  the  gallon,  because  the  amount  of  water  used  or  required  is 
usually  estimated  in  millions  of  gallons  and  a  pound  conveys  a  definite 
idea  to  most  minds,  while  a  grain  is  a  quantity  of  which  most  persons 
have  no  conception.  It  would,  however,  be  better  if  it  could  be  agreed 
to  use  the  "  parts  in  100,000."  Anyone  can  understand  this  method,  for 
we  mean  that  there  are  so  many  pounds  of  such  and  such  material  in 
100,000  pounds  of  water,  or  so  many  grains  of  the  material  in  100,000 
grains  of  water,  or  any  other  unit  may  be  used  and  the  proportion  re- 
mains the  same. 

3Iicroscopical  examination. — The  nature  of  the  matter  which  a  water 
carries  in  suspension  is  best  learned  by  microscopical  examination;  this  is 


294      ON   DEHSTKHSTG-WATEH   AND    PUBLIC    WATEE-SUPPLIES. 

especially  true  of  the  organic  matter.  Starch-grains,  hair  of  human 
beings  or  of  domestic  animals,  epithelial  scales,  muscular  fibre,  wool,  linen, 
cotton — these  are  substances  which  may  be  recognized  without  difficulty 
under  the  microscope,  and  are  evidences  of  more  or  less  serious  contami- 
nation. 

Almost  all  waters  contain  animal  and  plant  life.  Of  animals,  some 
are  so  large  as  to  be  recognized  by  the  unaided  eye;  such  are  the  Daphnia 
pulex,  Fig.  40,  A,  the  Cyclops  quadricornis,  Fig.  40,  B,  and  other  similar 


Fig.  40. 


animals.  These  creatures,  although  one  hesitates  to  drink  them  deliber- 
ately, are  no  evidence  of  impurity,  and  they  do  not  themselves  render  a 
water  unwholesome.  They  occur  in  almost  all  ponds  and  rivers,  and  some 
regard  them  even  as  a  guarantee  of  purity.  It-  is  fair,  however,  to  say 
that  these  animals  secrete  oil  under  their  shells  (carapaces),  and  some  have 
ascribed  disagreeable  tastes  in  pond-waters  to  an  abnormal  amount  of  this 
oily  matter.     The  evidence  in  favor  of  this  explanation  is  not  strong. 

With  regard  to  plants,  something  has  already  been  said  about  certain 
sorts  of  algje.  (See  pp.  235  and  238.)  The  algfe  as  a  rule,  including 
diatoms  and  desmids,  are  of  little  account  unless  they  increase  to  a  great 
extent  and  decay  in  the  water.  The  fungi — plants  destitute  of  green  or 
other  coloring  matter  and  growing  upon  or  in  the  presence  of  decaying 
organic  substances — the  infusoria,  or  at  least  some  of  the  forms  of  life 
included  under  this  head,  the  bacteria,  vibrios,  etc.,  must  be  looked  upon 
with  suspicion,  as  they  are  found  in  waters  known  to  be  impure. 

Gaseous  substances. — With  occasional  exceptions,  no  water  which  is 
likely  to  come  under  consideration  as  a  source  of  domestic  supply  would 
contain  other  gases  than  those  of  the  air — oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid.  These  gases  are  present  in  very  varying  proportion  in  different 
waters.  The  waters  of  artesian  wells  and  of  springs  generally  contain 
little  oxygen,  often  none  at  all;  Avaters  from  highly  polluted  sources  are 
also  deficient  in  this  gas;  waters  which  have  been  freely  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  which  do  not  contain  any  considerable  amount  of  decaying  or- 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.        295 

ganic  matter,  are  often  charged  with  an  excess  of  oxygen.'  Nitrogen 
occurs  in  a  certain  amount  in  all  waters,  and  in  some  mineral  or  effer- 
vescent waters  it  forms  the  largest,  the  main  part  of  the  dissolved  gases. 
Carbonic  acid  is  present  in  all  potable  waters,  and  its  presence  is  of 
important  influence  in  determining  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  which 
a  given  water  contains,  and  the  solvent  effect  of  water  on  many  minerals 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid. 

It  was  formerly  the  general  custom  to  make  a  complete  quantitative 
analysis  of  the  various  gases  present  in  a  sample  of  water  under  examina- 
tion. The  analysis  was  made  by  boiling  out  the  gases  from  a  measured 
quantity  of  water  and  submitting  the  mixture  obtained  to  the  accurate 
but  tedious  methods  of  gas  analysis.  As,  however,  these  determinations 
were  almost  never  made  on  the  spot,  but,  on  the  contrary,  often  on  samples 
of  water  which  had  been  standing  for  days  or  for  weeks,  they  were  nearly 
worthless,  and  are  now  rarely  made  except  in  the  case  of  mineral  waters. 

There  has  lately  been  devised  a  method,  known  as  Schiitzenberger's, 
for  determining  the  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  in  water,  a  method  which 
admits  of  being  performed  with  sufficient  accuracy  out  of  doors.  The 
following  table  contains  the  results  obtained  by  this  method  on  the  River 
Seine  by  M.  Gerardin,  Inspectexir  des  etablissements  insalubres,  Paris,  in. 
the  summer  and  fall  of  1874.'^ 


Kilo- 
metres. 


0 

8 

31 

78 

93 

109 

150 

242 


Corbeil  (above  Paris) 

Pont  de  la  Tournelle,  Paris 

Auteviil  (below  the  city,  but  above  outlets  of  main  sewers) 

Epinay  (below  all  sewers) 

Pont  de  Poissy 

Pont  de  Meulan 

Mantes 

Vernon 

Rouen 


Oxygen. 


9, 


,32 
8.05 
5.99 
1.05 
6.12 
8.17 
8.96 
10.40 
10.42 


Each  of  the  figures  in  the  foregoing  table  is  the  mean  of  a  number  of 
determinations.  The  figures  denote  the  number  of  cubic  centimetres  of 
oxygen  in  one  litre  (1,000  cubic  centimetres)  of  water.  The  theory  is 
that  a  water  which  is  polluted  by  decaying  organic  matter  not  only  calls 
upon  the  air  about  it  to  furnish  oxygen  for  the  combustion  of  the  de- 
caying matter,  but  uses  up  in  the  process  more  or  less,  sometimes  all,  of 

1  According  to  Bunsen's  tables  (Bunsen  :  Gasometrisclie  Methoden,  Braunschweig, 
1877),  one  litre  of  ^nw'e  icater  at  0'  C,  and  under  the  normal  atmospheric  pressure, 
will  dissolve  from  the  air  8.64  c.c.  of  oxygen;  and  at  20^  C,  5.96  c.c.  The  solubility 
of  this  gas  in  natural  water  seems  to  be  increased  by  the  presence  of  foreign  sub- 
stances, and  the  excess  of  oxygen  which  has  been  found  in  some  instances  may  be  in 
part  due  to  the  evolution  of  the  gas  by  growing  plants. 

-  See  Assainissement  de  la  Seine,  etc. ,  deuxieme  partie,  II.  Annexes,  p.  8. 


296      ON    DBIlSrKIlSrG-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

the  oxygen  previously  dissolved  in  the  water.  The  amount  of  dissolved 
oxygen  is  thus  considered  by  some  to  be  an  indication— in  the  inverse  di- 
rection, of  course — of  the  amount  of  impurity  present. 

Although  this  determination  of  dissolved  oxygen  is  valuable  in  tracing 
the  course  of  a  polluted  stream,  it  has  little  absolute  value,  for  the 
ground-water  generally  and  the  water  of  unpolluted  springs  and  of  deep 
wells  are  deficient  in  oxygen. 

Total  solids. — The  determination  of  the  total  dissolved  matter  is  made 
by  evaporating  a  measured  quantity  of  the  water  to  dryness  in  a  platinum 
vessel,  drying  at  some  definite  temperature,  and  weighing  the  residue. 
There  is  considerable  diversity  among  chemists  as  to  the  quantity  of  water 
which  should  be  evaporated  and  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  best  to 
dry  the  residue.  The  determination  is,  of  necessity,  an  inexact  one,  be- 
cause the  solid  matter  obtained  does  not  exactly  represent  what  was  in 
solution.  In  the  evaporation  some  substances  pass  off  with  the  steam  and 
are  lost.  Other  substances  are  changed  in  character  by  the  treatment. 
If  the  residue  be  dried  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  some  of  the 
salts  retain  their  water  of  crystallization;  at  a  somewhat  higher  temjoera- 
ture,  even  as  low  as  140°  C,  the  organic  substances  begin  to  be  decomposed 
and  lose  weight.  In  spite  of  this,  some  chemists  use  a  temperature  as 
high  as  180°  C. 

For  sanitary  purposes  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  this  determination 
should  be  very  accurate,  for  it  is  a  matter  of  no  importance  whether  there 
are  3  or  6  parts,  whether  17  or  20,  of  solid  matter  in  100,000  parts  of  the 
water.  The  more  common  custom  is  to  dry  the  residue  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water  (100°  C.  or  212°  Fahr.),  and  to  consider  what  remains 
at  that  temperature  as  the  "  total  solid  residue."  As  already  stated,  the 
expression  "  total  impurity  "  is  sometimes  used;  but  this  term  is  open  to 
objection,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  water  known  to  be  pure,  ^.  e.,  unpol- 
luted. 

Mineral  matter. — It  is  unnecessary,  for  sanitary  purposes,  to  make  a 
complete  analysis  of  the  mineral  matter  which  a  water  holds  in  solution, 
or  which  is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  water  to  dryness.  A  few  sub- 
stances are,  however,  determined  for  special  reasons. 

It  is  generally  felt  to  be  important  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  chlorine. 
This  element  does  not  exist  free  in  the  water,  but  in  combination,  forming 
chemical  compounds  which  are  known  as  chlorides.  Unless  present  in 
excessive  quantity,  the  chlorides  which  occur  in  natural  waters  are  harm- 
less; but  it  happens  that  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  is  an  invariable 
constituent  or  accompaniment  of  all  excremental  matter,  and  of  all  refuse 
from  the  household  and  from  most  manufacturing  ojDerations.  It  is  true 
that  salt  exists  in  the  air  of  all  places  not  too  far  from  the  sea,  and  that 
chlorides  are  found  in  all  natural  waters.  The  amount,  however,  is  very 
small,  except  quite  near  the  sea  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  salt  deposits. 
Thus,  with  certain  restrictions,  chlorides  become  evidences  of  contami- 
nation; and  since  chlorides  are  not  absorbed  to  any  extent  by  the  soil,  nor 
chemically  changed  by  exi^osure  to  the  air,  they  remain  after  other  evi- 


Oi^    DKINKING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.        297 

dence  of  contamination  has  passed  away.  The  extent  of  the  pollution 
cannot,  however,  be  estimated  from  the  amount  of  chlorine  present, 
because  in  various  jDolluting  fluids  the  amount  of  chlorine  varies  greatly. 
As  an  example  we  may  take  sewage  itself.  A  number  of  experiments 
were  made  some  years  ago  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  sewage  of 
Boston  and  Worcester.  In  one  series  of  experiments  made  on  the  same 
Boston  sewer,  at  different  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  the  chlorine  was 
found  to  vary  from  42  parts  in  100,000  to  3.2  parts.  The  average  of  33 
day  samples  from  this  sewer  was  18.94,  and  of  4  night  samples  was  4.50. 
The  average  of  52  samples  of  Worcester  sewage  was  3.6  in  100,000,  while 
some  of  the  Boston  sewage  from  other  sewers  contained  very  much  more 
than  the  maximum  just  given.  ^ 

It  is  customary  to  determine  the  amount  of  ammonia  and  of  nitrogen 
which  exists  in  the  form  of  nitrites  and  nitrates,  not  because  these  com- 
pounds are  likely  to  exist  in  quantity  sufficient  to  work  harm  of  themselves, 
but  because  they  are  the  resu,lt  of  the  decay  or  decomposition  of  nitrogenous 
organic  matter.  As  a  rule,  the  amount  that  occurs  in  unpolluted  water  is 
very  small,  and  even  in  polluted  waters  it  is  small  when  expressed  in  figures. 
The  ammonia  can  without  difficulty  be  determined  when  present,  even  in 
minute  quantity;  the  significance  of  the  amount  found  will  be  discussed 
in  connection  with  the  interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  examination  of 
different  classes  of  waters. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  as  nitrites  and  nitrates  does  not  bear  any  di- 
rect ratio  to  the  amount  of  organic  matter  originally  present  in  the  water, 
although  these  compounds  are  generally  to  be  taken  as  indications  of  its 
previous  existence,  and  in  shallow  wells  are  generally  to  be  ascribed  to 
previous  animal  or  sewage  material. 

It  is  the  fashion  of  certain  English  chemists  to  report  in  absolute 
figures  so  much  "  previous  sewage  contamination."  This  involves  a  fal- 
lacy, and  little  meaning  attaches  to  it.  The  figures  given,  in  any  case, 
are  reached  by  determining  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen  which  is  present 
as  ammonia,  and  also  as  nitrites  and  nitrates;  after  subtracting  the  small 
amount  of  nitrogen  which  rain-water  contains  in  these  forms,  there  is  cal- 
culated from  the  remainder  how  much  of  what  is  called  "  average  London 
sewage  "  would  be  necessary  to  account  for  this  amount  of  nitrogen.  The 
composition  of  the  so-called  "  average  London  sewage  "  is  not,  as  might 
be  supposed,  deduced  from  a  certain  number  of  examinations  made  at 
various  times,  but  the  average  sewage  is  taken  arbitrarily  as  containing  10 
parts  of  combined  nitrogen  in  100,000  jDarts.  Again,  when  sewage  or  other 
nitrogenous  matter  decays,  it  depends  upon  circumstances  how  much  com- 
bined nitrogen  is  set  free  as  nitrogen  gas,  how  much  is  converted  into  am- 
monia, and  how  much  is  oxidized  so  as  to  appear  as  nitrites  or  nitrates. 
Where  the  sewage  passes  through  the  soil  before  reaching  the  river,  it  may 
carry  into  the  stream  a  quantity  of  nitrates  and  but  little  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  animal  organic  matter.     It  seems  from  recent  researches  that  the 

'  See  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Slass.  State  Board  of  Health,  1873, 


298      ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

process  of  nitrification  in  the  soil  is  brought  about  by  means  of  an  organ- 
ized ferment,  and  therefore,  under  different  conditions,  may  take  place 
-with  different  intensity.  Moreover,  nitrates  once  formed  are  readily  reduced 
in  the  presence  of  decaying  organic  matter,  so  that  the  nitrates  present 
at  any  time  give  no  quantitative  indications  of  the  amount  of  sewage  pre- 
viously present. 

While  the  presence  of  nitrates  under  most  circumstances  indicates 
that  there  has  been  previous  pollution,  it  is  often  sufficient  to  apply  a 
qualitative  test  and  to  judge  from  it  roughly  of  the  amount  present.  That 
most  commonly  applied  is  the  sulphate  of  iron  (ferrous  sulphate)  test.  A 
small  quantity  of  the  water  under  examination  is  mixed  in  a  glass  tube 
with  an  equal  volume  of  pure  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  The  mixture, 
which  becomes  very  hot,  is  cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the  air,  and  there 
is  then  j^oured  upon  it  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  If  nitrates  are  pres- 
ent, a  dark  ring  or  layer  forms  between  the  two  liquids.  The  amount  of 
nitrates  present  may  be  inferred  from  the  extent  to  which  the  water  must 
be  concentrated  before  it  will  give  indications  by  this  test. 

Of  other  inorganic  substances  it  is  often  necessary  to  determine  whether 
lead,  copper,  or  other  mineral  poison  is  present  in  appreciable  quantity,  and 
also  to  ascertain,  at  least  apjoroximately,  the  amount  of  lime  and  magne- 
sia, and  sometimes  of  iron.  Sufficient  information  with  regard  to  the  lime 
and  magnesia  may  generally  be  obtained  by  determining  the  "  hardness  " 
of  the  water. 

In  determining  the  "  hardness "  of  the  water,  advantage  is  taken  of 
one  of  the  properties  which  make  hard  water  undesirable — namely,  the 
property  of  destroying  soap.  A  solution  of  soap  is  prepared  of  such  a 
strength  that  a  measured  quantity  of  it  is  exactly  destroyed  or  neutral- 
ized by  a  known  amount  of  lime.  The  lime  is  previously  dissolved  in  a 
certain  amount,  say  100  cubic  centimetres,  of  water,  and  in  the  case  of  a 
water  under  examination,  it  is  ascertained  how  much  of  this  same  standard 
soap  solution  is  destroyed  by  100  c,  c.  of  this  particular  water.  The  hard- 
ness of  another  portion  of  the  water  is  determined  after  boiling  for  some 
time;  this  is  called  '■'■permanent  hardness,^''  and  is  due  to  sulphates  and 
other  soluble  compounds  of  lime  and  magnesia.  The  total  hardness, 
less  the  permanent  hardness,  is  the  "  temporary  hardness,''''  and  is  due  to  the 
bicarbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  which  are  decomposed  by  boiling.  The 
hardness  is  generally  expressed  in  degrees,  which  have  different  significa- 
tion in  different  countries.  In  England,  where  the  process  originated,  a 
degree  of  hardness  corresponds  to  a  grain  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  one  im- 
perial gallon  of  water;  for  example,  a  water  of  5  degrees  hardness  means 
that  each  gallon  of  the  water  contains  5  grains  of  carbonate  of  lime,  or 
an  amount  of  sulphate  of  lime,  or  that  it  contains  carbonate  or  sulphate 
of  magnesia  equivalent  in  soap-destroying  power  to  5  grains  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  ^  In  Germany  the  degrees  of  hardness  are  parts  of  oxide  of  cal- 
cium (quick -lime)  in  100,000  parts  of  water.  In  France  the  degrees  mean 
so  many  parts  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  100,000  parts  of  water.  In  Amer- 
ica, in  spite  of  the  anomaly,  many  express  the  hardness  in  English  de- 


O:^    DlilNKlXG-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    "WATEK-SUPPLIES.       299 

grees,  ^.  e.,  in  grains  to  the  imperial  gallon,  while  the  other  results  are 
given  in  grains  to  the  U.  S.  gallon.  The  French  systena  of  parts  in 
100,000  is,  however,  now  coming  into  vogue. 

Organic  matter. — In  the  examination  of  water  there  are  few  inorganic 
substances  to  be  determined  as  bearing  on  the  sanitary  quality  of  the 
water,  except  in  so  far  as  they  indicate  sewage  contamination,  and  the  total 
amount  of  inorganic  matter  may  be  quite  large  without  rendering  the 
water  unwholesome;  it  is  different,  however,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
with  the  organic  matter. 

Since  there  is  disagreement  among  medical  men  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  injurious  substances  in  polluted  water,  and  since  even  with  re- 
gard to  decomposing  sewage  no  one  knows  for  a  certainty  in  what  its 
power  for  harm  resides,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  analysis  can  say 
with  absoluteness  of  statement  whether  a  given  water  is  cUmgerousli/ 
polluted  or  not.  Indeed,  we  may  say  that  chemistry  does  not  give  us 
the  means  of  determining  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  water,  or 
even  of  determining,  in  all  cases,  whether  it  is  of  animal  or  vegetable 
.origin. 

There  are  many  persons  who  suppose  that  the  way  to  consult  a  chemist 
in  the  matter  of  water-supply  is  to  send  a  sample  of  water  in  a  sealed 
vessel,  with  no  hint  as  to  its  source;  and  they  expect  the  results  of  the 
chemical  examination  of  the  water  to  be  accompanied  by  a  statement 
as  to  the  wholesomeness  of  the  water,  or  of  the  possibility  of  danger 
from  its  use.  The  chemical  examination  is  of  great  service,  and  often  in- 
dispensable; but,  except  in  cases  of  gross  pollution,  it  is  impossible  to 
pronounce  definitely  on  the  water  without  a  knowledge  of  the  locality 
from  which  it  is  taken. 

Now,  although  the  term  "  organic  matter  "  sounds  as  if  it  meant  some 
definite  thing,  this  is  not  the  case.  For  instance,  a  pound  of  sugar,  the 
chemical  symbol  of  which  is  C12  H22  On,  a  pound  of  albumen,  the  symbol 
of  which  is  Cn  Hns  Nis  SOaa  (?),  and  a  pound  of  excrement,  for  which,  of 
course,  no  symbol  could  be  given,  are  very  different  things.  Some  or- 
ganic matter  contains  a  large  and  some  a  small  percentage  of  carbon ;  the 
same  is  true  with  reference  to  nitrogen,  to  hydrogen,  and  to  oxygen, 
which  make  up  the  bulk  of  all  organic  matters.  Even  if  the  chemist 
could  say  with  all  assurance  that  a  certain  water  contained  exactly  1  or  2 
or  0  parts  of  organic  matter  in  100,000,  we  should  be  very  far  from  hav- 
ing the  data  necessary  for  forming  an  opinion  of  the  water.  But  the 
chemist  cannot  make  any  such  statement,  as  will  appear  from  what  fol- 
lows. 

The  earliest  method  by  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  determine  the 
amount  of  organic  matter  was  to  take  the  residue  of  evaporation,  the 
residue  whose  weight  gives  us  the  so-called  "total  solids,"  and  subject 
it  to  the  action  of  a  low  red  heat  until  all  the  carbonaceous  matter  was 
destroyed.  This  "  loss  on  ignition  "  is  now  generally  tabulated  as  "  or- 
ganic and  volatile  matter,"  but  it  is  far  from  being  due  entirely  to  the 
destruction  of  the  organic  matter  which  may  be  present.      As  the  deter- 


300      ON    DEHSTKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

mination  can  be  made  in  a  very  short  time,  and  as  the  "  total  solids  "  are 
always  determined,  the  determination  is  not  absolutely  valueless.  Under 
certain  circumstances  it  may  be  of  assistance  in  comparing  different 
waters,  or  even  in  judging  of  a  single  water  which  is  under  examination  ; 
but,  as  a  rule,  no  great  value  can  be  attached  to  the  determination,  and 
two  different  persons  would  not  obtain  the  same  result  from  the  same 
water,  and  for  several  reasons. 

In  the  first  place,  certain  kinds  of  organic  matter  are  burned  up  with 
difficulty.  They  char  at  once,  but  the  carbon  remains  unconsumed,  ex- 
cept on  ajDplication  for  a  long  time  of  a  considerable  degree  of  heat.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  heat  applied  be  considerable,  there  is  danger,  or 
rather  certainty,  of  volatilizing  alkaline  chlorides.  Moreover,  other  salts 
are  decomposed  with  partial  volatilization  ;  thus,  the  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia  are  more  or  less  completely  converted  into  oxides  by  expul- 
sion of  the  carbonic  acid,  or,  in  the  presence  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
silicic  acid,  into  silicates.  The  nitrates  are  converted  into  carbonates, 
oxides,  or  silicates,  chloride  of  magnesium  is  decomposed  in  the  presence 
of  hydrated  compounds  with  escape  of  chlorhydric  acid,  and  other  changes 
take  j>lace  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  particularize. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  this  determination  of  or- 
ganic matter  more  reliable,  and  different  chemists  use  different  devices. 
The  practice  of  the  writer  is  to  weigh  the  residue  after  drying  at  212" 
Fahr.  (100*^  C);  then  to  ignite  gently,  using  only  a  low  red  heat;  then  to 
moisten  with  water  containing  carbonic  acid  and  leave  for  a  time,  in  order 
that  the  oxides  of  calcium  and  magnesium  which  have  been  formed  from 
the  carbonates  may  be  reconverted  into  carbonates,  and  that  the  salts 
which  crystallize  with  water  may  retake  their  water  of  crystallization  at 
least  as  far  as  it  is  retained  at  100°;  after  standing,  the  residue  is  again 
dried  at  100°  as  before,  and  weighed.  The  difference  between  the  two 
weights  is  tabulated  as  "organic  and  volatile  matter."  In  the  case  of 
very  soft  waters,  such  as  those  of  many  New  England  streams,  this  differ- 
ence is  really,  in  great  measure,  organic  matter;  the  waters  contain  only 
a  small  amount  of  alkaline  salts,  almost  no  nitrates,  and  only  a  small 
amount  of  carbonates  and  of  alkaline  chlorides.  In  most  well  waters  the 
determination  is  valueless. 

Owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  character  of  the  determination  of  organic 
matter  by  ignition,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  obtain  more  reliable 
results  by  other  methods.  Several  of  these  methods  depend  upon  the 
oxidation  of  the  organic  matter  by  means  of  permanganate  of  potash,  a 
compound  which  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  oxygen,  and  which 
parts  with  a  portion  of  it  quite  readily.  The  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potash,  even  if  very  dilute,  has  a  marked  pink  color,  which  disappears 
when  the  permanganate  has  been  destroyed  by  organic  matter,  and,  by 
successive  additions,  it  may  be  determined  how  much  permanganate  a 
given  bulk  of  a  certain  water  will  destroy.  There  are  various  ways  of 
ajDplying  the  permanganate  solution.  Some  prefer  to  use  the  reagent  in 
alkaline,  and  others  in  acid  solutions;  some  heat  the  liquid  to  one  tem- 


ON    DEINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       301 

perature,  and  some  to  another.'  As  to  the  results  obtained,  it  is  self-evi- 
dent that  different  organic  substances  require  very  different  amounts  of 
oxygen  to  burn  them  up,  and  consequently  that  the  amount  of  perman- 
ganate employed  cannot  be  taken  as  an  absolute  measure  of  the  amount 
of  organic  matter.  Moreover,  some  organic  substances  are  not  acted  upon 
at  all  by  the  permanganate  in  solution.  It  is,  however,  the  custom  either 
to  report  the  amount  of  oxygen  as  indicated  by  the  amount  of  permanga- 
nate destroyed,  under  stated  conditions,  by  a  given  quantity  of  water,  or 
to  multiply  by  some  conventional  number  and  call  the  product  "  orga- 
nischer  Substanz."     The  latter  is  the  common  practice  in  Germany. 

Another  method  of  using  permanganate  of  potash  to  give  indications 
of  the  character  of  the  organic  matter  is  the  so-called  ammonia  method  of 
water  analysis  devised  by  the  English  chemists.  Chapman,  Wanklyn,  and 
Smith,^  and  much  used  in  England  and  in  this  country.  This  takes  ad- 
vantage of  the  fact  that  certain  kinds  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter, 
when  treated  with  a  strongly  alkaline  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash, 
give  off  a  definite  portion  or  the  whole  of  their  nitrogen  as  ammonia;  and 
the  value  of  the  method  lies  in  the  assumption  that  it  is  the  nitrogenized 
organic  matter  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief  source  of  danger  in 
polluted  water.  While  there  is  so  great  difference  in  the  organic  matter 
which  may  find  its  way  into  water-courses,  ponds,  or  reservoirs,  there  is 
a  general  feeling  among  sanitarians  that  the  most  objectionable  form  of 
organic  matter  is  that  which  is  highly  nitrogenized,  or  that  which,  by  be- 
ing readily  oxidized,  shows  itself  ready  to  enter  into  decay;  and  if  the 
nitrogenous  matter  is  derived  from  excremental  matter,  it  is  felt  that  the 
unknown  "something"  which  causes  specific  diseases,  such  as  typhoid 
fever  and  cholera,  may  be  present. 

In  working  the  ammonia-method,  the  water  under  examination  is  put 
into  a  retort,  made  alkaline  by  means  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  distilled 
as  long  as  the  distillate  carries  enough  ammonia  to  be  measured  by 
Nessler's  solution.  Then  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  and  permanganate 
of  potash  is  added,  and  distillation  is  continued.  Another  portion  of 
ammonia  now  comes  off,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  permanganate  on  the 
nitrogenous  organic  matter.  The  amount  of  ammonia  thus  obtained  i» 
determined,  and  is  tabulated  as  "  albuminoid  ammonia,"  because  albumen 
is  one  of  the  bodies  which  is  acted  upon  in  this  way. 

It  is  to  be  said  that  in  the  case  of  some  organic  substances  the  action 
of  the  permanganate  is  far  from  complete,  and  some  are  not  acted  upon 
with  production  of  ammonia.  This  method  does  not  reveal  anything  with 
reference  to  carbonaceous  matter  present,  and,  indeed,  like  every  other 
method  which  has  ever  been  proposed  for  determining  the  amount  of  or- 


'  See  Kubel's  Anleitung  zur  Untersuchung  von  Wasser,  bearbeitet  von  Dr.  Ferd. 
Tiemann,  Braunschweig,  1874.  Also  a  recent  paper  by  Dr.  Tidy,  Chemical  News, 
XXXVIII.,  1878,  p.  283. 

■^  Water  Analysis,  by  J.  A.  Wanklyn  and  E.  T.  Chapman  ;  4th  Edition,  rewritten, 
by  J.  A.  Wanklyn,  London,  1876. 


302      ON    DRINKLN'G- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

ganic  matter,  the  results  do  not  express  any  fixed  and  definite  thing,  as 
does,  for  instance,  a  determination  of  chlorine.  Neither  do  they  tell  of 
the  origin  of  the  nitrogenous  matter,  whether  it  comes  from  animal  or 
vegetable  sources;  in  fact,  no  chemical  analysis  can  tell  that  unless  in  ex- 
ceptional cases.  This  method  is,  however,  valuable  as  a  means  of  com- 
paring various  waters  of  the  same  general  character,  or  of  tracing  the  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  impurities  of  the  same  sort  in  the  same  water. 

The  second  general  method  in  anything  like  common  use  is  a  method 
devised  by  Frankland  and  Armstrong;  it  was  used  in  the  great  number  of 
examinations  published  in  the  Reports  of  the  Rivers  Pollution  Commis- 
sion of  Great  Britain.  The  method  consists  in  evaporating  a  given  quan- 
tity of  the  water,  under  carefully  regulated  conditions,  and  in  submitting 
the  residue  to  a  process  of  organic  analysis,  by  which  all  the  carbon  is 
converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  the  nitrogen  is  liberated  in  the  gaseous 
state.  The  mixture  of  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid  is  then  analyzed  by 
processes  of  gas  analysis.  The  results  are  stated  in  so  many  parts  of 
"organic  carbon"  and  so  much  "  organic  nitrogen "  in  100,000  parts  of 
the  water,  and  sometimes  the  two  amounts  together  are  spoken  of  as 
the  amount  of  the  "  organic  elements." 

As  a  chemical  process,  this  method  has  been  made  the  subject  of  much 
criticism  by  its  o|)ponents;  from  this  point  of  view  we  can  hardly  discuss 
the  matter  appropriately.  As  at  present  employed,  in  the  hands  of  com- 
petent persons,  it  is  calculated  to  give  good  results;  but  the  great  ques- 
tion is  :  Of  how  much  value  are  the  results  w^hen  obtained  ?  The  process,  in 
the  words  of  the  originator,  is  "  both  troublesome  and  tedious,"  and  re- 
quires considerable  manipulative  skill,  the  apparatus  employed  is  some- 
what costly  and  frangible,  and  a  good  deal  of  time  is  unavoidably  con- 
sumed in  the  examination. 

It  is  true  that,  if  we  have  the  amount  of  organic  nitrogen  and  carbon, 
we  come  nearer  to  having  the  amount  of  organic  matter  than  is  possible 
by  any  other  means;  but,  as  has  been  already  said,  it  is,  after  all,  not  the 
amount,  but  the  character,  which  is  to  be  considered.  In  this  method  of 
analysis,  the  character  and  probable  origin  are  inferred  from  the  relative 
proportion  of  carbon  and  nitrogen.  Thus,  in  waters  which  were  rendered 
impure  by  the  presence  of  extract  of  peat,  the  average  amount  of  nitrogen 
was  to  the  amount  of  carbon  as  1  :  11.9,  while  the  proportion  in  sewage 
was  as  1  :  1.8. 

The  influence  of  oxidation  on  peaty  matter,  i.  e.,  vegetable  matter  con- 
taining a  considerable  proportion  of  carbon,  is  to  decrease  the  amount  of 
carbon,  while  by  the  oxidation  of  animal  matter,  i.  e.,  matter  containing 
a  considerable  proportion  of  nitrogen,  it  is  the  nitrogen  which  decreases 
most  rapidly.  "  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  proportions  of  nitrogen  to 
carbon  in  soluble  vegetable  and  animal  organic  matters  vary  in  opposite 
directions  dicing  oxidation — a  fact  which  renders  more  difficult  the  de- 
cision as  to  "n  hether  the  organic  matter  present  in  any  given  sample  of 
water  is  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin." 

The  average  proportion  of  nitrogen  to  carbon  in  various  classes  of 


ON    DEI]SrKlNG-A\^ATEK    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       303 

waters,  as  well  as  the  limits  within  which  the  proportion  has  been  observed 
to  vary,  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

Amount  of  |   .  j  Amount  of 
nitrogen    )   '  "(     carbon 

Peat  (one  sample) 1  :  11.4   ■ 

Unoxidized  peaty  matter  in  upland  surface-water,  variation  be- 
tween 1 :  8.3  and  1 :  21.1 ;  average 1  :  11.9 

Oxidized  peaty  matter  in  lakes,  etc.,  variation  between  1:3.2 

and  1 :  11.4  ;  average 1  :  5.9 

Spring- water  containing  peaty  matter,  variation  between  1  : 1.4 

and  1  :  5.4  ;  average 1  :  3.3 

Average  of  a  number  of  samples  of  fresh  sewage 1  :  3.1 

Animal  matter  in  polluted  wells,   variation  between  1  :  0.7  and 

1:6.1;  average 1  :  3.1 

Average  ^f  16  samples  sewage 1  :  1.8 

Average  of  same  sewage  after  oxidation  by  passing  through  soil  1  :  4.9 

With  reference  to  Frankland's  method,  Sander  says:'  "Without  a 
knowledge  of  the  previous  history  of  the  water,  the  relative  proportion 
(between  carbon  and  nitrogen)  is  not  available  as  a  means  of  deciding  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  contamination;  if,  however,  the  previous  history  of  a 
water  is  known,  there  is  scarcely  need  of  so  particular  an  analysis  in  order 
to  judge  of  its  character."  For  this  reason  Frankland's  method  has  not 
been  used  to  any  extent  in  Germany  or  in  this  country. 

We  come  now  to  the  interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  analytical  ex- 
amination. Some  general  princijDles  may  be  laid  down  for  the  interpreta- 
tion, although,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  chemical  examination  alone  cannot 
be  relied  upon  as  giving  conclusive  evidence  as  to  the  suitability  of  a  water 
for  drinking.  Of  course,  if  a  water  is  hard,  the  chemist  can  say,  without 
hesitation,  that  the  water  is  unsuited  for  supply  on  account  of  its  probable 
effect  on  steam-boilers,  and  because  it  will  be  uneconomical  for  use  in 
washing.  If  the  water  contains  arsenic  or  lead,  or  other  poisonous  metal, 
the  chemist  can  discover  it.  If  the  water  is  grossly  polluted,  or  is  of  ex- 
ceptional purity,  chemical  examination  can  determine  these  facts;  but, 
in  a  vast  majority  of  cases,  while  chemistry  may  teach  something  and  aid 
in  the  decision,  it  cannot  teach  everything,  and  it  cannot  decide.  Now,  it 
would  be  very  convenient,  if  it  were  possible,  to  take  each  item  which  is 
made  the  object  of  analytical  determination,  and  say  that  a  good  water 
may  contain  so  much,  and  if  a  water  contains  more,  it  is  not  good.  This 
is  impossible;  a  certain  amount  of  the  same  substance  might  in  one  case 
be  a  sign  of  fearful  contamination,  while  in  another  it  might  indicate  only 
a  normal  constituent  of  the  water. 

In  view  of  the  impossibility  of  saying  exactly  what  is  and  what  is  not 
harmful,  any  considerable  departure  from  the  normal  character  of  the 
water  in  a  given  locality  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  It  is  true 
that  various  students  of  the  matter  of  water-supply  have  formulated 
"  standards  "  which  a  water  may  not  overpass.     They  are,  however,  only 

'Handbuch  der  offentlichen  Gesundheitspflege,  p.  330, 


304      ON    DEINKING- WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

of  relative  value.    Moreover,  different  kinds  of  water  cannot  be  judged  by 
the  same  standard,  a  fact  that  is  often  lost  sight  of. 

In  considering  the  various  classes  of  natural  w^aters  with  reference  to 
the  sanitary  and  especially  to  the  chemical  examination,  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  alter  somewhat  the  order  in  which  they  have  been  studied  in  a 
general  way  as  sources  of  sujDply.     We  will  begin  with  the  ground-water. 

Sanitary  Examination  of  the  Groiind-vxiter. 

In  making  the  preliminary  examination  of  the  ground-water  of  a  par- 
ticular locality  with  a  view  to  its  use  for  town-supply,  the  first  question 
that  arises  is  with  reference  to  the  quantity  of  water  that  can  be  relied 
upon.  It  is  true  that  this  question  is  one  which  concerns  mainly  the  en- 
gineer; as,  however,  one  of  the  first  sanitary  requirements  is  an  abundance 
of  water,  and,  as  in  many  instances,  the  quantity  actually  obtained  has 
fallen  far  short  of  that  anticipated,  it  is  not  out  of  place  at  this  point  to 
emphasize  the  importance  of  the  preliminary  examination.  In  addition  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  rain-fall  which  can  be  depended  upon  in  dry 
years,  there  must  be  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  locality  from  which 
the  water  is  to  be  taken,  of  the  drainage-area  which  will  contribute  to 
the  supply,  of  the  thickness  and  character  of  the  water-bearing  stratum, 
and  of  the  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  ground-water.  The  last 
point,  which  is  important  with  reference  to  possible  contamination,  can 
often  be  ascertained  by  inspection  of  the  region  itself  and  by  finding 
out  the  slope  of  the  water-table.  In  case  of  need,  two  trial-pits  may  be 
sunk  in  line  of  the  supposed  flow,  and  some  easily  recognized  soluble 
substance  be  thrown  into  what  seems  to  be  the  upper  one.  After  a  time 
the  substance  employed  may  be  detected  in  the  second  pit,  if  the  flow  is 
really  in  that  direction.  It  is  also  important  to  know  whether  there  are 
any  establishments  from  which  objectionable  refuse  material  is  allowed  to 
soak  into  the  ground.  The  chemical  examination  of  a  ground-water  pro- 
posed for  town-supply  is  mainly  directed  toward  the  organic  matter  or 
to  the  evidence  of  previous  pollution,  but  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
that  followed  out  in  the  case  of  shallow  wells,  as  stated  below.  It  should 
be  accompanied  by  an  examination  of  the  stream  or  pond,  if  the  water  is 
to  be  taken  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  visible  body  of  water,  although,  as 
we  have  seen,  it  is  generally  the  case  that  the  stream  contributes  a  rela- 
tively small  volume  of  the  supply. 

Where  the  ground-water  is  used  from  shallow  wells  by  individual 
families,  and,  in  general,  where  shallow  wells  are  situated  near  dwellings, 
the  water  is  particularly  liable  to  become  polluted.  Although  an  in- 
spection of  the  locality  may  show  that  such  pollution  is  possible  or  even 
probable,  the  matter  can  hardly  be  decided  without  chemical  examination. 
It  is  in  the  case  of  well-waters  that  the  chemical  examination  is  of  the 
greatest  value  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  As  is  the  case  with  the 
ground-water  in  general,  the  total  amount  of  mineral  matter  is  of  little 
account,  but  any  appreciable  amount  of  organic  matter  is  objectionable. 


ON    DEIXKING- WATER    AXD    PUBLIC    WATEE-SLTPPLIES.       305 

Even  if  the  organic  matter  were  entirely  of  vegetable  origin,  it  would 
still  be  objectionable,  for  it  would  show  that  the  well  received  surface 
drainage,  from  which  all  wells  should  be  protected.  A  large  majority  of 
the  shallow  wells  in  actual  use  are  so  situated  that  they  receive  sewage 
directly  or  indirectly.  If  the  sewage  be  passed  through  a  sufficient 
amount  of  soil,  the  organic  matter  is  completely  destroyed,  although  the 
evidence  of  its  previous  existence  remains  in  the  ammonia,  nitrites,  nitrates, 
and  chlorides.  There  is  oftentimes  great  difficulty  in  deciding  whether 
a  well-water  should  be  condemned  for  use  or  not.  On  the  one  hand,  if 
there  is  any  considerable  amount  of  unchanged  organic  matter,  it  is  de- 
tected at  once;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  absence  of  organic  matter,  of 
ammonia,  and  of  an  abnormal  amount  of  chlorides,  shows  that  the  well 
receives  no  appreciable  amount  of  sewage.  The  majority  of  well-waters, 
however,  lie  between  these  two  extremes  and  fall  into  the  category  of 
suspicious  waters,  with  reference  to  which  it  is  impossible  for  even  the 
experienced  observer  to  pronounce  definitely  without  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  locality — and  sometimes  not  even  then. 

The  following  table  contains  the  results  of  the  examination  of  ground- 
water of  good  quality  from  two  localities,  where  it  is  true  that  the  neigh- 
boring stream  probably  contributes  some  portion  of  the  water.  The  table 
also  contains  the  results  obtained  from  the  examination  of  a  number  of 
samples  of  well-waters,  the  organic  matter  being  indicated  by  the  so-called 
"albuminoid  ammonia." 

EXAinXATIOX  OF   GROUXD-WATER, 
("Results  expressed  in  Parts  in  100,000.) 


Locality  and  Date. 


GBOUND-WATER. 

Lowell,  llass. ,  Sept.  2.  1ST3 !  0 .0013  '  0  002T 

Jan.  2,  1874 1  0.0063    0.0037 

■Waltham,  Mass.,  Nov.  18. 1873 ;  0.0013   0 .0033    5  20 

"  Dec.  16,  1873 '0.0047.0.0056;  5.60 

SHiXLOW  WELLS. 

Lynn !  0.218    !  0.022 

Belchertow-n :  0.0059    0.0044 

Chicopee ■  0.0027  i  0.0069 

ililford 0.7253  I  0.0395 

Taunton I  0 .0037  i  0  0093 

•'        (another) I  0.1066  10.0136 

Fitchburg i  0.0128    0.0011 


Nitrates. 


11.6   !  Large  am't.  Bad. 

3.56  Trace.  Suspicions, 

11.72  Small  am't.  Suspicions. 

8.62  Large  am"t.  jVers' bad. 

,    3.20  Trace.  Suspicious. 

44.92.  10.20  Trace.  Bad. 

15.35  i    3.9     Trace.  .Suspicious. 


In  case  of  shallow  wells,  we  must  regard  with  suspicion  a  water  which 

contains  from  0.006  to  0.01  parts  of  ammonia,  from  0.006  to  0.01  parts  of 

"albuminoid  ammonia,"  and  say  1.0  part  of  chlorine;  suspicion  is  also 

awakened  by  any  appreciable  amount  of  nitrites  and  nitrates — enough  to 

show  their  presence  in  the  unconcentrated  water  by  the  sulphate  of  iron 
Vol.  I.— 20 


306      ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

(or  ferrous  sulphate)  test.  The  amounts  mentioned  would  not  justify  a 
condemnation  of  the  water,  especially  if  the  limit  were  exceeded  in  one 
particular  only;  but  they  would  lead  to  inquiry  as  to  the  location  of  the 
well,  and  as  to  a  possible  explanation  of  the  apparently  abnormal  quantity 
of  whatever  excited  the  suspicion.  The  suspicions  thrown  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  water  lead  also  to  renewed  chemical  examination.  This  is 
quite  important,  for  a  single  samjDle  of  water  hardly  gives  a  fair  idea  of 
the  general  character  of  the  well.  It  often  happens  that  a  well  shows 
periodic  contamination — that  is,  at  certain  times  polluting  liquid  reaches 
it,  and  not  at  others.  Where  frequent  complete  analyses  are  not  possible, 
it  is  a  quite  satisfactory  method  of  examination  to  determine  from  time  to 
time  the  amount  of  some  one  substance  present.  Take,  for  instance, 
chlorine.  It  may  be  that  the  chlorides  in  a  well-water  are  abnormalh^ 
high  because  salt  has  been  used  to  thaw  out  the  pump  or  has  been  scat- 
tered about  the  well  to  kill  weeds;  in  such  cases,  any  suspicion  excited 
by  the  presence  of  chlorine  is  allayed  when  the  circumstances  are  known. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  chlorides  come  from  cesspools  or  vaults;  and  as 
chlorine  is  easily  determined,  it  may  be  selected  as  the  object  of  a  num- 
l)er  of  consecutive  examinations.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  ascertain 
whether  the  water  is  subject  to  much  variation,  and  a  more  particular 
examination  can  be  made  at  times  when  the  chlorine  proves  to  be  present 
in  larger  proportion  than  usual.  If  a  particular  vault  or  cesspool  is  sus- 
pected, it  is  advisable  to  throw  a  quantity  of  strong  brine  [i.  e.,  a  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  sodium)  into  the  suspected  source  of  contamination, 
and  observe  whether,  and  after  how  long  an  interval,  the  jDroportion  of 
chlorine  in  the  well  shows  an  increase.  Salts  of  lithium  are  also  used  for 
the  same  purpose,  as  a  very  minute  amount  of  lithium  can  be  detected  by 
the  spectrosco2)e. 

With  regard  to  the  determinations  other  than  those  mentioned  above, 
it  may  be  said,  that  in  order  to  make  the  determination  of  the  "  total  solid 
residue  "  of  any  value,  something  must  be  known  of  the  geological  charac- 
ter of  the  region  or  of  the  water  of  wells  known  to  be  unpolluted.  As 
much  as  forty  or  fifty  parts  of  total  solids  in  100,000  parts  of  the  water 
may  often  be  allowed  in  drinking-water,  provided  they  are  of  such  a  char- 
acter as  to  be  harmless;  but,  in  the  case  of  shallow  wells  supplied  from  the 
ground-water,  such  an  amount  could  be  considered  admissible  only  under 
very  peculiar  circumstances;  it  might  perhaps  be  allowed  in  wells  near  the 
sea. 

The  "  loss  on  ignition,"  or  the  so-called  "  organic  and  volatile  matter," 
is  of  no  value  whatever  in  the  case  of  well-water  or  of  other  waters  giving 
a  considerable  amount  of  solid  residue;  this  is  especially  the  case  when 
there  is  a  large  proportion  of  chlorides  and  nitrates.  In  the  table  on  p. 
305,  the  loss  which  the  various  residues  suffered  when  heated  are  given  in 
brackets,  but  the  figures  are  of  no  use  in  forming  an  opinion  of  the  vari- 
ous waters.  It  may,  however,  be  said  that  the  residue  of  a  well-water 
should  not  blacken  when  ignited  ;  and  often  the  odor  of  the  burning 
organic  matter  betrays  its  origin. 


OJSr    DIIINKING-WATEK    AJ^D    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 


30  r 


The  amounts  of  "  organic  carbon  "  and  "  organic  nitrogen  "  in  unpol- 
luted well-waters  are  very  small,  and  should  not  exceed  0.02  part  for  the 
nitrogen  and  0.20  part  for  the  carbon.  The  following  table  '  contains 
the  results  of  the  examination  of  somp  well-waters  hv  Frankland's  method: 


Organic 
carbon. 

Organic 
nitrogen. 

Ratio. 
Carbon 

Am- 
monia. 

Nitrogen 

as  ni- 
trites and 

Chlo- 
rine. 

Remarks. 

1.820 

0.710 

Nitrogen. 

nitrates. 

A... 

2.5 

0.120 

0.400 

7.10 

Horribly  polluted. 

B... 

0.1 77 

0.017 

10.5 

0.004 

0.1 84 

2.72 

Good.      • 

C... 

0.181 

0.037 

5. 

o.7'J 

15.5    , 

Good. 

iSanitai'i/  Examination  of  Dee})  Wells. 

In  the  case  of  deep  wells  and  springs  there  is  less  likelihood  of  con- 
tamination than  in  the  case  of  shallow  wells,  as  has  already  been  seen. 
The  chief  danger  arises  from  surface  drainage,  the  likelihood  of  which 
can  generally  be  estimated  from  an  inspection  of  the  surroundings,  and 
from  which  the  wells  can  generally  be  protected. 

In  regard  to  the  "  albuminoid  ammonia  "  and  to  the  organic  carbon 
and  organic  nitrogen,  the  same  rules  will  apply  as  in  the  case  of  shallow 
wells;  but  in  the  case  of  deep  wells  the  total  solid  residue,  the  chlorine, 
the  ammonia,  and  the  nitrog'en  as  nitrites  and  nitrates,  are  of  no  value  as 
tests  of  impurity,  since  unpolluted  deep  water  often  contains  considerable 
quantities  of  one  or  more  of  these  substances. 

In  the  case  of  deep  wells,  however,  more  importance  attaches  to  the 
])articular  analysis  of  the  dissolved  solids  than  in  the  case  of  any  other 
class  of  water.  It  is  almost  always  true  that  the  water  contains  a  com- 
paratively large  amount  of  saline  matter,  and  it  is  important  to  ascertain 
the  proportion  of  the  various  salts  which  make  it  up.  Especially  to  be 
avoided  are  sulphate  of  lime  and  the  sulphate  and  other  salts  of  magne- 
sia. Of  course  this  has  reference  to  the  continued  use  of  the  water. 
Some  waters  containing  a  quantity  of  purgative  salts  may  be  valuable  as 
medicinal  agents,  but  are  unsuited  for  daily  use.  It  is  important  also  to 
know  the  hardness  of  deep-well  waters  if  the  water  is  intended  for  a 
general  supply  and  not  simply  for  drinking. 

The  following  table  contains  some  of  the  results  presented  by  the 
Rivers  Pollution  Commission  in  their  Sixth  Report.  The  figures  given 
are  averages;  of  course  there  is  a  very  considerable  variation  among  the 
individual  wells,  but  the  averages  will  be  more  instructive  than  the  same 
number  of  examinations  of  particular  wells. 


'  From  Fox's  Sanitary  Examination  of  Water.  Air,  and  Food. 


308       OIT   DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

EXAMINATION  OF  UNPOLLUTED  WATER   FROM  DEEP  WELLS. 
(Frankland's  method.     Results  expressed  in  parts  in  100,000.) 


a. 

J 

s 

-a 

Si  =3 

Haedness. 

S 

o 
.a 

2 

■fl.-S 

a 

gS 

m 

Geological  Forma- 
tion. 

1 

_o 

C3 
■3 

9,  a 

.a 

0 

c 

3 

i 

rt 

a 

°i 

<3  P 

g 

;:^ 

a 

Q.rt 

ho 

ho 

s 

.«   s! 

!p"" 

gj  3  s 

3 

u 

■s 

0 



O 

O 

< 

|z;ii 

E-i 

Ch 

0 

B 

fu 

B 

'A  ■ 

Devonian     rocks     and 

Millstone  Grit 

32.68 

0.068 

0.012 

0.005 

0.294 

0.310 

2671 

2.70 

8.8 

8.6 

17.4 

7 

83.10 
61.14 

0.119 
0.076 

0.034 
0.030 

0.044 
0 

0.207 
1.426 

0.278 
1.456 

2243 
13937 

18.05 
4.31 

15.1 
16.9 

20.6 
26.9 

35.7 
43.8 

9 

Magnesian  Limestone. . 

3 

New  Ked  Sandstone 

30.63 

0.036 

0.014 

0.003 

0.717 

0.734 

6895 

2.94 

7.4 

10.5 

17.9 

28 

Hastings  Sand,  etc 

45.20 

0.068 

0.014 

0.016 

0.196 

0.223 

1864 

5.38 

16.8 

10.5 

27.3 

20 

Chalk 

36.88 

0.050 

0.017 

0.001 

0.610 

0.628 

5801 

2.76 

21.2 

6.5 

27.7 

66 

Sanitary  Examination  of  Surface-ioaters. 

With  the  views  which  are  at  present  held  with  reference  to  the  danger 
from  the  pollution  of  lakes  and  streams  by  sewage  and  other  refuse  sub- 
stances, the  most  important  part  of  the  sanitary  examination  of  such 
sources  of  supply  is  the  inspection  of  the  locality  from  which  the  water  is 
to  be  taken  and  of  the  surroundings.  If  the  stream  or  lake  receives,  in 
proportion  to  its  size,  any  considerable  amount  of  sewage  or  of  manufac- 
turing refuse,  it  should  be  rejected  as  a  source  of  supply  indejjendent  of 
any  chemical  examination.  The  principal  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the 
satisfactory  chemical  examination  of  surface-waters  are  three  in  number: 
In  the  first  place,  the  volume  of  water  is  generally  so  large  that,  even  when 
polluting  matter  is  known  to  be  present,  the  dilution  is  so  great  as  to 
prevent  the  detection  of  unmistakable  evidence  of  contamination.  In 
the  second  place,  all  surface-waters  contain  more  or  less  of  organic  sub- 
stances— substances  containing  carbon  and  nitrogen — which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  refer  definitely  to  animal  or  vegetable  sources,  or  otherwise  tO' 
distinguish  as  harmless  and  harmful.  In  the  third  place,  the  water  of  such 
streams  and  ponds  is  subject  to  very  considerable  variation,  so  that  the 
examination  of  a  single  sample  is  of  comparatively  little  value.  It  may 
be  possible,  it  is  true,  to  state  from  the  chemical  examination  of  a  single 
sample  that  no  considerable  or  no  appreciable  contamination  exists;  it  is 
impossible  to  recommend  a  water  for  drinking  without  knowing  something 
of  the  situation  and  surroundings  of  the  source  from  which  it  is  taken. 

The  following  statements  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  variations  to  which 
river  and  pond  waters  are  subject.  Weekly  examinations  of  the  water 
supplied  to  the  city  of  Boston  were  made  from  July,  1876,  to  June,  1877, 
inclusive.     The  ammonia  varied  from  0.0005  to  0.0056,  the  "  albuminoid 


'  These  figures  will  serve  to  show  the  fallacy  of  Lhe  so-called 
contamination."     See  page  297. 


•  previous  sewage 


ON    DEINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       309 

ammonia"  from  0.0099  to  0.0176,  the  total  solids  from  3.72  to  5.58, 
all  these  results  being  expressed  in  so  many  parts  in  100,000.  In  like 
manner,  examinations  were  made  nearly  every  week  during  the  year  1877 
of  the  water  of  the  Ludlow  reservoir,  a  recently  flowed  artificial  pond, 
which  forms  the  larger  portion  of  the  supply  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  and 
which  has  every  summer  a  cojdIous  growth  of  microscopic  algee.  The  am- 
monia varied  from  0.0024  to  0.0403 ;  the  "  albuminoid  ammonia  "  in  the  un- 
filtered  water,  from  0.0173  to  0.0899;  in  the  water  after  filtration  through 
paper,  from  0.0160  to  0.0432;  and  the  total  solids,  from  3.36  to  6.72.  A 
similar  variation  is  shown  in  the  monthly  examinations  which  are  made  of 
the  Thames  water,  in  London.  The  following  figures  show  the  variation 
in  the  case  of  one  of  the  London  companies,  the  Chelsea,  during  the  year 
1873?^ 


Total  solids from  25.26    to  29.72,  the  mean  being  27.32 


Organic  carbon "  0.121  to    0.447, 

Organic  nitrogen "  0.013  to    0.067, 

Nitrogen  as  nitrates  and  nitrites  "  0.148  to    0.389, 

Chlorine "  1.80   to    2.20, 

Hardness "  18.9      to  22.7, 


0.197 
0.034 
0.225 
1.93 

20.8 


It  is  very  evident  from  these  figures  that,  although  something  may  be 
learned  from  the  results  of  a  single  examination,  in  order  to  have  any 
complete  or  satisfactory  idea  of  the  character  of  surface-water  a  series  of 
examinations  is  necessary,  so  as  to  cover  the  various  seasons  of  the  year 
and  other  changes  in  the  conditions. 

EXAMINATION  OF   SURFACE-WATERS. 
(Frankland's  method.     Results  expressed  in  parts  in  100,000.) 


Geological  Forma- 
tion. 


Igneous  rocks 

Metamorphic,  Cam- 
brian, Silurian,  and 
Devonian 

Yoredale  and  Millstone 
Grits  and  non-calcar- 
eous Coal-measures. . 

Calcareous  portion  of 
Coal-measures 


SURFACE- WATERS  FROM 
CULTIVATED  LAND. 


Non  -  calcareous 

tricts ,    _ 

Calcareous  districts. . 


dis- 


5.15  10.378 


0.033 


5.12   0.293   0.024 


8.75  I  0.377 
22.79!  0.346 


9.52  i  0.276   0.034   0.007 
!  30.08  j  0.268   0.053   0.005 


< 


0.001 
0.002 


0.033   0.003 
0.037   0.003 


K- 


1^ 


2  cj  c 
>  d  c8 

S«  S  H 


0.002   0.035 1      0 
0.006' 0.031        0 


0.016   0.056        33 


0.089  I  0.128 
0.257  j  0.314 


635 
2306 


Hardness. 

-M 

C3 

<U 

a 

fe 

a 

r"* 

0 

0 

H 

PU 

^27! 

1.13 

0.1 

2.0 

0.92 

0.3 

2.5 

2.8  1 

1.05 

0.4 

4.3 

4.7 

1.52 

4.0 

8.3 

12.3 

1.49 

0.6 

4.3 

4.9 

2.24 

12.4 

8.2 

20.6 

47 
26 


31 
124 


Sixth  Report  of  Rivers  Pollution  Commission. 


310      ON    DEINKING-WATEE    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

As  to  the  interpretation  of  the  particular  results,  surface-waters  can- 
not be  judged  by  the  same  rule  as  well-waters. 

While  in  the  case  of  shallow  wells  suspicion  is  awakened  by  the  pres- 
ence of  from  0.006  to  0.01  parts  in  100,000  of  ammonia  or  of  "albuminoid 
ammonia,"  in  the  case  of  rivers  which  flow  through  peaty  regions  these  fig- 
ures will  be  almost  always  greatly  exceeded;  and  while  the  determinations 
themselves  are  not  without  value,  they  can  be  interpreted  only  in  the  light 
of  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  water.  The  table  on  the  preceding 
page  will  furnish  some  idea  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  examination  of 
surface  waters  by  Frankland's  method.  The  figures  given  were  obtained 
by  the  Rivers  Pollution  Commission  as  averages,  from  the  examination  of 
a  considerable  number  of  samples  from  various  geological  formations. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, 


So  much  has  been  written  in  earlier  and  in  later  years  on  the  subject 
of  water-supply,  from  engineering,  chemical  and  sanitary  standpoints, 
that  it  would  be  a  herculean  task  to  compile  a  complete  list  of  the  various 
books  and  pamphlets,  and  of  papers  which  have  appeared  in  periodical 
literature.  Of  course,  no  such  attempt  is  here  made;  it  will  suffice  to  in- 
dicate a  few  of  the  most  important  works,  or  rather  of  those  which  have 
proved  most  serviceable  to  the  writer  in  his  studies  on  this  subject.  Local 
American  reports  are,  as  a  rule,  omitted,  partly  because  it  is  very  difficult 
to  make  a  selection,  but  mainly  because  they  can  seldom  be  obtained 
through  the  booksellers, 

I. — Works  of  a  Genekal  Character  from  an  Engineering  Standpoint. 

Fanning,  J.  T.  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Water-Supply  Engineering,  etc.  8vo, 
pp.  650.     New  York,  Van  Nostrand,  1877. 

Grahn,  E. :  Die  stadtische  Wasseryersorgung.  3  vols.  Svo.  Vol.  I.  Oldenbourg, 
Miinchen,  1877.  [Vol.  I.  contains  Statistik  der  stadtischen  Wasseryersorgung  ;  Be- 
schreibuag  der  Anlagen  in  Bau  und  Betrieb.    Vols.  II.  and  III.  are  not  yet  published.] 

Hagen  :  Handbuch  der  Wasserbaukunst.     3te  Auflage.     Berlin,  1869. 

Humber,  William  :  A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  the  Water-Supply  of  Cities  and 
To\yns,  etc.  Folio,  pp.  378,  and  many  plates.  London,  Crosby,  Lockwood  &  Co., 
1877.      [An  American  edition  is  being  published  by  Geo.  H.  Frost,  Chicago.] 

V.  Waldegg,  Franzius  and  Sonne  :  Handbuch  der  lugenieurwissenschaft.  8vo. 
Leipzig,  1878.     III.  Band.     Wasserbau. 

II._WoRKS  OF  A  General  Character  from  a  Chemical  or  Sanitary 

Standpoint. 

Great  Britain  :  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Water-Supply,  \yith  Minutes  of 
Evidence.     Parliamentary  Documents.     4to.     London,  1869-'70. 

Great  Britain  :  Sixth  Report  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  in  1868  to  inquire 
into  The  Best  Means  of  Preventing  the  Pollution  of  Rivers.  Domestic  Water-Suppl:^ 
of  Great  Britain.     4to.     London,  1876. 


0]Sr    DRIi!^KING-WATEK    AND    PUBLIC     WATER-SUPPLIES.       Bll 

[This  report  contains,  besides  statistics  of  tlie  water-supply  of  Great  Britain,  con- 
siderations and  accounts  of  experiments  on  the  following  topics  ; 

On  the  alleged  self-purification  of  polluted  rivers. 

On  the  propagation,  of  epidemics  by  ijotable  water. 

On  the  alleged  influence  of  the  hardness  of  water  upon  health. 

On  the  superiority  of  soft  over  hard  water  in  cooking. 

On  the  softening  of  hard  water. 

On  the  improvement  of  potable  water  by  filtration. 

On  the  deterioration  of  potable  water  by  transmission  through  mains  and  service- 
pipes. 

On  the  constant  and  intermittent  systems  of  water-supply.] 

Lefort,  Jules  :  Traite  de  Chimie  Hydrologique.  8vo,  pp.  798.  Deuxieme  edition. 
Paris,  1873. 

Lersch,  Dr.  B.  M.  :  Hydrochemle  oder  Handbuch  der  Chemie  der  natllrlicheu 
Wasser^     Svo,  pp.  718.     Zweite  Auflage.     Bonn,  1870. 

Parkes,  E.  A.,  M.D.  :  Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene.  Fifth  Edition,  8vo.  London 
and  Philadelphia,  1878.      [BookL,  Chap.  I.,  Water.] 

Reichardt :  Grundlagen  zur  Beurtheilung  des  Trinkwassers.  8vo,  pp.  107.  8te 
Auflage.     Jena,  1875. 

Sander,  Friedrich,  Dr.  :  Handbuch  der  ciffentlichen  Gesundheitspflege.  Svo,  pp. 
503.     Leipzig,  1877.      [Das  Wasser,  pp.  225-303.  J 

Schmidt :  Die  Wasserversorguug  Dorpats.  Eine  hydrologische  Untersuchung. 
Svo,  pp.  215.     Dorpat,  1863. 

III.— On  the  Pollution  of  Streams. 

Great  Britain  :  Rivers  Pollution  Commission,  appointed  in  1865.  First,  Second  and 
Third  Report.     Parliamentary  Documents.     4to.     London,  1866-67. 

Great  Britain :  Rivers  Pollution  Commission,  appointed  in  1868.  Six  Reports. 
Parliamentary  Documents.   4to.     London,  1870-74. 

Massachusetts :  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  containing  a 
Special  Report  on  the  Pollution  of  Streams,  Water-supply,  and  Disposal  of  Sewage. 
Svo.     Boston,  1876. 

Paris :  Assainissement  de  la  Seine.  Kpuration  et  Utilisation  des  Eaux  d'Egout. 
Documents  administratif s ;  Enquete ;  Annexes.  3  vols.  8vo,  with  plates.  Paris, 
Gauthier-Villars,  1876. 

IV. — On  Filtration,  Ground-Water  Supply,  Wells,  Etc. 

Belgrand,  M. :  Les  Travaux  souterrains  de  Paris.  Etudes  preliminaires.  La  Seine. 
Regime  de  la  Pluie,  des  Sources,  des  Eaux  courantes.  Applications  a  1' Agriculture. 
Svo,  pp.  612,  with  atlas.  Paris,  Dunod,  1875.  [Especially  chap,  vii.,  Des  nappes 
d'eau  souterrains,  and  chap,  xxvi.,  Du  filtrage  des  eaux,  etc.] 

Berlin  :  Vorarbeiten  zu  einer  zuktinf tigen  Wasserversorgung  der  Stadt  Berlin.  Aus- 
gefiihrt  in  den  Jahren  1868  und  1869  von  L.  A.  Veitmeyer.  Svo,  pp.  368,  with  atlas. 
Berlin,  Reimer,  1871.  [Especially  pp.  109-130— experiments  on  the  ground-water  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Tegeler  See.  ] 

Berlin :  Reinigung  und  Entwiisserung  Berlins.  Berichte  iiber  mehrere  auf  Veran- 
lassung  des  Magistrals  der  konigl.  Haupt-  und  Residenzstadt  Berlin,  Versuche  und 
Untersuchungen.  12  Hefte,  with  3  Anhange.  Svo.  Berlin,  Hirschwald,  1870-'76. 
[Especially  Heft  v.,  "  iiber  die  Grundwasserverhaltnisse,"  with  a  great  number  of  pro- 
files.] 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  ;  The  Brooklyn  Water- Works  and  Sewers.  Prepared  and  printed 
by  order  of  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners.  4to,  pp.  159,  with  59  lithographic 
plates.     New  York,  Van  Nostrand,  1867. 


312      0]Sr    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES. 

Byrne,  E.  :  Experiments  on  the  Removal  of  Organic  and  Inorganic  Substances  in 
Water.  Proceedings  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  xxv.  fl867),  pp.  544-555,  vidth 
supplement  and  discussion,  xxvii.  (1868),  p.  1  and  foil. 

Dresden:  Das  Wasserwerk  der  Stadt  Dresden  erbaut  in  den  Jabren  1871-1874,  von 
Salbacb.  8vo.  In  three  parts,  with  atlases  containing  many  plates.  Halle,  Knapp, 
1874-76. 

Dupuit,  J.  :  Traite  de  la  Conduite  et  de  Ja  Distribution  des  Eaux,  etc.  Suivi  de 
la  Description  des  Filtres  naturelles  de  Toulouse  par  D'Aubisson.  4to,  with  atlas. 
Paris,  1854. 

Fischer,  Dr.  F.  :  Die  chemische  Technologie  des  Wassers.  8vo.  Braunschweig, 
1878.  The  work  is  not  yet  complete.  [Especially  Reinigung  von  Trinkwasser,  p.  148 
and  foil.] 

Fischer,  Dr.  F.  :  Das  Trinkwasser,  seine  Beschaffenheit,  Untersuchung  und  Rei- 
nigung unter  Beriicksichtigung  der  Brunnenwasser  Hannovers.  8vo,  pp.  63.  Han- 
nover, 1873. 

Gottisheim :  Das  unterirdische  Basel.  8vo,  pp.  72.  Basel,  1868.  [3d  edition, 
1873.] 

Grahn  and  Meyer :  Reisebericht  einer  von  Hamburg  nach  Paris  und  London  ausge- 
sandten  Commission  liber  kiinstliche  ceutrale  Sandfiltration  zur  Wasserversorgung  von 
Stadten  und  iiber  Filtration  in  kleinen  Massstabe.  Von  E.  Grahn  und  F.  Andreas 
Meyer.  8vo,  pp.  153.  Hamburg.  Meissner.  1877.  [Especially  Anlage  3,  "  Historische 
Notizen  tiber  klinstliche  Filtration  im  kleineren  Massstabe."] 

Halle  :  Das  Wasserwerk  der  Stadt  Halle,  erbaut  in  den  Jahren  1867  und  1868.  Von 
B.  Salbach.     Folio,  with  atlas.     Halle,  Knapp,  1871. 

Kirkwood,  J.  P.  :  Report  on  the  Filtration  of  River  Waters  for  the  Supply  of  Cities, 
as  practised  in  Europe.  4to,  pp.  178,  with  30  plates.  New  York,  Van  Nostrand,  1869. 
There  is  a  German  translation  (Hamburg,  1876),  with  inferior  plates,  but  sold  at  a  low 
price.  It  contains  an  appendix  by  A.  Samuelson,  Ingenieur  der  Stadtwasserwerke,  in 
Hamburg. 

Munich  :  Berichte  iiber  die  Verhandlungen  und  die  Arbeiten  der  Commission  f  iir 
Wasserversorgung,  Canalisation,  und  Abfuhr.  Erster  Bericht,  1874-'75  ;  Zweiter  Be- 
richt,  1876,  und  Anhange,  1877;  Dritter  Bericht,  1878.  4to,  with  plans  and  profiles. 
Miinchen,  Miihlthaler,  1876-78. 

Nichols,  W.  R.  :  On  the  Filtration  of  Potable  Water.  Reprinted  from  the  Ninth 
Annual  Report  of  the  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health.  8vo,  pp.  93.  New  York,  Van 
Nostrand,  1879. 

Schorer,  Th.  :  Liibeck's  Trinkwasser.  8vo,  pp.  384.  Liibeck,  Seelig,  1877.  [Espe- 
cially pp.  348-357,  describing  the  deterioration  of  water  by  vegetable  growth  and  de- 
cay, etc.] 

Spon,  Ernest :  The  Present  Practice  of  Sinking  and  Boring  Wells.  12mo,  pp.  316. 
London,  Spon,  1875. 

Ward,  F.  0.  :  Moyens  de  creer  des  sources  artificielles  d'eau  pure  pour  Bruxelles. 
8vo.  pp.  106.     Bruxelles,  Decq.  1853. 

Wibel,  Dr.  F.  :  Die  Fluss-  und  Bodenwiisser  Hamburgs.  Chemische  Beitrage  zur 
Analyse  gewohnlicher  Lauf-,  Nutz-  und  Trinkwasser,  sowie  zu  der  Frage  der  Wasserver- 
sorgung grosser  Stadte  von  sanitarem  und  gewerblichem  Standpunkte.  4to,  pp.  153. 
Hamburg,  Meissner,  1876. 

Wolff  :  Der  Untergrund  und  das  Trinkwasser  der  Stadte.  8vo,  pp.  60.  2te  Auflage. 
Erfurt,  1873. 

V. — On  the  Sanitary  Examination  of  Watek. 

Eyferth,  B.  :  Die  mikroskopischen  Siisswasserbewohner  in  gedrangter  Uebersicht. 
8vo,  pp.  60.     Braunschweig,  1877. 

Fox,  Cornelius  B. ,  M.D.  :  Sanitary  Examination  of  Water,  Air,  and  Food.  8vo, 
pp.  508.     London,  1878. 


ON    DRINKING-WATER    AND    PUBLIC    WATER-SUPPLIES.       313 

Kubel,  Dr.  Wilhelm  :  Anleitung  zur  Untersuchung  von  Wasser,  u.  s.  w.  8vo,  pp. 
184.     Zweite  Auflage  von  Dr.  Ferd.  Tiemann.     Braunschweig,  1874. 

Macdonald,  J.  D. ,  M.D.  :  A  Guide  to  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking- 
Water.     8vo,  pp.  65  and  24  plates.     London  and  Philadelphia,  1875. 

Schutzenberger  :  On  Fermentations.  12mo,  pp.  3ol.  Intern.  Sci.  Series.  New 
York,  1876.  [This  contains  a  description  of  Schutzenberger's  method  of  determining 
dissolved  oxygen,  pp.  108  and  foil.] 

Sutton,  Francis:  A  Systematic  Handbook  of  Volumetric  Analysis.  Svo,  pp  4?>0. 
Third  edition.  London  [and  Philadelphia] ,  1876.  [This  contains  Frankland's  method 
for  the  exainination  of  water.] 

Wanklyn,  J.  A. :  Water  Analysis :  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Examination  of  Pot- 
able Water.  By  J.  A.  W.  and  E.  T.  Chapman.  12mo,  pp.  183.  Fourth  edition,  re- 
written by  J.  A.  Wanklyn.     London,  1876. 

'  VI.— Miscellaneous. 

Boston,  Mass.  :  Report  of  Cochituate  Water  Board,  1874,  containing  a  reprint  of  a 
report  by  Geo.  F.  Deacon,  Borough  Engineer,  Liverpool,  England,  on  the  subject  of 
"Waste." 

Eowan :  BoUer  Incrustation  and  Corrosion.  18mo,  pp.  48.  Van  Nostrand,  New- 
York,  1876. 

Wilson :  Treatise  on  Steam-Boilers.    13mo,  pp.  328.     3d  edition.     London,  1875. 


PHYSICAL  EXEECISE 


A.   BRAYTON   BALL,   M.D., 
NEW  YORK  CITY. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


If  "we  adopt  Bechard's  definition  of  life  as  "  organization  in  action,"' 
perfect  health  may  be  described  as  that  condition  in  which  the  various 
functional  activities  of  the  body  are  carried  on  with  their  normal  energy 
and  in  a  harmonious  manner.  For  the  maintenance  of  such  a  condition 
of  the  vital  powers  a  certain  amount  of  physical  exercise  is  indispensable, 
since  the  functions  of  respiration  and  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  which 
largely  control  the  assimilative  and  disassimilative  processes  of  the  body, 
are  directly  and  powerfully  influenced  by  the  activity  or  inactivity  of  the- 
muscular  system. 

EFFECTS    OF   EXEECISE. 

1.  Local  phenotnena  of  muscular  action. — The  property  of  contrac- 
tility, by  means  of  which  the  muscles  convert  latent  energy  into  mechani- 
cal motion,  is  inherent  in  the  muscular  substance  itself,  but  in  normal 
life  the  manifestation  of  this  property  is  immediately  determined  through 
the  influence  of  the  nervous  system.  Of  this  "  nervous  influence  "  nothing 
is  known  except  that  it  appears  to  consist  of  a  wave  of  molecular  disturb- 
ance travelling  along  the  nerves  to  their  terminal  expansions  in  the  mus- 
cular fibres  at  the  rate  of  33  metres  per  second,  and  marked  in  its  prog- 
ress by  a  diminution  of  the  electrical  current,  detected  by  the  galvano- 
meter in  quiescent  nerve  (the  "  negative  variation  "  of  Du  Bois-Reymond). 
On  its  arrival  at  the  muscular  fibre  the  nervous  impulse  is  converted  intO' 
muscle-impulse;  in  other  words,  the  molecular  wave  in  the  nerve  sets  in 
motion  a  wave  of  molecular  disturbance  in  the  muscle,  traversing  the  fibre 
in  both  directions  from  the  insertion  of  the  end-plate  of  the  nerve  at  the 
rate  of  about  three  metres  per  second,'  its  progress  being  marked  by  a 
negative  variation  of  the  natural  electrical  current  of  muscle.  Between 
the  reception  of  the  nervous  impulse  and  the  initiation  of  the  visible  con- 
tractile movement  an  interval  of  about  yi-jj-  of  a  second  elapses,  known  as 
the  "latent  period"  (Helmholtz),  which  is  probably  occupied  by  molecular 
changes  in  the  fibre  preparatory  to  its  alteration  in  form.  At  the  close  of 
the  latent  period  the  muscle-impulse  is  succeeded  by  a  wave  of  contrac- 

'  Bernstein :  Untersucli.   iiber  den  Erregungsvorgang  im  Neryen-  und  Muskelsys- 

teme,  1871. 


318  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

tion,  having  the  same  starting-point,  the  same  double  direction,  and  about 
the  same  velocity,  and  occupying  about  -^-^j  of  a  second  in  its  transit.  Con- 
traction of  the  individual  fibres  produces  changes  in  form  of  the  entire 
muscle,  viz. :  shortening  and  thickening  with  a  trifling  reduction  in  bulk 
(about  Yo^oT  P^-rt).  Each  voluntary  muscular  contraction,  moreover,  is 
compound  in  character,  being  composed  of  a  series  of  rapid  contractions, 
due  to  an  equally  rapid  succession  of  nerve-impulses  (Weber). 

The  electrical  change,  known  as  negative  variation,  which  takes  place  duriag  con- 
traction, is  variously  explained  according  to  different  theories  of  muscular  action.  Du 
Bois-Reymond  supposes  that  electrical  currents  are  constantly  generated  in  living 
muscle,  positive  electricity  appearing  on  the  longitudinal  surface  of  the  fibres  and 
negative  electricity  at  their  ends.  During  contraction  the  currents  are  very  much  di- 
minished, and,  to  account  for  this  fact,  Du  Bois-Reymond  has  advanced  the  following 
hypothesis :  muscular  tissue,  he  supposes,  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  movable 
molecules,  each  of  which  has  two  negative  poles  and  a  positive  equator.  During  mus- 
cular rest  the  negative  poles  are  directed  toward  the  ends,  and  the  equators  toward 
the  longitudinal  surfaces  of  the  fibres,  total  currents  being  thus  produced  by  the 
union  of  the  numerous  smaller  ones.  During  contraction,  however,  a  partial  rotation 
of  the  molecules  takes  place,  bringing  the  negative  pole  of  one  molecule  into  contact 
with  the  positive  equator  of  its  neighbor,  so  that  the  currents  are  less  noticeable  at  the 
surface  of  the  muscle,  because  they  are  almost  entirely  retained  within  its  substance. 
This  theory,  which  is  accepted  by  most  physiologists  as  a  provisional  hypothesis,  is 
strongly  opposed  by  Dr.  C.  B.  Radcliffe,'  who  maintains  that  the  electrical  condition 
of  muscle  is  not  current,  but  sfMic,  the  so-called  muscle-current  being,  in  his  opinion, 
merely  an  accidental  phenomenon  produced  by  applying  the  electrodes  of  the  galvano- 
meter to  points  of  dissimilar  tension.  Briefly  stated,  his  view  of  muscular  action  is  as 
follows  (p.  98)  :  (1 )  "  The  state  of  relaxation  is  brought  about  by  the  charge  of  electricity 
present  in  the  muscle  during  the  state  of  rest,  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  opposite 
electricities  disposed  on  the  two  surfaces  of  the  sheaths  of  the  fibres  elongating  the 
fibres  by  compressing  the  sheaths  at  right  angles  to  their  surface  ;  and  (3)  the  state  ol 
contraction  is  caused  by  the  discharge  of  the  charge  of  electricity  present  during  the 
state  of  rest,  the  discharge  leaving  the  fibres  free  to  return,  by  virtue  of  their  elasti- 
city, from  the  state  of  elongation  into  which  they  had  been  forced  by  the  charge. " 
According  to  this  view,  therefore,  the  sheaths  of  the  muscles  act  as  so  many  charged 
Leyden  jars,  and  the  so-called  negative  variation  is  in  reality  due  to  the  occurrence  of 
an  electrical  discharge.  The  theory  is,  however,  open  to  the  following  objections  :  (1) 
There  is  no  proof  that  the  sheath  of  muscular  fibre  is  a  sufiiciently  bad  conductor  to 
serve  as  a  dielectric,  as  is  the  case  with  the  glass  of  the  Leyden  jar  ;  (3)  neither  the 
cardiac  muscle  nor  unstriped  muscular  tissue  possesses  a  sarcolemma,  or  any  coveriag 
which  can  fairly  be  said  to  correspond  to  it ;  and  (3)  tlie  so-called  negative  variation 
occurs  before  contraction  begins,  and  disappears  as  soon  as  the  visible  contractile  move- 
ment is  initiated— a  circumstance,  which,  according  to  the  "  discharge"  theory,  in- 
volves the  necessity  of  supposing  that  a  charge  of  electricity  reaccumulates  at  the  very 
moment  when  contraction  actually  takes  place. 

The  molecular  vibrations  accompanying  the  contractile  movements  give 
rise  to  a  distinctly  audible  sound,  the  muscular  siisurrits.  Attention  was 
first  called  to  this  phenomenon  by  Dr.  Wollaston,^  who  described  it  as  re- 
sembling most  nearly  the  sound  produced  by  "  carriages  at  a  great  dis- 


'  Dynamics  of  Nerve  and  Muscle,  1871. 

*  Croonian  Lecture  before  the  Royal  Society,  Nov.  16,  1809. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  319 

tance  passing-  rapidly  over  a  pavement,"  and  stated  that  it  is  best  lieard  by 
inserting  gentl}^  the  extremity  of  the  finger  into  the  ear,  bringing  at  the 
same  time  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  forearm  into  strong  contraction. 
The  rate  of  vibration,  as  first  investigated  by  Collingues'  and  Haughton,^  in- 
dependently of  each  other,  was  determined  to  vary  from  30  to  36  per  second. 
The  more  recent  investigations  of  Helmholtz  ^  show,  however,  that  while 
the  note  heard  corresponds  to  36  to  40  vibrations  per  second,  this  tone  is 
really  a  harmonic  of  the  primary  note,  and  that  the  latter  represents  only 
18  to  20  vibrations  per  second.  In  partial  paralysis  and  exhaustion  of  the 
muscles  the  note  is  lower  in  pitch,  and  the  rate  of  vibration  may  fall  to  6 
or  even  4  per  second.* 

The  temperature  of  muscle  falls  slightly  at  the  outset  of  contraction, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  increased  specific  heat  of  contracted 
nmscle  (Heidenhain),  but  afterward  rises  above  the  temperature  of  mus- 
cular repose,  and  continues  to  increase  for  a  time  after  the  cessation  of  the 
contraction  (Thiry,  Myerstein). 

As  regards  vascular  changes,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  recent 
experiments  of  Gaskell  ^  that  the  flow  of  blood  through  muscle  is  increased 
during  the  period  of  contraction.  This  observer  found  that  stimulation 
of  the  peripheral  end  of  the  divided  nerve  belonging  to  a  muscle  produces 
not  only  physiological  tetanus,  but  also  a  marked  increase  of  the  rate  of 
flow  through  the  muscle;  which  increase,  with  prolonged  stimulation,  takes 
place  even  during  tetanus  itself,  and  is  doubtless  due  to  dilatation  of  the 
arterioles  of  the  muscle.  By  means  of  the  hydrosphygmograph.  Moose 
has  ascertained  that  an  increased  flow  of  blood  through  muscle  takes  place 
also  during  voluntari/  muscular  contraction.'^ 

As  the  capillary  vessels  of  muscle  run  between  the  elementary  fibres,  the  amount 
of  blood-supply  (and  consequently  the  capacity  for  prolonged  work)  must  vary,  for  the 
same  bulk  of  muscle,  in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the  fibres.  In  women  the  fibres 
are  of  smaller  size  than  ui  men,  and  Haughton  (op.  cit. ,  p.  3)  claims  to  have  found  by 
direct  experiment  that  ' '  the  muscles  of  women  are  capable  of  longer  continued  work 
than  those  of  men,  although  inferior  to  them  in  force  exerted  for  a  short  time."  He 
adds  :  "If  any  man  wishes  for  a  sim^jle  proof  of  the  inferiority  of  the  endurance  of  his 
muscles  as  compared  with  those  of  a  woman,  let  him  carry  a  child  on  his  arm  for  the 
same  time  that  his  wife  or  nurse  can  do  so  with  ease,  and  he  will  find  himself  much 
fatigued." 

That  important  clie'mical  changes  take  place  in  muscle  during  contrac- 

'  Traite  de  Dynamoscopie,  Paris,  1862. 

-  Thesis  for  Medical  Degree  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  1862. 

"  Ueber  das  Muskelgerausch,  Monatsber.  der  Kgl.  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.  zu  Berlin, 
1864,  p.  307  ;  and  Ueber  d.  Muskelton.  Verhandl.  d.  Naturforsch.  Med.  Ver.  zu  Hei- 
delberg, Bd.  IV.,  18G6,  p.  88. 

"*  Haughton:  Principles  of  Animal  Mechanics,  1873,  p.  23. 

^  Ueber  die  Aenderungen  des  Blutstromes  in  den  Muskeln  durch  die  Reizung  ihrer 
K'erven.  Arbeitea  der  Physiol.  Anstalt  zu  Leipzig,  XI.  Jahrg. ,  1876.  Also  Journal  of 
Anat.  and  Physiol.,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  860  and  p.  720;  and  Journal  of  Physiology,  1878,  Nos. 
IV.  and  v.,  p.  262. 

''  Sulle  Variazioni  locali  del  polso  nell'  antibraccio  dell'  uomo,  Turin,  p.  59. 


320  PHYSICAL   EXEECISE. 

tion  is  highly  probable,  but  our  present  knowledge  upon  the  subject  is  in 
a  very  fragmentary  condition.  The  blood  escaping  from  muscle  during 
contraction  is  much  darker  than  the  venous  blood  of  muscular  repose,  and 
is  found  to  contain  a  much  larger  proportion  of  carbonic  acid.  This  ex- 
cess of  carbonic  acid  is  considerably  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for  by 
the  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed  during  the  period  of  contraction,  and  must 
be  derived,  therefore,  not  from  a  direct  process  of  oxidation  at  the  time, 
but  from  a  splitting  up  of  compounds  in  which  oxygen  had  been  previ- 
ously stored.  Sarcoiactic  acid  is  also  formed  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
change  the  reaction  of  the  muscular  substance  from  neutral  or  alkaline  to 
acid.  With  respect  to  other  products,  the  observations  are  less  satisfac- 
tory. Helmholtz  ^  found  that  when  a  frog's  muscle  was  tetanized  to  ex- 
haustion the  fixed  substances  dissolved  in  the  fluid  expressed  from  the 
flesh  differed  from  those  obtained  from  the  similar  muscle  which  had  been 
left  in  repose;  the  extractives  soluble  in  water  were  diminished,  while 
those  soluble  in  alcohol  were  increased.  In  Eanke's  experiments  a  diminu- 
tion of  albumen  was  observed,  with  a  production  of  fat  and  sugar;  the 
latter,  it  has  been  suggested,  may  have  been  formed  by  conversion  of 
the  glycogen  present  in  quiescent  muscle.  The  absence  of  any  marked 
increase  in  the  nitrogenous  products  of  disassimilation  in  muscle  during 
exercise  is  especially  noteworthy.  To  be  sure,  J.  von  Liebig  claimed  many 
j^ears  ago  to  have  found  an  increase  of  kreatin  in  the  muscles  of  hunted 
animals,  and  Sarakov  states  that  this  substance  and  kreatinin  are  doubled 
in  the  muscles  of  frogs  by  tetanization,  but  both  observations  remain  un- 
substantiated. Urea,  except  occasionally  in  very  minute  quantities,  is. 
absent  from  the  muscles  during  both  rest  and  contraction. 

The  source  of  muscular  power  and  the  development  of  muscles  by  ex- 
ercise will  be  considered  later. 

2.  General  effects  of  exercise. — a.  On  the  respiration. — The  most  im- 
portant changes  produced  in  the  respiratory  function  by  muscular  exer- 
cise are:  acceleration  of  breathing,  increased  absorption  of  oxygen,  and 
increased  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  and  water.  During  continued 
exercise  the  acceleration  of  breathing  and  the  quantity  of  air  inspired 
usually  correspond  to  the  amount  of  mechanical  work  performed.'^ 

The  following  table,  abridged  from  the  results  of  Dr.  Edward  Smith's 
experiments,-^  gives  the  relative  quantities  of  air  inspired  during  various 
forms  of  muscular  exertion,  the  amount  inspired  in  the  recumbent  position 
at  rest  being  taken  as  unity: 

Sitting  posture 1.18 

Standing     "      1.33 

Walking  one  mile  per  hour 1.9 

Riding  on  horseback  at  walking  pace 2.2 

Walking  two  miles  per  hour 2.76 

1  Miiller's  Archiv,  1845. 

-  A  notable  exception  to  tliis  rule  occurs  in  rowdng  (see  p.  354j. 

^  Health  and  Disease,  1861,  p.  300. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 


321 


Riding  on  horseback  at  cantering  pace 3.16 

Walking  at  three  miles  per  hour 3.23 

"  "  "        and  carrying  34  lbs. . .  3.5 

"  "  "  "  62    "...  3.84 

Riding  on  horseback  at  the  trotting  pace 4.05 

Swimming 4.33  • 

Walking  at  three  miles  per  hour  and  carrying  118  lbs. .  4.75 

four       "  "  "  ,  "     . .  5.0 

The  tread-wheel 5.5 

Running  at  six  miles  per  hour 7.0 

With  respect  to  the  pulmonary  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  during 
exercise,  as  compared  with  rest,  the  experiments  of  the  same  author  give 
the  following:  results: ' 


Proportions  with 
rest  as  unity. 


During  rest 

Walking  at  2  miles  per  hour  and 
carrying  7  lbs 

Walking  at  3  miles  per  hour 

On  tread-wheel,  when  lifting  196 
lbs.  through  1920  feet  per  hour. 


13.11  grains  per  minute, 

24.26       " 
34.66 

57.68       " 


1.85 
2.64 

4.40 


He  also  gives  the  following  general  estimate  of  the  daily  amounts  of 
carbonic  acid  expired  by  the  non-laboring  and  laboring  classes : 


In  rest  with  2^  hours'  standing 

Non-laborious  class,  with  three  hours'  walking  at 

2  miles,  and  1  hour  at  3  miles  per  hour 

Laborious  class,  three  times  the  above  addition . 


Grains. 


11.427-56 

14.572-38 
18.732-79 


Proportions  withi 
rest  as  unity. 


,27 
,63 


The  experiments  of  Pettenkofer  and  Voit  upon  the  elimination  of 
carbonic  acid  and  absorption  of  oxygen  during  rest  and  exercise  were  con- 
ducted with  the  aid  of  apparatus,  which  secured  a  higher  degree  of  accu- 
racy than  was  attainable  by  previous  methods  of  investigation.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  results  in  abridged  form:  ^ 

"  Op.  cit.,  p.  293. 

^  Zeitschrift  filr  Biologic,  Bd.  11,  p.  546.  A  large  respiration-apparatus  was  used, 
in  which  the  subject  of  experiment  remained  for  twenty-four  hour.s.  The  above  table 
includes  only  the  experiments  made  without  alteration  of  diet.  They  were  five  in 
number,  three  during  rest-days,  and  two  during  work-days.  During  the  rest-days  the 
man,  a  watchmaker,  either  read  or  amused  himself  by  taking  apart  and  cleaning- 

voL.  1.— ai 


322 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


Average  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  in  grains. 


Rest 

Work .... 

Work-day 


Day. 


8825.25 
13217.50 


+4392.25 


Night. 


6100.73 
5447.49 


-653.24 


Average  absorption  of  oxy- 
gen in  grains. 

Day. 

Night. 

5771.56 
8410.44 

7062.60 
6720.63 

+  2638.88 

-341.97 

If  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  eliminated  and  oxygen  absorbed  during 
rest  be  respectively  taken  as  unity,  the  average  gain  during  the  w^ork- 
days  was: 


Day-hours. 

Entire  24  hours. 

Carbonic  acid  eliminated 

1.6 
1.45 

1. 

Oxvffen  absorbed 

1.2 

J  o 

The  amount  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  expired  air  is  also  largely  increased 
by  exercise. 

b.  On  the  circulation. — During  moderately  energetic  exercise  the 
heart  beats  more  frequently  and  forcibly,  the  arteries  dUate,  and  a  larger 
stream  of  blood  is  propelled  through  the  body,  but  especially  to  the  mus- 
cles where  the  increased  flux  is  required.  If  the  exertion  be  very  severe, 
the  cardiac  contractions  become  still  more  frequent,  feebler,  and  finally 
irregular,  while  at  the  same  time  a  peculiar  form  of  dyspnoea  is  experi- 
enced, which  is  familiarly  known  as  "loss  of  wind."  This  distress  in 
breathing  is  produced  by  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  between  the  re- 
sjjiratory  and  the  circulating  organs,  the  disturbance  in  question  being  the 
combined  result  of  several  causes.  In  the  first  place,  energetic  contraction 
of  the  muscles,  as  is  well  known,  accelerates  the  venous  circulation,  and 
thus  determines  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 

The  explanation  commonly  given  of  this  result,  viz.,  that  the  acceleration  of  the 
venous  current  is  chiefly  due  to  compression  of  the  veins  running  between  the  primi- 
tive muscular  fibres,  is  based  upon  a  misconception  of  the  actual  vascular  changes 
which  occur  in  the  muscles  during  contraction.  Thus,  it  is  commonly  held  that  mus- 
cular contraction  produces  the  double  effect  of  favoring  the  return  current  through  the 
muscular  veins,  and  of  obstructing  the  flow  through  the  muscular  arteries.     On  the 


watches.     On  work-days  he  exercised  for  nine  hours  a  day  by  turning  the  crank  of  a 

wheel  loaded  with  a  weight  sufficient  to  make  the  resistance  at  the  axle  about  equal 
to  the  resistance  of  the  turning-lathe  in  his  workshop.  The  labor  (7,500  revolutions 
per  day)  occasioned  moderate  fatigue. 

'  Day  and  night  represent  here  periods  of  twelve  hours  each. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  323 

contrary,  it  is  highly  probable  that  no  compression  of  the  veins  occurs  in  muscles  in 
which  the  vessels  run  parallel  to  the  fibres,  while,  as  regards  the  arteries,  the  experi- 
ments of  Gaskell  (p.  319)  have  demonstrated  that  the  arterial  circulation  of  muscle  is 
really  increased  during  the  period  of  contraction.  The  increased  flow  of  blood,  escap- 
ing from  muscle  during  contraction,  is  the  direct  result,  therefore,  of  an  increased 
arterial  afliux.  At  the  same  time,  although  the  muscular  veins  themselves  probably 
escape  compression  by  the  contracting  muscle,  the  large  veins  running  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood  are  pressed  upon  by  the  thickened  muscular  mass,  and  their  contents 
propelled  by  the  pressure  exerted. 

In  extreme  exertion,  moreover,  the  heart  is  further  embarrassed,  as 
Clifford  Allbutt  has  pointed  out,  by  the  action  of  the  respiration.  At  th"e 
end  of  a  deep  inspiration,  especially  if  the  breath  be  held  for  a  time,  the  in- 
creased pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  inner  surface  of  the  air-cells  impedes 
the  flow  of  blood  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  while  the  compression  of 
the  heart  itself,  by  the  distended  lungs,  tends  first  to  overfill  the  cavag  and 
innominate  veins,  and  afterward,  when  the  pressure  is  removed,  to  still 
further  engorge  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle.  During  general  muscular 
contraction,  moreover,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by  Traube,  the  arterial 
pressure  is  increased  at  the  outset  of  the  exertion,  before  the  arteries  have 
become  relaxed,  and  this  in  turn  may  lead  to  distention  of  the  left  cavities 
of  the  heart  and  engorgement  of  the  pulmonary  circulation.  To  these  causes 
may  be  added  another,  viz.,  exhaustion  of  the  respiratory  muscles,  partly  as 
a  direct  effect  of  the  unusual  labor  thrown  upon  them,  and  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  an  inadequate  supply  of  properly  oxygenated  blood.  If  the 
disturbance  of  the  pulmo-cardiac  equilibrium  be  severe,  and  continue  un- 
relieved, general  prostration  ensues  long  before  the  muscles  engaged  in 
the  work  are  exhausted.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  equilibrium  be  re- 
stored, as  is  commonly  the  case  when  the  disturbance  is  slight,  or  when 
the  lungs  and  heart  have  been  previously  trained  to  accomplish  the  restitu- 
tion, the  distress  disappears,  and  the  individual  is  then  said  to  have  gained 
his  "  second  wind,"  which  enables  him  to  continue  the  exertion  up  to  the 
limits  of  muscular  exhaustion. 

c.  0)1  the  cutaneous  secretion. — During  active  exercise  the  skin  flushes 
from  dilatation  of  the  cutaneous  vessels,  and  a  more  or  less  copious  trans- 
piration of  water  takes  place,  containing  chloi'ide  of  sodium  and  other 
inorganic  salts,  fatty  acids  and  neutral  fats.  The  evidence  in  regard  to 
the  jDresence  of  urea  is  conflicting;  the  careful  investigations  of  Ranke' 
and  others,  however,  render  it  improbable  that  any  appreciable  amount  of 
urea  escapes  in  the  sweat  during  health. 

The  quantity  of  water  escaping  by  the  skin  during  exercise  has  never 
been  accurately  determined,  irrespective  of  that  eliminated  by  the  lungs. 
Fuuke's  experiment  of  collecting  the  sweat  from  an  arm  surrounded  by  a 
caoutchouc  bag  is  open  to  obvious  objections.  Pettenkofer  and  Voit,  in 
the  experiments  previously  referred  to,  found  that  with  moderate  exertion 
the  quantity  of  water  passing  off  through  both  lungs  and  skin  was  more 
than  doubled.     In  severe  work  this  ratio  is  very  considerably  increased. 

'  Pfliiger's  Archiv,  VI.,  1872. 


324  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

Maclaren  *  found  that  in  his  own  case  the  average  loss  by  respiration  and 
perspiration  during  six  consecutive  days,  after  an  hour's  energetic  fencing, 
amounted  to  about  three  pounds,  or,  accurately,  forty  ounces,  with  a 
varying  range  of  eight  ounces.  We  are  informed  by  members  of  a 
university  boat-crew  that,  during  their  racing  practice  in  hot  weather,  the 
long  afternoon  pull  not  infrequently  lowered  the  body-weight  by  from 
four  to  six  pounds;  and  in  another  instance,  for  which  we  have  good 
authority,  a  student  in  an  English  university,  with  the  view  of  obtaining* 
a  position  on  the  university  crew,  reduced  his  weight  twelve  pounds  by 
a  single  long  run  in  heavy  clothing.  These  losses  are,  of  course,  usually 
replaced  in  a  few  hours  by  copious  drinking. 

So  long  as  the  transpiration  and  evaporation  of  water  take  place  freely 
the  temperature  of  the  body  rises  but  little  during  exercise,  and  in  fact 
may  even  fall  slightly  below  the  normal.  After  cessation  of  work  the 
cooling  of  the  body  continues  for  a  time,  and  depresses  the  temperature 
temporarily  by  one  or  more  degrees.  If  the  skin  acts  imperfectly  the 
heat  generated  by  muscular  contraction  accumulates  in  the  body,  excites 
languor  and  other  febrile  symptoms,  and  thus  indisposes  to  a  continuance 
of  the  exertion. 

d.  On  the  dlgesth'e  system. — Corresponding  to  the  increased  waste 
there  is  an  increased  demand  for  food,  manifesting  itself  in  improved  ap- 
petite and  more  rapid  digestion  and  absorption.  During  its  later  stages 
digestion  is  favored  by  the  vigorous  abdominal  circulation  incidental  to 
active  exercise,  and  probably  also  by  the  more  frequent  concussions  to 
which  the  abdominal  viscera  are  subjected  by  the  action  of  the  diaphragm 
in  hurried  respiration.  On  the  other  hand,  exercise  taken  soon  after  a 
meal  tends  to  retard  digestion  by  preventing  the  necessary  flux  of  blood 
to  the  stomach,  as  well  as  by  prematurely  expelling  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  into  the  intestinal  canal. 

e.  On  the  functions  of  the  9iervous  system. — The  effect  of  moderate 
muscular  exercise  in  improving  the  tone  of  the  nervous  system  is  so 
patent  to  common  observation  as  to  require  no  special  discussion  here  ; 
the  result,  however,  of  systematic  severe  physical  exertion  upon  the  men- 
tal T^oyfers,  is  not  so  evident.  Does  a  large  expenditure  of  energy  in  the 
direction  of  the  muscles  appreciably  diminish  the  stock  of  energy  avail- 
able for  the  purely  mental  functions  ?  The  question  certainly  merits  care- 
ful attention,  in  view  of  the  recent  remarkable  growth  of  athleticism  in 
Great  Britain  and  this  country,  particularly  among  those  engaged  in  more 
or  less  intellectual  pursuits.  The  common  objection  to  athletic  exercises, 
drawn  from  the  proverbial  stupidity  of  professional  athletes — whom  Plato 
described  as  "  sleeping  away  their  lives  " — has  obviously  no  direct  bearing 
upon  the  point  at  issue.  Functional  activity,  whether  of  the  brain  or 
muscles,  is  conditional  upon  the  performance  of  icork,  and  the  natural 
tendency  of  any  mode  of  life  that  cultivates  the  physical,  to  the  almost 
total  neglect  of  the  mental  powers,  must  be  to  induce  deterioration  of 

'  Training,  in  Theory  and  Practice,  London,  1874. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  325 

the  latter.  It  is  equally  clear,  also,  that  indisposition  to  mental  exertion 
will  be  experienced  during  a  course  of  systematic  exercise,  whenever  the 
exertion  is  pushed  to  the  point  of  producing  a  state  of  general  depression, 
such  as  occasionally  results  from  "over-training."  About  these  facts 
there  is  no  dispute  ;  the  question  is  rather,  whether  carefully  regulated 
physical  exertion — in  such  amount,  for  instance,  as  is  necessary  to  prepare 
healthy  young  men  for  engaging  in  the  severer  athletic  contests  (boat- 
racing,  foot-ball,  etc.),  tends  to  produce  aversion  to,  or  disqualification 
for,  mental  work.  That  no  such  general  tendency  is  observable  in  the 
class  of  persons  most  likely  to  exhibit  it,  viz.,  students  who  devote  con- 
siderable attention  to  athletic  exercises,  has  been  clearly  shown,  at  least 
for  the  English  universities,  by  the  investigations  of  Mr.  R.  F.  Clarke, 
formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,'  and  Dr.  J.  E. 
Morgan,  of  Manchester,  England."  It  appears  from  their  inquiries  that 
both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  particularly  at  the  latter  univer- 
sity, the  rowing-men  and  cricketers  have  obtained  more  than  their  pro- 
portional share  of  academic  honors.  No  statistics  of  like  character  have 
been  compiled  for  this  country  ;  but  we  are  satisfied,  from  personal  obser- 
vation and  numerous  inquiries,  that  a  similar  investigation  for  our  own 
■colleges  would  elicit  an  equally  favorable  result.  To  be  sure,  an  exces- 
sive devotion  to  athletic  sports  undoubtedly  leads  to  the  waste  of  much 
time  that  ought  to  be  spent  in  study  ;  but  such  an  expenditure  of  time 
is  unnecessary,  and  is  not  contemplated  in  the  present  remarks.  Dismiss- 
ing this  side  issue,  it  remains  to  be  considered  whether  the  amount  of 
muscular  exercise  indicated  in  our  previous  statement  of  the  point  at  issue 
has  any  direct  tendency  to  diminish  the  power  of  mental  application. 
Now,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that,  while  it  is  one  of  the  objects  of  a 
■course  of  training  to  cultivate  muscular  strength,  it  is  equally  an  object 
to  maintain  the  other  organs  of  the  body  in  a  condition  of  perfect  health ; 
indeed,  the  highest  degree  of  muscular  strength  is  obtained  only  when  the 
general  nutrition  is  carried  on  with  the  greatest  activity.  That  the  brain 
must  share  in  the  general  improvement  of  nutrition,  at  least  in  so  far  as  a 
generous  supply  of  nutrient  material  is  concerned,  and  that  it  should  be 
able  to  respond  to  any  reasonable  demand  upon  its  functional  activity,  is 
<'ertainly  no  more  than  might  be  expected  from  known  physiological  laws. 
It  may  safely  be  conceded,  therefore,  that,  vnth  proiyer  precautions,  great 
"bodily  is  entirely  compatible  with  great  mental  activity — but  only  with 
proper  precautions  :  the  candle  must  not  he  burned  at  both  ends.  Ex- 
Jiausting  exercise  cannot  be  followed  by  an  excessive  drain  upon  the  ener- 
gies of  the  mind  without  danger  of  the  most  serious  consequences. 

A  word,  in  conclusion,  with  reference  to  the  influence  of  systematic 
physical  exercise  in  developing  volitional  power,  and  in  this  way  cultivat- 
ing important  traits  of  character.  Vigorous  muscular  exertion,  especially 
when  pushed  to  the  point  of  fatigue,  demands  a  vigorous  exercise  of  the 

^  Pamphlet  on  the  Intellectual  Inflaence  of  Athleticism,  1869. 

'University  Oars,  etc.,  London,  1873. 


.326  PHYSICAL    EXEECISE. 

vnll  y  a  consciousness  of  increased  power  is  thus  acquired,  and  this  in 
turn  begets  self-confidence,  resolution,  and  courage — qualities  which,  if 
rightly  directed  by  proper  moral  and  intellectual  training,  elevate  the 
tone  of  the  entire  character,  and  aid  to  an  important  degree  in  subduing 
the  passions.  Indeed,  the  more  perfect  control  which  the  mind  possesses 
over  a  vigorous  than  over  a  morbidly  sensitive  body,  is  a  matter  of  every- 
day observation,  and  has  given  rise  to  Rousseau's  seeming  paradox:  "the 
weaker  the  body,  the  more  it  commands  ;.  the  stronger  it  is,  the  more  it 
obeys.'"  It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  this  line  of  thought  farther,  but  it 
may  be  interesting  to  note  that  the  conception  here  given,  of  physical 
exercise  as  a  training  for  the  mind  no  less  than  for  the  body,  lay  at  the 
foundation  of  Plato's  views  of  the  real  function  of  gymnastic  exercises  in 
the  education  of  Greek  youths.^  The  toils  and  exercises  of  gymnastics,  he 
says,  if  overstrained,  are  likely  to  make  men  hard  and  brutal  ;  but,  if 
properly  regulated,  stimulate  the  spirited  element  of  their  nature,  make 
them  valiant,  and  discipline  their  passions. 

f.  On  the  ge7ieratlve  f auctions. — The  immediate  effect  of  vigorous 
exercise  upon  the  generative  organs  is  to  diminish  the  sexual  impulse  by 
diverting  nervous  energy  into  other  channels  ;  hence  the  relief  afforded 
by  active  exercise  in  cases  of  morbid  sexual  irritability  arising  from  the 
use  of  stimulating  food  and  a  life  of  idleness.  Remotely,  the  generative 
system,  equally  with  other  organs,  is  iiivigorated  by  systematic  exercise. 

g.  On  the  urine. — The  effects  of  active  exercise  upon  the  urine  have 
been  studied  by  numerous  observers,  and  with  tolerably  uniform  results, 
except  as  regards  the  elimination  of  urea.  The  aqueous  portion  of  the 
urine  (except  when  water  has  been  drunk  freely  during  the  exertion)  and 
chloride  of  sodium  are  diminished,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  excre- 
tion of  these  substances  by  the  skin;  on  the  other  hand,  the  uric  acid,  the 
sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids  and  the  pigment  are  increased.  Of  the 
bases — soda,  potash,  lime,  and  magnesia — the  two  former  are  discharged 
in  greater  excess  than  are  the  two  latter.^  With  respect  to  the  nitro- 
genous elimination  during  exercise,  as  measured  chiefly  by  the  urea  dis- 
charged, the  results  of  observation  are  so  discrepant  that  it  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  them  with  the  accuracy  of  any  general  conclusions  upon  the 
subject.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  more  important  experiments  may  be  of 
interest.  J.  F.  Simon  (1842)  *  found  the  urea  slightly  increased  in  conse- 
quence of  persevering  exercise.  These  experiments  were  conducted  with- 
out reference  to  the  nature  of  the  diet.  A  similar  result  was  obtained  by 
the  researches  of  C.  G.  Lehmann  (1844:).*  The  diet  being  nearly  the 
same,  his  average  excretion  of  urea  during  days  of  rest  was  about  32 
grammes,  but,  during  days  of  considerable  bodily  exertion,  the  quantity^ 

'  Emilias,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  1762. 

'■'Tlie  Dialogues  of  Plato,  particularly  "  The  Republic,"  Jowett's  translation. 
2  Parkes  :    Practical  Hygiene,  1878,  p.  414. 
^Handbuch  d.  angew.  med.  Chem.,  1843,  11,  S.  368. 

^  Wagner's  Handbuch  d.  Physiol.  Band  11,  S.  21,  and  Lehmann's  Phys.  Chemie,. 
Bd.  1,  S.  164,  1844. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


327 


rose  to  36.37  grammes.  W.  A.  Hammond  (1855)  ^  found  that  in  his  own 
case  the  urea  was  largely  increased  by  exercise.  His  experiments  were 
carried  out  for  three  days  upon  an  uniform  mixed  diet.  On  the  first  day 
moderate  exercise  was  taken,  viz.,  a  walk  of  2^  miles  and  horseback  ride 
of  3  miles;  on  the  second  day,  a  brisk  walk  of  8^  miles  over  a  hilly  coun- 
try, a  horseback  ride  of  10  miles,  and  2|-  hours  of  quoit-pitching;  on  the 
third  day,  absolute  rest. 

The  following  table  gives  the  respective  amounts  of  urea  eliminated: 

Moderate  exercise 683.09  grains. 

Increased       "        864.97      " 

No  "       487.00      " 

/ 

In  1861  Dr.  Edward  Smith  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  upon 
the  prisoners  at  Coldbath-fields  by  exercising  them  upon  the  tread-wheel, 
and  came  to  the  following  conclusions: 

"  1.  When  the  tread-wheel  is  worked  for  a  short  period,  say  1|-  hours, 
in  the  absence  of  food,  there  is  no  increase  in  the  elimination  of  urea 
during  that  period. 

"  2.  When  the  tread-wheel  is  worked  with  ordinary  food,  the  increase 
of  urea  is  not  more  than  5  per  cent,  over  the  quantity  which  is  eliminated 
with  very  light  work  and  with  the  same  food. 

"  3.  When  two  different  dietaries  are  provided,  varying  in  nitrogen, 
but  the  exertion  always  remaining  the  same,  there  is  the  greatest  excre- 
tion of  urea  with  the  diet  richest  in  nitrogen,"  ^ 

In  1866  Fick  and  Wislicenus  ^  published  an  account  of  an  experiment 
conducted  upon  themselves  in  connection  with  their  ascent  of  the  Faul- 
horn,  one  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  which  rises  6417.5  above  the  Lake  of 
Brientz.  For  seventeen  hours  before  the  ascent,  and  for  six  hours  after 
its  completion,  no  albuminoid  food  was  taken,  the  diet  being  composed 
solely  of  cakes  made  of  fat,  sugar,  and  starch.  At  the  end  of  this  time  a 
hearty  meal  of  meat,  etc.,  was  eaten.  The  ascent  began  at  half-past  five 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  August  30th,  and  lasted  eight  hours.  The  urine 
was  collected  for  three  periods:  (1)  the  eleven  hours  preceding  the  start, 
(2)  the  eight  hours  of  ascent,  and  (3)  the  succeeding  six  hours  of  rest,  the 
latter  to  allow  for  the  elimination  of  any  urea  that  might  have  formed, 
but  been  retained  during  the  excretion.  The  amounts  of  urea  for  the 
three  periods  were  respectively: 


1.  Urea  of  11  hours  before  labor. . 

2.  "     "    8     "      of  labor 

8.       "     "    fi     "       "rest 


Tick. 


238.55  grains. 


Wislicenus. 


221.05  grains. 
108.46     " 
79.89    " 


183.35. 


'  American  Jour.  Med.  Sciences,  January,  1855. 

2  Op.  cit.,  p.  272. 

3  Philosophical  Magazine,  XXXI.  (1866),  p.  485. 


328  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

The  urine  for  the  night  (11  hours)  succeeding  the  rest-period  contained 
only  (Fick)  159.16  grains  of  urea,  and  (Wislicenus)  176.71  grains,  not- 
withstanding the  hearty  meal  of  nitrogenous  food  taken  the  evening 
before. 

In  the  same  year  (1866),  Pettenkofer  and  Voit,  in  connection  with  the 
experiments  already  mentioned  (see  p.  322),  investigated  the  elimination 
of  urea  as  affected  by  exercise,  with  the  following  result: 

Rest-day  (average  of  three  days) 564.81  grains. 

"Work-day  (average  of  two  days) 567.89       " 

Average  deficit  on  work-day 3.08      " 

The  experiments  of  Fick  and  Wislicenus  attracted  much  attention 
from  their  supposed  important  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  source  of 
muscular  power,  and  in  order  to  test  the  correctness  of  their  conclusions, 
the  late  Dr.  Parkes,^  in  December  of  the  same  year,  made  a  series  of  ob- 
servations upon  two  healthy  soldiers,  S.  and  T.,  belonging  to  the  Army 
Hospital  Corps  at  Netley.  The  experiments  extended  over  sixteen  days, 
two  of  which  were  occupied  in  moderately  severe  exertion,  viz.,  a  walk  of 
23.76  miles  in  one  day,  and  another  of  32.78  miles  on  the  day  following. 
The  remainder  of  the  time  was  spent  either  at  rest  or  in  their  ordinary 
work.  In  two  of  the  experiments  the  diet  was  restricted  to  non-nitro- 
genous substances — arrow-root,  jelly,  sugar,  and  butter.  The  following 
table  gives  the  respective  quantities  of  urea  excreted: 


I. —  Ordinary  Diet  and  'Work. 

G-ralns. 

Mean  of  4  days— S 540.13 

T 399.99 


II. — Non-nitrogenous  Diet  and  Rent. 

Mean  of  2  days— S .' 258.71 

"  "  T 231.94 


III. —  Ordinary  Diet  and  'Worh. 

Mean  of  4  days— S 394.36 

"  "  T 330.19 


IV. — Non-nitrogenou8  Diet  and  Active  Exercise. 

Mean  of  2  days— S 263.34 

"  "  T 225.33 


'  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  Vol.  XV.,  1867,  No.  89,  p.  339  et  seq. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  329 

V. —  Ordinary  Diet  and  Work. 

Mean  of  4  days— S 407.34 

«  «  T 359.90 

These  experiments  demonstrate  cleariy  that  the  excretion  of  urea  is 
far  more  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  nitrogen  ingested  than  upon 
the  energy  expended  by  the  muscles,  while  a  comparison  of  the  II,  and 
IV.  experiments  shows  that  upon  a  non-nitrogenous  diet  the  differ- 
■ences  in  the  amount  of  urea  eliminated  were  so  slight  as  to  be  at- 
tributable to  errors  in  analysis.  In  order  to  obviate  the  natural  objec- 
tion that  these  two  experiments  were  conducted  under  abnormal  physio- 
logical conditions,  Dr.  Parkes  made  another  series  of  observations,^  similar 
in  all  respects  to  the  preceding  experiments,  except  that  another  soldier, 
B.,  was  substituted  for  T.,  that  the  diet  was  uniform  (mixed  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  food)  throughout  the  whole  period,  and  that  the  dis- 
tances walked  during  the  days  of  extraordinary  exertion  were  respectively 
32  and  35  miles. 

I. —  Ordinary  WorJc. 

Grains. 

Mean  of  4  days— S 567.18 

B 573.05 


H.—Rest. 

Mean  of  2  days— S 591.73 

B 603.39 


III. —  Ordinary  WbrJc. 

Mean  of  4  days — S 557.48 

B 579.22 


IV, — Active'  Exercise. 

Mean  of  2  days— S 596.37 

"  B 625.39 


V, —  Ordinary  WorJc. 

Mean  of  4  days— S, 629,79 

"  B 600.44 

In  1868  Prof,  Haughton  reported  a  series  of  experiments '  conducted 


'  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  Vol.  XVI, ,  No.  94, 1867, 
2  The  Lancet,  1868,  Aug.,  p   261. 


330 


PHYSICAL    EXEECISE. 


upon  himself  with  reference  to  this  point.  He  first  ascertained  by  a 
number  of  observations  his  average  elimination  of  urea  under  his  ordinary 
conditions  of  exercise  (walking  about  five  miles  a  day),  and  then  deter- 
mined the  amounts  of  urea  excreted  during  five  days  of  unusual  exercise 
(walking  on  an  average  20  miles  daily).     The  result  was  as  follows: 

Grains. 

Moderate  exercise 501.28  per  day. 

Severe  exercise 501.16        " 

Notwithstanding  the  apparently  conclusive  settlement  of  the  question 
by  the  observations  of  Smith,  Fick  and  Wislicenus,  Pettenkofer  and  Voit, 
Parkes,  and  Haughton,  the  whole  controversy  was  reopened  in  1871  by 
the  experiments  of  Austin  Flint,  Jr.,  upon  the  pedestrian,  Edward  Payson 
Weston,  in  connection  with  the  latter's  walk  in  New  York  during  May, 
1870,  of  317|^  miles  in  five  days.'  In  1876  Dr.  Pavy  conducted  a  series 
of  similar  observations  upon  the  same  person  during  his  pedestrian  per- 
formances in  London.^  Upon  this  occasion  Weston  undertook  three 
separate  feats:  a  walk  of  48  hours,  one  of  75  hours,  and  a  third  of  500 
miles  in  six  days,  the  distance  actiially  accomplished  during  the  latter 
effort  being  450  miles.  This  last  walk  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  which 
is  strictly  comparable,  so  far  as  the  conditions  of  experiments  are  con- 
cerned, with  the  one  made  under  Flint's  observation,  and  we  have  omitted 
the  results  of  the  first  two  walks  from  the  present  consideration.  The 
general  result,  as  given  below,  is  not,  however,  materially  affected  thereby.. 


FLINT'S   OBSERVATIONS. 
Daily  Averages  for  Three  Periods. 


Five  days  before 
the  walk. 

Five  days  of  the 
walk. 

Five   days   after 
the  walk. 

Nitrogen  of  food 

Urea 

339.46  grains. 
628.24       " 
2.26       " 

293.93       " 
86.58 

234.76  grains. 
722.16       " 
3.00       " 

338.01       " 
143.98 

440.93  grains. 
726.79       " 

Uric  acid 

1.42 

Nitrogen  of  urea  and  uric 
acid 

339.64       " 

Percentage    of    nitrogen 
excreted    in    urea    and 
uric  acid 

77.03 

'  N.  Y.  Medical  Journal,  June,  1871  ;  also.  The  Source  of  Muscular  Power,  N.  Y., 
1878. 

=  The  Lancet,  1876,  Vol.  L,  pp.  319,  353,  393,  429,  466  ;  Vol.  II.,  pp.  741,  815^ 
848,  887. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


331 


PAVY'S   OBSERVATIONS. 
Daily  Averages  for  Three  Periods. 


Nitrogen  of  food 

Urea 

Uric  acid ' 

Nitrogen  of  urea  and  uric 
acid. 

Percentage  of  nitrogen 
excreted  in  urea  and 
uric  acid 


Six     days     before 
the  walk. 


477.48  grains. 
607.07   " 
27.39   " 

319.91   " 


66.99 


Six    days    of    the  Six  days  after  the 


walk. 


671.72  grains. 
1089.56       " 
39.51       " 

521.54       " 


77.64 


walk. 


Not  calculated. 
642.30 
25.84 

308.30 


Not  calculated^ 


The  above  experiments  upon  Weston  clearly  demonstrate  that  with  a 
nitrogenous  diet,  very  severe  muscular  exertion,  especially  if  continued 
for  a  series  of  days,  unmistakably  increases  the  elimination  of  urea  during 
the  period  of  work,  over  and  above  the  amount  that  can  be  accounted  for 
by  the  nitrogen  ingested.  With  tnoderate  exercise  the  increased  elimina- 
tion is  often  not  apparent  at  the  time,  but  shows  itself  during  the  suc- 
ceeding period  of  rest.  In  Parke's  carefully  conducted  experiments  (see 
ante)  it  was  found  that  while  the  excretion  of  urea  was  only  slightly 
increased  on  the  days  of  unusual  exertion,  a  still  larger  amount  was- 
eliminated  on  the  succeeding  days  of  ordinary  work.  This  fact  possibly 
throws  some  light  upon  the  failure  of  other  observers  to  discover  any  in- 
creased excretion  of  urea,  when  sufficient  precaution  was  not  taken  to- 
investigate  the  subsequent  elimination.  Still  this  explanation  will  obviously 
not  apply  to  other  cases  of  failure,  such  as  that  of  Prof.  Haughton.  In. 
this  instance  the  exertion  was  continued  over  a  period  long  enough  ta 
allow  any  increased  formation  of  nitrogenous  products  to  manifest  itself 
by  increased  elimination  during  the  latter  days  of  work.  Such  cases  seem 
inexplicable  if  the  urea  eliminated  during  exertion  or  immediately  after- 
ward is  to  be  regarded  as  a  measure  of  the  muscular  substance  consumed,, 
but  present  no  serious  difficulty  if  it  be  considered  simply  as  an  expres- 
sion of  the  general  disassimilative  changes  of  the  body.^ 

'  The  diflPerence  between  the  amounts  of  uric  acid  in  Flint's  and  Pavy's  tables  is 
very  striking,  and  probably  depends,  as  Pavy  has  pointed  out  and  Flint  himself 
admits,  upon  the  faulty  process  employed  by  the  chemist  to  whom  Flint  entrusted  the 
analysis.  The  error  does  not  materially  affect  the  general  results  as  given  by  Flint. 
Moreover,  it  should  be  noted  with  respect  to  the  percentages  in  Flint's  table  that  the 
very  marked  increase  during  the  five  days'  walk  was  due,  not  so  much  to  the  increase 
of  nitrogen  excreted,  as  to  the  considerable  diminution  in  the  nitrogen  ingested  during" 
this  period. 

'•^  The  results  of  some  recent  experiments  by  William  North,  B.A.,  Cambridge,  seem 
to  point  in  this  direction  :  An  Account  of  Two  Experiments  Illustrating  the  Effects  of 


332  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

Source  of  nmscular  poioer. — These  considerations  bring  us  directly  to 
tne  question  of  the  source  of  muscular  energy — a  question  which  has  ex- 
cited more  controversy  of  late  years  than  perhaps  any  other  in  the  entire 
range  of  physiological  inquiry,  and  which,  it  is  safe  to  say,  will  never  be 
definitively  settled  until  our  knowledge  of  vital  processes  is  much  more 
complete  than  it  is  at  present.  The  main  point  in  dispute  is  whether 
muscular  power  is  evolved  by  the  consumption  of  the  muscular  substance 
itself,  or  whether  a  muscle  is  merely  a  machine  for  liberating  energy  from 
substances  brought  to  it  by  the  blood  circulating  in  its  tissue;  whether, 
in  the  words  of  Fick  and  Wislicenus,  "  as  in  the  steam-engine  coal  is 
burned  in  order  to  produce  force,  so  in  the  muscular  machine  fats  and 
hydrates  of  carbon  are  burned  for  the  same  purpose."  For  a  full  discussion 
of  this  question  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  principal  contributions  on  the 
subject;^  a  few  general  remarks  must  suffice  here. 

In  the  first  place,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  analogy  drawn  by  Fick 
and  Wislicenus  between  a  muscle  and  a  steam-engine  is  obviously  mis- 
leading, if  it  be  meant  that  mechanical  force  is  generated  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  two  cases.  In  the  steam-engine  the  heat  liberated  from  coal 
is  converted  into  work  by  means  of  a  special  mechanism,  viz.,  the  condenser, 
in  which  motion  is  produced  by  the  alternate  condensations  and  expan- 
sions of  steam.  No  provision  at  all  analogous  to  this  is  found  in  muscle. 
Here  heat  is  the  final  product  in  the  transformation  of  energy,  the  ex- 
cretum  of  energy;  having  no  cooler  parts  to  warm,  it  cannot  be  converted 
into  mechanical  work;  and  the  excess,  above  what  is  required  to  maintain 
the  normal  temperature,  escapes  from  the  body  by  radiation  and  conduc- 
tion, by  direct  loss  in  the  expired  air,  the  urine,  and  faces,  and  as  latent 
heat  in  the  vapor  of  perspiration.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  be  merely 
intended  by  this  analogy  to  assert  that  a  muscle,  like  a  steam-engine. 

Starvation,  with  and  without  Severe  Labor,  on  the  Elimination  of  Urea  from  the  Body, 
The  Journal  of  Physiology,  June,  1878,  p.  171. 

He  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  the  observations  in  question  : 

"  1.  That  severe  exercise  does  increase  the  elimination  of  urea,  but  that  the  in- 
crease, both  in  the  absence  of  nitrogenous  food  and  under  ordinary  diet,  is  a  small 
■one. 

"2.  That  the  quantity  of  urea  passed  during  any  period  is  largely  dependent  on  the 
nitrogenous  constitution  of  the  body  for  the  time  being,  i.  e.,  varies  according  as  a 
greater  or  smaller  reserve  of  nitrogenous  material  has  been  accumulated  in  the  body." 

He  adds  •  "  It  is  quite  possible  that  exercise  may  have  an  especial  effect  in  hurry- 
ing on  the  metabolism  of  such  a  reserve,  and  hence,  the  point  whether  the  nitrogen 
of  the  excreta  is  increased  by  exercise  or  not  may  be  determined  by  events — not  so 
much  in  the  muscles  as  in  other  tissues — the  result  being  positive  or  negative  accord- 
ing as  a  large  or  small  reserve  is  present,  or  according  as  that  reserve  is  more  or  less 
labile." 

'  Besides  the  articles,  already  referred  to,  of  Fick  and  Wislicenus,  Haughton,  Parkes, 
Flint,  and  Pavy,  see  also  Frankland :  On  the  Origin  of  Muscular  Power,  Philosoph. 
Magazine,  London,  1866,  Vol.  XXXII. ;  Voit:  Ueber  die  Entwickelung  der  Lehrc  von 
der  Quelle  der  Muskelkraft,  etc.,  Zeitsch.  fiir  Biologic,  Bd.  VI.,  1870,  S.  803  et  seq.; 
Parkes:  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  1871,  p.  348;  and  Liebig :  Pharmaceutical  Journal 
and  Transactions,  London,  1870. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  333 

is  a  machine  which  evolves  mechanical  force,  not  from  its  own  structure, 
but  from  matters  brought  to  it  for  combustion,  and  itself  undergoes  no 
change  during  work  except  the  natural  wear  and  tear  incidental  to  all 
machinery,  the  comparison  is  none  the  less  misleading,  as  will  appear  from 
the  following  considerations.'  It  has  been  shown  by  L.  Hermann^  that  a 
muscle,  even  when  removed  from  the  body,  and  deprived  of  blood  by 
washing  out  the  vessels  with  a  normal  alkaline  solution,  is  still  for  some 
time  capable  of  contraction,  and  of  producing  carbonic  acid,  sarcolactic 
acid,  and  heat  during  contraction.  This  fact,  together  with  others  point- 
ing in  the  same  direction,^  renders  it  highly  probable  that  muscular  power- 
is  derived  from  changes  in  the  muscular  substance  itself,  and  not  froin 
oxidation  of  matters  in  the  blood  circulating  through  the  muscle.  Al- 
though our  knowledge  is  still  very  imperfect  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  these 
changes  in  muscle,  it  is  quite  clear  that  we  have  to  deal  with  a  process  far 
more  complicated  than  a  simple  oxidation,  such  as  occurs  in  ordinary  com- 
bustion. A  frog's  muscle  deprived  of  its  blood  contains  no  free  or  loosely 
combined  oxygen;  none  can  be  extracted  from  it  even  under  the  action 
of  a  mercurial  air-pump,  and  yet  when  the  muscle  is  placed  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  hydrogen  or  nitrogen,  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  and  prob- 
ably lactic  acid,  still  continues  both  when  the  muscle  is  contracting  and 
when  it  is  at  rest.^  The  oxygen,  on  its  absorption  from  the  blood  by  the-- 
muscle,  enters  at  once,  it  may  be  supposed,  into  the  formation  of  a  con- 
tractile substance,  which  even  during  muscular  repose  is  always  under- 
going gradual  disintegration,  but  upon  the  reception  of  the  necessary 
stimulus  splits  up,  by  means  of  a  sort  of  explosive  decomposition,  into 
carbonic  acid,  lactic  acid,  etc.,  and  thus  suddenly  liberates  a  large  amount 
of  energy.  According  to  this  hypothesis,  muscle  may  be  regarded  as  a 
reservoir  of  latent  force,  upon  which  the  will  may  at  any  instant  draw  for 
mechanical  work  to  an  amount  limited  only  by  certain  conditions  to  be 
mentioned  later.     Although  the  products  of  decomposition  thus  far  posi- 

'  It  seems  to  be  in  this  latter  sense  that  the  analogy  was  first  used  by  Fick  and 
Wislicenus  ;  at  least,  Fick  has  since  explained  that  he  does  not  regard  the  work  in 
muscle  as  produced  by  the  conversion  of  heat  into  mechanical  motion,  but  rather  by 
the  conversion  of  chemical  forces,  possibly  through  the  medium  of  electric  processes. 
Untersuch.  liber  Muskelarbeit,  1867,  S.  43. 

^  Untersuch.  iiber  den  Stoffwechsel  der  Muskeln,  1867. 

^  For  instance,  the  observation  that  a  well-nourished  individual,  even  after  entire 
abstinence  from  food  for  two  or  three  days,  is  still  capable  of  considerable  muscular 
exertion.  Also  the  following  interesting  fact  mentioned  by  Liebig  in  his  article  on  the 
Source  of  Muscular  Power,  Pharmaceutical  Journal,  London,  1870,  p.  202:  "I  re- 
cently received  a  letter  from  my  friend,  Prof.  O.  K  Rood,  of  N.  T.,  in  which  he  com- 
municated to  me  the  following  case  :  Prof.  Agassiz  has  been  occupied  for  some  time 
in  catching  sharks  for  the  purpose  of  studying  their  anatomical  structure,  and  on  one 
occasion  a  shark,  that  had  been  hooked,  struggled  in  the  usual  violent  manner  before 
it  was  landed ;  but  on  dissection  the  animal  proved  to  be  almost  entirely  destitute  of 
blood.  Closer  examination  showed  that  it  had  been  attacked  by  a  parasite,  and  the  gills 
were  in  some  places  eaten  through,  so  that  nearly  all  the  animal's  blood  had  been  ex- 
tracted and  its  place  taken  by  sea-water." 

'  Foster  :  A  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  p.  284. 


334 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


-tively  ascertained — carbonic  and  lactic  acids — are  such  as  might  result 
merely  from  the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous  material,  and  although 
there  is  a  conspicuous  absence  of  nitrogenous  waste  in  the  muscle  during 
contraction,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  contractile  material  is  itself 
merely  a  non-nitrogenous  body.  To  account  for  this  absence  of  a  corre- 
sponding nitrogenous  waste,  Hermann  has  advanced  the  theory  that  the 
contractile  substance  is  composed  of  an  albuminous  material  termed  by  him 
inogen,  which  breaks  up  during  contraction  of  the  muscle  into  carbonic 
acid,  lactic  acid,  and  a  gelatinous  nitrogenous  body  essentially  identical 
with  the  firmly  coagulated  myosin  found  in  dead  muscle.  This  gelatinous 
myosin,  he  supposes,  is  retained  in  the  muscle,  and  re-enters  into  the  forma- 
tion of  new  inogen.  The  theory  is  unsupported  by  direct  evidence,  and  in 
fact  is  opposed  by  what  is  known  of  the  origin  of  the  myosin  of  rigor 
mortis;  still  the  true  explanation  probably  lies  in  this  direction,  viz.,  that 
the  nitrogenous  substance  or  substances  resulting  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  contractile  material  are  not  immediately  eliminated,  but  are  in  jDart, 
at  least,  retained  and  again  used  in  the  process  of  reconstruction. 


Force  value  in  foot-tons  of  the 

Work  performed  in 
foot-tons. 

nitrogenous  matter  equiva- 
lent to  the  nitrogen  elimi- 
nated in  excess  of  the  aver- 

walk. . 

age  during  rest. 

Eirst  24  tours  of  Weston's  six-days' 

1525.30 

533.78 

Second           "              "             " 

" 

1205.27 

674.63 

Third 

1097.29 

718.15 

Fourth           " 

1195.19 

481.71 

Eifth 

1035.44 

352.27 

Sixth              "              " 

"     .. 

967.57 

397.66 

Sum  total  for  the  six  days 

7026.06 

8158.20 

Daily  average 

1171.01 

526.36 

This  provisional  hypothesis,  furthermore,  furnishes  a  plausible  expla- 
nation of  the  manner  in  which  both  the  nitrogenous  and  the  non-nitro- 
genous elements  of  food  may  take  part  in  the  evolution  of  muscular 
energy.  If  the  nitrogenous  product  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  contractile  substance  be  retained  in  the  muscle  and  re-enter  into  the  con- 
struction of  fresh  explosive  material,  the  elements  which  are  to  replace  the 
carbonic  and  lactic  acids  eliminated  will  naturally  be  derived  from  the 
non-nitrogenous  substances  circulating  in  the  blood  of  the  muscle.  More- 
over, this  conception  of  the  process  of  contraction  enables  us  to  hold  fast 
to  the  view  that  muscular  energy  springs  directly  from  the  muscle  itself, 
without  at  the  same  time  admitting  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted 
from  the  body  during  exertion  over  and  above  that  eliminated  during  rest 
represents  the  waste  of  muscular  tissue,  and  is,  therefore,  to  be  regarded 
as  a  measure  of  the  force  expended.  That  urea  is  in  no  sense  such  a 
guide  is  clearly  shown  by  the  results  of  Pavy's  observations  upon  Weston. 
Taking  the  excess  of  urea  eliminated  during  exercise  over  the  quantity 
eliminated  during  rest,  Pavy  estimated  the  amount  of   muscular  tissue 


PHYSICAL    EXEKCISE.  335 

which  this  excess  might  be  supposed  to  represent,  and  then  converted  the 
heat  that  would  be  evolved  by  combustion  in  Frankland's  calorimeter  into 
working-power  by  Joule's  formula.  The  result  (see  preceding  page)  shows 
that  the  work  performed  by  Weston  in  his  six-days'  walk  was  very  mucli 
greater  than  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  force-value  of  the  muscular 
tissue  supposed  to  have  been  wasted. 

Growth  of  muscle. — In  accordance  with  a  general  law  affecting  all  the 
tissues  of  the  body,  muscle  wastes  during  long-continued  rest,  and  grows 
under  the  influence  of  exercise.  Is  the  addition  to  the  muscular  substance 
made  chiefly  during  contraction  or  during  the  succeeding  period  of  re- 
pose ?  We  have  already  seen  from  the  experiments  of  Gaskell,  that  the 
increased  flux  of  blood  to  the  muscle  begins  with  contraction,  and  con- 
tinues for  a  short  time  afterward.  There  is  reason  to  suppose,  also,  that 
the  process  of  contraction  itself  in  some  way  directly  stimulates  the  or- 
ganizing power  of  the  protoplasm  composing  muscular  fibre.  It  is  highly 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  incorporation  of  new  material,  and  its  partial, 
if  not  complete  elaboration,  takes  place  as  an  immediate  rather  than  re- 
mote effect  of  the  functional  activity  of  the  muscle.  The  nature  of  this 
increase  of  bulk  is,  however,  not  so  obvious.  Does  the  enlargement  con- 
sist of  an  increase  in  the  number  of  muscular  fibres,  or  of  an  increase  in 
their  size;  in  other  words,  to  adopt  Virchow's  terminology,  is  the  process 
a  hyperplasia  or  a  hypertrophy  ?  Direct  evidence  upon  this  point  is 
lacking,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  mode  of  growth  is  the 
same  here  as  it  has  been  shown  to  be  in  the  development  of  muscle  from 
its  foetal  to  its  adult  condition,  and  in  the  development  of  the  uterine 
muscular  tissue  during  gestation.  In  both  these  instances  the  individual 
fibres  increase  in  size,  and  new  fibres  are  also  formed,  probably  from  the 
•connective-tissue  corpuscles  lying  in  the  interspaces  between  the  fibres. 

RESULTS    OF   0VEE-EXERTI0:N". 

The  fatigue  resulting  from  muscular  exertion  appears  to  be  due  to  three 
causes  :  1,  Lack  of  contractile  material  for  continuing  the  exertion  ;  2, 
accumulation  within  the  muscle  of  waste  products,  particularly  sarcolactic 
acid  ;  and  3,  exhaustion  of  the  nerve-centres  engaged  in  supplying  the 
stimulus  to  contraction.  The  relative  importance  of  these  factors  is  un- 
certain. That  even  in  apparently  complete  muscular  exhaustion  the  loss 
of  power  is  not  wholly  attributable  to  lack  of  contractile  material  is  shown 
by  the  familiar  fact  that  an  energetic  effort  of  the  will  may  still  call  forth 
an  exhibition  of  considerable  strength.  The  retained  effete  products, 
moreover,  seem  to  exert  a  direct  inhibitory  influence  upon  contraction  ; 
at  least  some  experiments  upon  frogs  point  in  this  direction.  In  a  frog's 
muscle,  which  has  been  exhausted  by  tetanization,  irritability  may  be  re- 
stored by  washing  out  the  waste  material  with  a  saline  solution  injected 
into  the  vessels  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  injection  of  lactic  acid  into 
a  fresh  muscle  rapidly  diminishes  its  irritability.  The  third  factor — ex- 
haustion of  the  nerve-centres  concerned  in  the  action — plays  an  important 


336  PHYSICAL    EXEECISE. 

part  in  producing  certain  of  the  symptoms  of  muscular  fatigue  ;  indeed^ 
it  is  quite  certain  that  the  sensation  of  fatigue  which  accompanies  ex- 
haustion of  the  miuscles  has  its  direct  source  in  the  nerve-tissue,  rather 
than  in  the  muscles  themselves.  Rest,  therefore,  for  both  muscle  and 
nerve,  is  indispensable  to  restore  the  conditions  necessary  for  contraction. 
Fresh  contractile  substance  must  be  constructed,  waste  products  absorbed 
and  carried  away  by  the  blood,  the  normal  alkalescence  of  the  muscle  re- 
stored, and  a  new  supply  of  nerve-power  generated.  The  same  necessity 
for  periods  of  repose  exists  even  during  the  exertion  itself  ;  intervals  of 
relaxation  are  indispensable  if  the  effort  is  to  be  continued  for  more  than 
a  very  short  time.  Indeed,  alternation  of  rest  and  activity,  or  "  rhythmic 
nutrition,"  as  Sir  James  Paget  terms  it,  appears  to  be  an  universal  law  of 
animate  nature,  traceable  in  a  great  variety  of  vital  processes,  from  the 
interrupted  movements  of  the  amoeba  to  the  larger  cycles  of  energy  seen 
in  the  diurnal  recurrence  of  sleep — which  has  been  aptly  called,  "  the 
diastole  of  the  cerebral  beat"  ^ — in  the  monthly  intervals  of  menstruation 
in  women,  and  in  the  seasonal  changes  in  the  weight  of  the  body.  Ac- 
cordingly we  find  that  those  forms  of  exertion  are  particularly  exhausting, 
in  which  the  effort  is  continuous,  or  the  intervals  of  relaxation  are  too 
brief  ;  for  example,  holding  a  weight  at  arm's  length,  or  prolonged  stand- 
ing as  compared  with  walking. 

The  symptoms  of  muscular  exhaustion,  besides  the  loss  of  power  al- 
ready mentioned,  are  the  ill-defined  sensation  called  fatigue.^  and,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  actual  j^am,  tremor,  or  cramp.  The  tremor  appears  to  be  due 
to  short,  irregular  explosions  of  muscular  force,  while  cramp  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  prolonged  tetanus  of  the  muscle  ;  both  phenomena  probably 
depend  upon  an  exaggeration  of  the  normal  irritability.  The  latter  symp- 
tom is  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  many  pedestrians,  especially  those^ 
in  whom  previous  training  has  hardened  the  muscles  of  the  thighs  and 
legs.^ 

While  muscular  exercise,  so  long  as  it  conforms  to  the  law  of  ryhthmic 
nutrition,  increases  the  bulk  and  effective  power  of  the  muscles,  long  con- 
tinued over-exertion,  on  the  other  hand,  tends  to  induce  a  condition  of 
chronic  exhaustion,  and,  in  some  instances,  even  degeneration  and  atrophy. 
These  results  are  most  frequently  seen  when  the  exertion  is  confined  to 
a  comparatively  small  group  of  muscles;  in  more  general  forms  of  exer- 
cise, prostration  usually  supervenes  before  the  full  extent  of  the  damage 
is  reached.  The  symptoms  of  chronic  muscular  exhaustion  are  of  the 
same  general  character  as  those  of  acute  fatigue,  viz.,  loss  of  power,  pain, 
cramps,  and  convulsive  movements  or  spasms.  To  this  special  class  of 
paralytic  affections,  caused  by  the  frequent  repetition  of  particular  muscu- 
lar acts,  Hammond  has  applied  the  general  term  "  anapeiratic  "  (AvaTrei/Daw,. 

'  M.  Foster,  op.  cit. 

^  The  pedestrian  Weston,  during  his  walk  under  Austin  Flint,  Jr.'s  observation, 
was  noticed  to  be  unusually  free  from  this  symptom.  Flint  ascribes  this  peculiarity 
to  the  fact  that,  both  before  and  during  the  walk,  Weston's  muscles  were  quib& 
soft. 


PHYSICAL    EXEECISE.  337 

to  do,  or  attempt  again),  but  by  most  writers  the  condition  in  question  is 
variously  designated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  occupation.  Thus,  we 
have  scrivener's  palsy ;  telegrapher's,  type-setter's,  violinist's,  pianist's,  tai- 
lor's, and  milker's  cramp;  miner's  nystagmus  in  miners  who  weaken  the 
ocular  muscles  by  working  in  the  dark;  and  hammer  or  hephfestic  palsy  in 
workmen  whose  trades  involve  the  very  frequent  use  of  the  hammer — for 
example,  scissors-making,  razor-blade  striking,  saw-straightening,  file- 
forging,  pen-blade  forging,  etc.  Dr.  Frank  Smith,'  to  whom  we  are 
chiefly  indebted  for  a  knowledge  of  the  latter  form  of  palsy,  has  made  the 
following  estimate  of  the  number  of  times  the  hammer  is  used  in  the 
daily  work  of  the  pen-blade  forger:  "  The  pen-blade  forger  uses  a  hammer 
about  three  pounds  in  weight.  A  pen-blade  receives,  in  the  process  of 
forging/ and  joining  to  the  piece  of  iron  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
haft,  on  an  average,  one  hundred  blows.  The  forger,  if  an  industrious 
man,  anxious  perhaps  to  save,  by  working  overtime,  enough  money  to 
join  a  building-society  or  to  commence  business  on  his  own  account,  will 
work  twelve  or  thirteen  hours  in  a  day.  He  will  make  as  many  as  twenty- 
four  dozen  blades  in  a  day,  and  in  so  doing  will  deliver  twenty-eight 
thousand  eight  hundred  accurate  strokes.  The  rapidity  and  accuracy  with 
which  these  blows  rain  upon  the  slender  piece  of  iron  are  wonderful  to 
the  onlooker.  Supposing  him  to  work  three  hundred  days  in  the  year, 
and  to  continue  this  for  ten  years,  he  will  in  that  period  have  delivered 
eighty-eight  million  four  hundred  thousand  strokes,  and  just  so  many  dis- 
charges of  nerve-force  will  have  occurred  in  the  motor  ganglia  which  are 
engaged  in  the  action,  and  in  the  higher  ganglia  which  calculate  the  dis- 
tance and  judge  of  the  amount  of  force  necessary  to  be  evolved." 

Under  the  head  of  "  Professional  Muscular  Atrophy,"  "^  M.  Onimus  has 
described  similar  forms  of  loss  of  muscular  power  occurring  in  occupations 
Avhich  are  usually  quite  free  from  this  risk.  One  instance  was  that  of  a 
man  employed  in  a  draper's  establishment,  where  his  business  was  to  re- 
place the  unfolded  goods  on  their  shelves;  gradually  a  most  remarkable 
atrophy  of  both  deltoid  muscles  was  developed.  In  the  case  of  "  a  work- 
man employed  in  a  tannery,  who  was  every  day  for  eleven  hours  at  work, 
and  always  felt  aching  and  fatigued  after  his  day's  labor,  there  likewise 
supervened  marked  muscular  atrophy,  confined  to  certain  muscles.  In 
order  to  prepare  the  skins  he  had  to  perform  with  both  arms  a  forward 
and  backward  movement,  which  necessitated  especially  the  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder,  so  that  these  were  the  first  to  be  affected,  and 
are  at  present  almost  completely  atrophied.  The  wasting  away  is  almost 
the  same  in  both  arms,  as  both  were  in  action  during  the  man's  work; 
whereas,  in  respect  to  the  legs,  the  right  one  alone  was  obliged  to  support 
the  whole  weight  of  the  body,  and  this  is  the  only  one  that  has  wasted; 
it  is  one-half  smaller  than  the  other,  and  the  affected  muscles  are  those 


'  "  On  HephjBstic  Hemiplegia  or  Hammer  Palsy,"  British  Medical  Journal,  Oct.  31, 
1874. 

^  Lancet,  Jan.  22,  1876. 
•      Vol.  I.— 33 


338  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

the  action  of  which  was  the  most  constant,  such  as  the  rectus  femoris, 
vastus  externus,  and  vastus  internus."  * 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  direct  results  of  excessive  muscular  exer- 
tion, there  are  certain  injuries  to  the  vascular  system  which  are  of  suffi- 
ciently common  occurrence  in  this  connection  to  require  mention.  One  of 
the  most  frequent  of  these  disturbances  is  an  obstinate  irritability  of  the 
heart,  which  can  sometimes  be  traced  to  organic  lesions,  but  is  often  due 
simply  to  a  derangement  of  innervation,  analogous  to  that  observed  in 
writer's  cramp  and  allied  affections  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  Of  the  or- 
ganic lesions,  some  are  produced  suddenly  as  results  of  increased  blood- 
pressure.  Thus,  a  single  intense  effort  may  excite  haemoptysis,  or  rupture 
one  of  the  valves  of  the  heart,  generally  the  aortic;  or  the  inner  coat  of 
the  aorta  may  be  cracked,  and  the  foundation  laid  for  aneurism  of  the 
thoracic  or  abdominal  aorta;  or,  finally,  acute  dilatation  of  one  or  both 
chambers  of  the  heart  may  take  place.  The  latter  accident  is,  doubtless, 
rare,  except  when  the  walls  have  been  weakened  by  antecedent  disease; 
but  it  is  quite  certain,  also,  that  acute  dilatation  occasionally  occurs  in 
jDersons  whose  age,  habits,  and  general  health  render  the  existence  of  de- 
generation of  the  cardiac  muscle  very  improbable.'' 

Far  more  frequently  the  damage  to  the  heart  and  aorta  is  developed 
(gradually  through  the  influence  of  repeated  overstrain.  Moderate  en- 
largement of  the  heart,  unaccompanied  by  any  of  the  lesions  described 
below,  is  obviously  not  to  be  included  among  the  pathological  results  in 
question,  since  in  persons  with  whom  severe  exertion  is  habitual  the  car- 
diac muscle  may  naturally  undergo  a  certain  degree  of  enlargement  which 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  abnormal.  The  earliest  morbid  effect  of  repeated 
cardiac  strain,  as  Clifford  AUbutt  has  shown  in  the  article  referred  to  above, 
is  usually  dilatation,  first  of  the  right  and  afterward  of  the  left  ventricle, 
either  with  or  without  compensatory  hypertrophy.  If  the  over-exertion 
be  still  continued,  valvular  and  aortic  lesions  may  ensue.  In  some  in- 
stances the  tricuspid  or  the  mitral  orifice,  or  jDcrhaps  both  orifices,  are 
Avidened  by  progressive  dilatation  of  the  cavities,  and  the  corresponding 
valves  become  incompetent.  Generally,  however,  the  aortic  valves  are  the 
first  to  suffer.  Sooner  or  later  the  irritation,  from  repeated  shocks  and 
over-stretching,  establishes  chronic  sclerotic  changes,  which  thicken  the 
valves  and  produce  stenosis.  Finally,  incompetence  is  developed,  partly 
by  these  changes,  and  partly  by  the  supervention  of  pouching  of  the  first 
portion  of  the  aorta.  Similar  degenerative  changes  take  place  in  the 
aorta  itself;  the  elastic  tissue  is  weakened  by  repeated  over-distention, 
chronic  endo-arteritis  results  from  the  continued  irritation,  and  the  walls 

'For  a  fuller  consideration  of  this  interesting  class  of  affections,  see  ''Writer's 
Cramp  and  Allied  Affections,"  Zierassen's  Cyclopaedia  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine, 
Yol.  XI.,  p.  345.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  many  of  these  affections  there  is  little  or 
no  loss  of  muscular  power,  but  rather  a  paresis  of  the  central  nervous  system,  par- 
ticularly of  that  portion  which  presides  over  the  co-o*rdination  of  the  muscles. 

-  See  particularly  the  cases  reported  by  T.  Clifford  Allbutt,  and  his  own  experience 
during  an  ascent  of  one  of  the  Alps ;   St.  George's  Hospital  Reports,  1870. 


PHYSICAL    EXEKCISE.  339 

•of  the  tube  ultimately  yield  to  the  pressure,  with  the  production  or 
pouching,  or  even  aneurism,  if  the  fragile  inner  coat  have  been  torn  by  a 
sudden  effort. 

Much  scejoticism  has  been  expressed  as  to  the  possibility  of  these  re- 
sults being  due  to  over-exertion  alone,  without  the  co-operation  of  other 
causes.  Schroetter,'  for  instance,  insists  emphatically  that  over-exertion 
is  never  the  sole  cause  of  cardiac  dilatation,  and  that  hearts  which  are  unable 
to  meet  an  increased  demand  are  for  this  very  reason  to  be  regarded  as  ab- 
abnormal — the  abnormity  consisting,  he  supposes,  in  some  tissue-change  or 
disturbance  of  innervation  which  cannot  be  recognized.  It  must  certainly 
be  admitted  that,  in  many  of  the  reported  cases  in  which  such  lesions 
have  been  ascribed  to  over-exertion,  other  influences  have  been  at  work  to 
product  tissue-degeneration,  such  as  intemperate  habits,  deficiency  of 
proper  food,  etc.  It  is  equally  true,  also,  that  the  natural  response  of  the 
healthy  cardiac  muscle  to  a  continued  demand  for  increased  work  is  hy- 
pertrophy, and  not  dilatation;  still,  this  capacity  of  adaptation  to  the 
work  required  must  have  its  limits  in  the  case  of  the  heart  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  Indeed,  when  we  consider  that  in  severe 
exertion  the  healthy  cardiac  muscle  has  a  special  obstacle  to  contend  with, 
viz.,  the  sti'etching  of  its  substance  by  the  distending  force  of  the  blood- 
mass,  the  wonder  is,  not  that  dilatation  should  ever  occur  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, but  rather  that  it  happens  so  seldom.  At  all  events,  whether 
some  morbid  antecedent  be  indispensable  or  not  in  these  cases,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  overstrain  plays  a  very  important,  even  if  subordinate, 
role  in  the  genesis  of  cardiac  disease  in  persons  who  are  habitually  subjected 
to  the  consequences  of  excessive  physical  exertion.'^ 

Obstinate  irritability  of  the  heart,  manifesting  itself  in  palpitation, 
cardiac  pain  and  increased  rapidity  of  jDulse,  has  been  frequently  noticed 
in  modern  wars  as  a  result  of  over-exertion.  Dr.  Da  Costa  ^  estimates 
that  of  all  the  cases  of  "  irritable  heart  "  reported  among  the  northern 
troops  during  the  late  war  of  the  Rebellion,  about  38  per  cent,  were  due 
to  exhaustion  induced  by  long  or  rapid  marches  and  other  forms  of  severe 
exertion.  Many  of  the  men  were,  to  be  sure,  suffering  at  the  time  from 
diarrhoea  or  other  debilitating  affections,  but  in  numerous  instances  the 
symptoms  developed  suddenly,  either  during  or  immediately  after  a  forced 
march,  without  any  evidence  of  previous  ill-health.  The  same  functional 
disorder  of  the  heart  is  by  no  means  uncommon,  also,  among  mountain- 
climbers  and  persons  who  carry  gymnastic  or  athletic  exercises  to  excess. 
The  more  serious  organic  results  of  cardiac  strain  are  naturally  encountered 
most  frequently  among  laborers  whose  work  is  of  an  habitually  severe 
character,  and  who  ai'e  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  other  causes  of  tissue- 

^  Ziemssen's  Cyclopsedia  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  Vol.  "VI.,  p.  201. 

-  Cf.  Johannes  Seitz  :  Zur  Lehre  von  Ueberaustrengung  des  Herzens,  Archiv  fiir 
M.  Medic-.,  Bd.  XI.  u.  XII.,  1873-'74 ;  also,  Ludwig  Hirt  :  Die  Krankheiten  der  Ar- 
beiter,  zweiter  Abtheil,  Aeussere  Krankheiten,  p.  61,  Leipzig,  1878. 

^  On  Irritable  Heart :  a  Clinical  Study  of  a  Form  of  Functional  Cardiac  Disorder 
smd  its  Consequences,  The  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  January,  1871. 


340  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

degeneration,  intemperance,  foul  air,  and  improper  diet — as,  for  example, 
coal-heavers,  forgemen,  longshoremen,  heavy  porters,  miners,  etc.  Thus^ 
Dr,  Peacock '  states  that  cardiac  affections  (dilatation  and  mitral  insuffi- 
ciency) are  very  prevalent  among  the  workmen  in  some  of  the  tin  and 
copper  mines  of  Cornwall,  England,  where  the  men,  after  working  for 
eight  hours  in  an  impure  atmosphere,  have  to  spend  an  hour  or  more  in 
climbing  ladders  to  reach  the  surface,  this  effort  always  producing  exhaus- 
tion, dyspnea,  and  violent  beating  of  the  heart.  In  the  Northumberland 
and  Durham  lead-mines,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  men  are  brought 
up  from  their  work  by  machinery,  although  the  air  is  equally  impure,  the- 
miners  do  not  suffer  from  heart  disease  more  frequently  than  workmen 
above  ground.  According  to  Milnzinger  ^  also,  the  marked  prevalence  of 
hypertrophy  and  other  cardiac  affections  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tubingen 
is  to  be  ascribed  chiefly  to  the  practice  of  carrying  heavy  burdens  up  the 
mountains  of  that  region.  The  same  organic  results  of  overstrain  of  the 
vascular  system  occur  with  special  frequency  in  professional  pedestrians, 
particularly  long-distance  runners;  in  fact,  these  persons  are  a  proverbially 
unhealthy  and  short-lived  race,  and  most  of  them  ultimately  break  down 
if  the  profession  be  followed  long  enough  to  develop  its  full  consequences. 
The  long-distance  pedestrian  performances  which  have  become  so  popu- 
lar of  late  in  England  and  this  country,  as  well  as  all  other  exhibitions  of 
mere  endurance  which  involve  an  unnecessary  and  wasteful  expenditure 
of  the  reserve  forces  that  nature  has  wisely  provided  for  emergencies,  can- 
not be  too  severely  reprobated.  The  whole  movement  is  a  morbid  phase 
of  athleticism,  and  tends  to  breed  a  class  of  individuals  who,  equally  with 
the  professional  athletes  of  ancient  Greece,  deserve  the  reproach  of  Eu- 
ripides, of  being  "  useless  and  injurious  members  of  the  State." 

It  remains  to  be  considered  how  far  this  indictment  against  the  viola- 
tion of  the  laws  of  muscular  and  nervous  action  will  apply  to  the  severe 
athletic  exercises  at  present  in  vogue,  especially  boat-racing.  In  this, 
country  the  cases  of  injury  from  rowing  have  not  been  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  attract  the  general  attention  of  the  medical  profession;  but  in 
England,  where  boat-racing  is  carried  to  an  extent  unknown  with  us,  the 
subject  has  excited  much  discussion.  The  controversy  was  begun  in  1867 
in  the  London  Times,  by  a  communication  from  the  late  Mr.  Skey,  in 
which  boat-racing  was  arraigned  as  a  most  injurious  form  of  exercise,  in- 
volving serious  consequences  to  health  either  at  the  time  or  in  after-life. 
In  a  subsequent  communication  Dr.  Hope  made  the  alarming  statement 
that  the  severe  exercise  of  boat-racing  is  a  more  effective  cause  of  heart 
disease  than  any  other  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  rheumatism  not  ex- 
cepted. These  serious  charges  called  out  several  replies  at  the  time,  and 
in  1873  the  whole  subject  of  the  influence  of  severe  athletic  exercises  was. 


'  On  Some  of  the  Causes  and  Effects  of  Valvular  Diseases  of  the  Heart,  London,. 
1865. 

^  Das  Tiibinger  Herz  :  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Lehre  von  der  Ueberanstrengung  des  Herzens, 
Deutsches  Archiv  filr  klinische  Medicin,  XIX.,  5,  pp.  449  ff.,  1877. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  341 

thoroughly  reviewed  at  a  session  of  the  London  Clinical  Society.'  In 
tlie  same  year  Dr.  Morgan,  of  Manchester,  published  the  results  of  his  in- 
vestigations into  the  after-health  of  all  the  persons  who  had  rowed  in  the 
annual  Oxford-Cambridge  boat-race  between  the  years  1829  and  1869. ** 
This  inquiry,  which  involved  a  very  extensive  correspondence  for  nearly 
four  years,  showed  that  out  of  the  entire  number  of  contestants  (294), 
only  seventeen  instances  were  reported  in  which  injurious  consequences 
were  ascribed  to  the  exertion  in  question.  Not  a  single  case  is  mentioned 
of  that  rapidly  fatal  farm  of  heart  disease  which  is  occasionally  seen  as  a 
result  of  over-exertion  in  the  laboring  classes.  The  details  of  these  sup- 
posed cases  of  injury  are  too  long  to  be  given  here  in  full;  it  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  during  the  entire  period  referred  to  there  were  only  three 
deaths  from  heart  disease,  and  nine  from  consumption  and  other  affections 
of  the  chest — a  small  mortality  compared  with  the  average  rates  for  the 
whole  community.  Among  the  survivors,  one  mentions  an  attack  of  chronic 
pneumonia  of  right  apex  following  a  cold  caught  while  rowing  thirty 
years  previously;  another  reports  himself,  twenty  years  after  graduation, 
as  suffering  from  cardiac  hypertrophy  and  dilatation;  another  of  about 
the  same  age  complains  of  a  weak,  irritable  heart,  which  inca^^acitates  him 
from  ordinary  employments;  another  mentions  a  purulent  inflammation 
of  the  elbow-joint,  caused  by  an  accident  in  rowing;  while  three  instances 
are  reported  of  what  appears  to  have  been  a  breaking-down  of  the  general 
health  on  passing  from  a  very  active  to  a  sedentary  life.  This  list  of  in- 
juries, even  if  we  admit  that  they  were  all  due  to  the  cause  assigned,  is 
certainly  not  a  formidable  one,  and  is  probably  not  much  larger  than  could 
be  found  in  an  equal  number  of  men  engaged  in  other  active  forms  of  ex- 
ercise. Still,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  contestants  in  the  inter- 
university  race  were  picked  men,  who  had  been  carefully  trained,  and  that 
if  similar  data  could  be  obtained  for  the  numerous  college  and  "  scratch  " 
races,  in  which  inferior  men  often  take  part  without  proper  preparation, 
the  percentage  of  evil  results  would  quite  likely  be  considerably  higher. 
"When  we  consider,  however,  the  very  large  number  of  men  in  England, 
who,  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  are  almost  constantly  en- 
gaged in  boat-racing,  it  is  surprising  that  so  few  clear  cases  of  injury 
have  been  reported,  if  boat-racing  were  really  as  dangerous  as  the  alarmists 
would  have  us  suppose.  At  the  same  time  it  is  none  the  less  certain 
that  boat-racing  involves  a  severe  strain  upon  the  vascular  system,  and 
that  no  one  can  safely  engage  in  such  a  contest  unless  he  be  in  vigorous 
health  at  the  time,  and  have  specially  prepared  himself  for  it  by  careful 
training. 

A  single  suggestion  may  be  allowed,  in  conclusion,  in  regard  to  the 
regulation  of  the  violent  athletic  sports  at  our  own  colleges  ;  we  say  regu- 
lation, because,  for  many  reasons  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enumerate 
here,  the  abolition  of  such  exercises  seems  undesirable.  It  is  easy  to  fore- 
see, however,  from  the  rapidly  increasing  number  of  young  men  at  our  in- 

'  See  British  Medical  Journal,  March  15,  1873.  *  Op.  cit. 


342  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

stitutions  of  learning  who  engage  in  these  severe  sports,  that  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  reports  of  injury  will  become  more  numerous,  unless 
measures  are  taken  to  diminish  the  danger.  It  is  entirely  feasible,  at  all 
the  larger  institutions  at  least,  to  place  these  pastimes  under  the  general 
supervision  of  a  medical  officer  of  the  college,  who  shall  have  power  to 
examine  all  candidates  for  positions  on  racing  crews  and  foot-ball  teams, 
and  to  reject  any  one  who  appears  to  be  unfitted  for  the  place  by  reason 
of  actual  disease  or  natural  delicacy  of  organization.  The  duties  of  such 
an  officer  should  be  limited  to  matters  directly  involving  the  question  of 
health,  and  other  details  left  to  the  students  themselves.  A  responsible 
medical  opinion,  thus  restricted,  would  undoubtedly  be  willingly  recog- 
nized by  the  young  men,  while  the  college  authorities,  in  providing  such 
a  safeguard,  would  j^erform  a  duty  which  they  certainly  owe,  but  have 
hitherto  very  generally  neglected. 


GYMNASTIC   AXD    ATHLETIC    EXEECISES. 

.Historical  Sk-etch. 

Bodily  exercises,  either  in  the  form  of  pastimes,  or  as  a  preparation 
for  war  or  for  the  chase,  were  probably  practised  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent by  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  Descriptions  of  such  exercises 
among  the  ancient  Persians  and  Egyptians  are  given  by  Strabo,  Diodorus, 
Herodotus,  and  other  writers  ;  but  systematic  physical  training,  as  a 
necessary  part  of  popular  education,  is  first  met  with  among  the  Greeks. 
Even  in  the  heroic  age  of  Greek  history  athletic  games  had  assumed  con- 
siderable prominence.  The  heroes  of  Homer  wrestle,  cast  the  discus,  and 
engage  in  foot  and  chariot  races;  but  these  games  have  not  yet  become  a 
fixed  institution,  and  the  gymnasium  is  unknown.  The  remarkable  de- 
velopment of  physical  culture  which  appears  later,  begins  with  the  Dori- 
ans, a  hardy  race,  who  invade  the  Peloponnesus,  and  establish  them- 
selves in  the  midst  of  a  niimerous  hostile  population,  which  they  are 
able  to  keep  in  subjection  only  by  maintaining  the  most  rigid  discipline 
among  themselves.  In  Sparta,  particularly,  where  the  odds  are  ten  to 
one  against  the  invaders,  everything  is  subordinated  to  military  efficiency. 
The  training  begins  even  in  infancy.  As  soon  as  the  child  is  able  to 
walk,  it  is  taught  to  use  its  limbs  vigorously,  and  its  body  is  hardened  by 
light  clothing  and  exposure.  After  five  years  of  age  boys  are  instructed 
in  the  pyrrhica,  a  mimic  contest,  with  movements  of  defence  and  attack 
resembling  those  of  actual  combat;  and  in  the  "anapale,"  a  contest  of 
wrestling  and  boxing.  The  boy  is  now  a  military  pupil,  and  from  this 
time  onward  through  youth  and  manhood,  luitil  he  is  incapacitated  by 
disease  or  old  age,  his  time  is  spent  in  a  constant  discipline  of  his  physi- 
cal powers.  Family  life  is  unknown.  The  children  are  brought  up  in 
common,  and  at  seven  years  of  age  the  boys  are  enrolled  in  companies, 
mess  together  on  a  very  meagre  fare,  and  throughout  life  exercise  twice 
daily  in  the  gymnasium  or  on  the  parade-ground.     In  order  to  secure  a 


PHYSICAL    EXEPwClSE.  343 

vigorous  progeny,  girls  and  young  women  are  subjected  to  a  similar, 
though  less  severe  training,  which  includes  running,  leaping,  wrestling, 
and  throwing  the  lance.  The  time  of  marriage  is  regulated  by  law,  and 
marital  intercourse  allowed  only  under  circumstances  most  favorable  for 
begetting  healthy  children.  The  whole  system,  in  short,  is  that  of  stock- 
breeders, and  produces  a  degree  of  physical  perfection  that  is  possible 
only  under  the  most  careful  selection  and  culture.  "  The  Spartans,"  says 
Xenophon,  "  are  the  healthiest  of  all  the  Greeks,  and  among  them  are 
found  the  finest  men  and  the  handsomest  women  of  Greece."  Moreover, 
such  a  body  of  trained  athletes  are  found  to  be  invincible  in  war  ;  Sparta 
needs  no  walls  besides  the  valor  of  her  citizens,  and  in  time  acquires  such 
an  ascendency  in  Greece  as  to  dictate  terms  and  furnish  generals  to  her 
rivals. 

A  system  capable  of  such  results  is  natvirally  copied  in  many  of  its 
most  important  features  by  the  Ionian  States,  particularly  Athens  ;  but 
here  the  training  is  no  longer  exclusively  physical  ;  the  culture  of  the 
mind  is  added  to  that  of  the  body,  and  the  two  disciplines  are  happily 
blended  into  what  may  be  regarded  as  in  many  respects  the  most  perfect 
system  of  popular  education  the  world  has  ever  seen.  This  method  ulti- 
mately becomes  the  model  for  all  Greece. 

The  Greek  gymnasium,  as  it  existed  during  the  best  period  of  Grecian 
civilization,  was  a  unique  institution.  It  was  not  merely  a  training- 
school  for  the  young,  but  a  resort  for  citizens  of  all  ages,  where  philoso- 
phy, arts,  and  the  sciences  were  cultivated  in  connection  with  a  discipline 
of  the  bodily  powers.  In  time  the  institution  became  universal  throughout 
Greece  and  her  colonies;  every  city  had  its  gymnasium,  or  perhaps  more 
than  one,  and  Pausanias  speaks  of  it  as  a  sign  by  which  a  Greek  city 
could  always  be  recognized.  x\ll  the  appointments  were  of  the  most  at- 
tractive character.  The  gymnasium  consisted  of  a  large  square  enclosed 
by  walls,  situated,  when  possible,  near  a  stream  to  afford  bathing  facili- 
ties; planted  with  plane-trees  for  shade,  and  decorated  with  works  of 
art  to  cultivate  the  sense  of  beauty  and  ins23ire  ambition  by  the  example 
of  heroes.  A  portion  of  the  ground  was  covered  by  a  roof  for  protection 
in  winter,  and  the  larger  gymnasia  contained  numerous  buildings  devoted 
to  various  purposes.  Within  the  enclosure  was  room  for  ball-play  and  a 
running  course,  a  stadium  (600  feet)  in  circumference,  covered  with  sand 
to  make  the  running  more  difficult,  and  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre 
for  spectators. 

The  exercises  .were  very  numerous,  and  varied  somewhat  in  different 
localities:  but  five  of  them,  which  were  called  the  peyitathlon — running, 
leaping,  wrestling,  casting  the  discus,  and  hurling  the  lance — were  every- 
where practised,  and  formed  the  favorite  contests  at  the  national  games. 
1^}\Q  foot-race  appears  to  have  been  the  favorite  contest,  the  length  of  the 
short  races  being  usually  a  single  or  double  circuit  of  the  course  (200  or 
400  yards),  while  the  "  long  run  "  measured  twenty  stadia,  a  little  more 
than  two  and  a  half  miles.  We  have  no  record  of  the  actual  speed  at 
which  these  races  were  run ;  indeed,  the  common  practice  of  covering  the 


344  PHYSICAL    EXEECISE. 

track  with  sand  would  render  such  a  record,  even  if  we  possessed  one, 
useless  for  comparison  with  modern  performances.  The  apparently  mar- 
vellous reports  of  speed  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us,  such  as  the 
catching-  of  a  hare  in  full  speed,  and  defeating  a  horse  in  a  racing  match, 
would  certainly  be  more  satisfactory,  if  we  had  any  means  for  judging  of 
the  performances  of  the  hare  and  the  horse. 

Leapinfj  was  also  a  very  popular  exercise,  and  was  especially  valued 
for  its  usefulness  in  military  service.  The  broad  jump  was  practised  most 
frequently,  and  generally  with  the  aid  of  weights.  An  inscription  on  a 
statue  erected  to  Phayllos  by  his  native  city,  Crotona,  records  a  broad 
leap  of  fifty-five  feet,  but  whether  artificial  aid  was  employed  or  not  is 
not  stated.  The  broadest  running  leap  officially  recorded  in  modern 
times  was  twenty-nine  feet  seven  inches,  but  this  was  accomplished  with 
the  aid  of  five-pound  dumb-bells,  and  from  an  elevation  of  four  inches. 
Unless  Phayllos  made  use  of  some  assistance  unknow^n  to  modern  times, 
the  story  may  safely  be  regarded  as  apocryphal. 

Casting  the  discus  has  no  exact  parallel  among  athletic  exercises  of  the 
present  day;  but  the  famous  statue  of  "  The  Discobolus,"  by  the  Athenian 
sculptor  Myron,  supplies  us  with  a  striking  representation  of  the  attitude 
of  the  disk-thrower.  The  body,  bent  forward,  and  turned  slightly  to  the 
right,  rests  upon  the  right  leg,  the  left  foot  being  raised  from  the  ground 
and  carried  behind  the  right  one:  the  left  hand  grasps  the  right  thigh 
just  above  the  knee  in  order  to  steady  the  position,  while  the  right  arm, 
extended  almost  horizontally  backward,  is  about  to  make  the  cast.  In 
this  movement, -as  we  know  from  other  sources,  the  arm  swept  downward 
through  a  semicircle,  and  delivered  the  revolving  disk  at  about  an  angle 
of  45  degrees  to  the  horizon,  the  athlete  springing  forward  at  the  same  in- 
stant. The  discus  was  a  circular  plate  of  stone  or  iron,  ten  or  twelve 
inches  in  diameter,  and  sometimes  perforated  at  the  centre  for  the  passage 
of  a  thong  to  aid  in  grasping;  but  usually  no  such  assistance  was  used, 
the  smooth  plate  being  simply  held  in  the  hand,  which  had  previously  been 
thoroughly  rubbed  with  dust.  The  weight  of  the  discus  is  uncertain; 
probably  it  varied  at  different  times  and  in  different  localities,  Phayllos, 
the  celebrated  Grotonian  athlete,  to  whom,  as  we  have  previously  seen,  a 
statue  was  erected  by  his  fellow-citizens,  was  said  to  have  cast  a  discus, 
weighing  eigJit  pounds,  ninety-five  feet.  The  remaining  games  of  the 
pentathlon — wrestling  and  hurling  the  lance — need  no  special  description. 

Besides  these  and  a  few  other  exercises,  such  as  games  of  ball,  swim- 
ming, etc.,  all  of  which  formed  a  part  of  Greek  education,  and  were 
participated  in  by  the  citizens  generally,  there  were  certain  contests  which 
were  gradually  monopolized  by  a  class  of  professional  athletes,  who  de- 
voted their  lives  to  the  severe  training  required.  The  most  important  of 
these  contests  consisted  in  pugilism,  the  jyankration — a  combination  of 
wrestling  and  boxing — and  the  combat  with  the  cestus,  a  formidable 
gauntlet  of  leather,  sometimes  loaded  with  lead  or  iron,  which  was  bound 
to  the  hand  and  arm  by  thongs.  During  the  later  period  of  Greek 
history  (400-300  B.C.),  all  the  exercises  of  the  national  games  fell  into  the 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  «jJ:5 

hands  of  this  professional  class,  and  a  distinction  arose  similar  to  that 
between  the  "  professionals  "  and  "  amateurs  "  of  our  own  day.  Those 
who  spent  their  time  exclusively  in  training-  for,  and  competing  in,  public 
games  for  prizes,  were  known  as  athletre  [aOXa,  a  prize),  as  distinguished 
from  the  agonistai,  or  those  who  took  part  in  the  competitive  exercises  of 
the  gymnasium  simply  for  the  sake  of  physical  culture.  ^  The  withdrawal 
of  the  better  class  of  citizens  from  the  public  games,  and  the  growth  of 
luxury  in  the  cities  of  Greece,  in  time  produced  their  natural  results. 
The  gymnastic  art  gradually  disappeared  from  the  system  of  public  edu- 
cation, and  the  national  games,  although  continued  long  after  the  in- 
creasing effeminacy  of  the  people  had  resulted  in  the  downfall  of  Greek 
independence,  steadily  degenerated  into  brutal  combats  or  exhibitions  of 
trivial  feats  of  skill. 

The  careful  attention  paid  by  the  Greeks  to  the  hygienic  details  of  ex- 
ercise deserves  a  brief  notice.  As  clothing  was  unnecessary,  and  even  in- 
convenient, in  the  mild  climate  of  Greece,  during  bodily  exertion,  the  single 
garment  called  the  ^wtr/xa,  a  short  pair  of  drawers,  which  was  originally 
worn  in  the  gymnasium,  was  after  a  time  discarded,  first  by  the  Spartans, 
and  afterward  by  all  the  Greeks,  though  at  Athens  complete  nudity  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  the  invariable  rule.  At  the  public  games,  con- 
tests in  wrestling,  boxing,  and  the  pancration  were  fought  by  naked  com- 
batants, and  after  the  32d  Olympiad  nudity  was  required  also  of  contes- 
tants in  the  foot-race."  Before  exercise  was  begun  the  body  of  the 
gymnast  was  oiled  and  covered  with  dust  and  sand,  partly  to  protect  the 
skin  from  injury  and  from  the  chilliness  of  the  air,  partly  to  lessen  per- 
spiration, the  loss  of  which  was  supposed  to  diminish  strength,  and  partly 
TO  afford  contestants  a  better  hold  in  wrestling.  After  exercise  in  the  sun, 
the  dusty  body  was  cleansed  in  a  cold  bath,  thoroughly  scraped  with  a  stri- 
gil,  and  again  salved  with  oil,  the  result  being  a  firm,  brown,  glossy  skin — 
a  healthy  tissue  indicative  of  the  general  vigor  of  the  body.     The  dis- 

'  The  term  "athletic  sports,"  which  was  adopted  in  England  about  twenty  years 
ago  to  distinguish  amateur  from  professional  contests,  is  clearly  a  misnomer,  so  far  as 
it  is  based  u^jon  G-reek  nomenclature.  The  amateur  contests  of  the  present  day  are 
"  agonistic,"  but  the  former  term  is  perhaps  justifiable,  as  it  seems  to  be  the  only  one 
available.  Its  present  use  is  a  curious  illustration,  however,  of  the  way  in  which 
words  ultimately  become  distorted  from  their  original  meaning. 

-  Although  the  frequent  contemplation  of  the  nude  male  form  undoubtedly  favored 
to  a  very  important  degree  the  development  of  Greek  art,  the  moral  influence  of  the 
custom  was  disastrous  ;  at  least,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  prevalence  of  paederasty 
among  the  Greeks  was  chiefly  due  to  this  cause.  The  extraordinary  influence  which 
this  unnatural  passion  exerted  over  cultivated  as  well  as  debased  minds  during  the 
best  period  of  Greek  civilization,  may  be  studied  in  The  Symposium  and  The  Laws  of 
Plato  (Jowett's  translation.  Vols.  I.,  IV.) ;  the  8th  chapter  of  Xenophon's  Symposium  ; 
the  third  oration  of  Lysias  (Uphs  Xiixwa) ;  ^schines'  oration  against  Timarchus;  Lu- 
cian's  Am  ores,  and  the  thirteenth  book  of  Athen^us.  The  subject  is  fully  treated  by  M. 
Maury  :  Hist,  des  Religions  de  la  Grece antique,  Tome  III.,  pp.  35-39.  With  regard  to 
the  pui'ely  Platonic  attachments,  which  were  also  common  between  individuals  of  the 
male  sex  all  through  historical  Greece,  see  J.  P.  Mahaffy  :  Social  Life  in  Greece,  Lon- 
don, 1874,  pp.  305-313.) 


346  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

pirited  army  of  Agesllaus  needed  only  the  sight  of  the  soft,  white  skins  of 
the  Persian  prisoners,  who  had  been  stripped  in  its  presence,  to  revive  its 
courage  and  excite  its  derision  of  the  foe  it  had  needlessly  feared. 

As  regards  the  preparation  required  of  those  who  took  part  in  the 
national  games,  the  most  remarkable  feature  was  its  thoroughness.  All 
competitors  at  the  Olympic  games  were  obliged  to  swear  that  for  ten  months 
previously  they  had  faithfully  gone  through  all  the  preparatory  exercises 
prescribed  by  the  laws,  and  had  practised  for  the  last  thirty  days  in  the  gym- 
nasium at  Elis.  Besides  the  obligatory  exercises,  others  were  also  employed 
to  develop  particular  muscles  or  to  strengthen  the  entire  frame,  such  as 
carrying  heavy  loads,  lifting  heavy  weights,  striking  at  sand-bags,  etc.  For 
the  education  of  an  athlete,  training  was  commonly  begun  in  boyhood,  and 
was  continued  without  any  legal  limit,  except  in  the  case  of  uniformly 
unsuccessful  contestants,  who  were  debarred  from  further  competition 
after  thirty-five  years  of  age,  beyond  which  time  improvement  was  re- 
garded as  hopeless.  The  training  diet  differed  at  different  points.  At  first 
it  was  restricted  to  new  cheese,  dried  figs,  and  wheat-bread  or  boiled 
grains;  afterward  meat,  generally  beef  or  i3ork,  was  allowed,  but  only  at 
dinner.  No  restriction,  however,  was  placed  upon  the  amount  of  food, 
and  excesses  in  eating  appear  to  have  been  common,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  apoplexy  among  the  Greek  athletes.  The  ac- 
count given  by  Athen^us  of  the  enormous  quantity  of  food  daily  con- 
sumed by  Milo — twenty  pounds  of  meat,  twenty  pounds  of  bread,  and 
fifteen  pints  of  wine — is,  of  course,  grossly  exaggerated;  but  it  is  at  least 
indirect  evidence  that  the  Greek  system  of  training,  like  many  of  the  so- 
called  systems  of  the  present  day,  was  more  scrupulous  about  the  quality 
than  about  the  quantity  of  the  diet. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  alliance  of  physical  with  mental  culture, 
which  characterized  the  Greek  gymnasium  in  its  best  days,  was  unknown ; 
but  military  gymnastics  were  always  cultivated  with  much  enthusiasm, 
until  the  general  spirit  of  luxury  during  the  later  empire  finally  spread  to 
the  army  itself,  and  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  severe  martial  train- 
ing which  had  made  the  Roman  legions  the  terror  of  the  world.  These  ar- 
duous exercises  were  shared  by  the  officers.  Marius  was  said  never  to  have 
missed  a  day  at  the  Campus  Martins;  and  Pompey,  as  we  are  informed  by 
Sallust,  was  able  to  compete  in  feats  of  skill  and  endurance  Avith  any 
soldier  of  his  army.  The  youths  of  patrician  families  likewise  practised 
athletic  exercises — foot-races,  wrestling,  hurling  the  lance,  horseback- 
riding,  and  swimming — but  merely  as  a  preparation  for  military  service; 
indeed,  the  martial  passion  of  the  Roman  nation  during  its  long  career  of 
conquest  naturally  directed  the  jDractice  of  bodily  exercises  into  this  prac- 
tical channel,  rather  than  to  competitive  exhibitions  such  as  were  common 
in  Greece.  On  the  introduction  of  Greek  customs,  however,  after  the 
subjection  of  this  country  to  Roman  rule,  public  contests  became  popular, 
but  soon  degenerated  into  the  bloody  gladiatorial  combats,  to  which  the 
moral  ruin  of  the  nation  is  to  be  largely  ascribed. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  gymnastic  art  gradually  dis- 


PHYSICAL    EXEECISE.  -  34T 

appeared  from  civilized  Europe,  but  was  still  cultivated  in  a  rude  fashion 
among  the  hardy  Teutonic  tribes  of  the  north,  whose  warlike  games  had 
been  described  by  Tacitus  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The^ 
knights  of  the  Nibelungenlied,  like  the  Homeric  heroes, 

"Hurl  the  stone  tempestuous,  and  dart  the  whizzing  spear," 

but  they  also  engage  in  contests  on  horseback,  a  custom  in  which  we  can 
trace  the  origin  of  the  tournaments  of  the  middle  ages.  The  women,  also, 
as  in  Sparta,  were  inured  to  bodily  exertion,  and  not  only  frequently  ac- 
companied their  husbands  upon  warlike  expeditions,  but  also,  in  some 
instances,  exhibited  the  most  daring  personal  bravery,  as  in  the  battle  at 
Aqu£e  Sextire.'  After  society  became  organized  under  the  feudal  system,, 
and  particularly  after  the  increase  of  city  life,  the  practice  of  warlike 
games  declined  among  the  commonalty,  but  still  survived  for  several  cen- 
turies in  the  tournaments  of  the  nobility,  an  institution  which.  Gibbon 
says,  "  impartial  taste  must  prefer  to  the  Olympic  games  of  classic  an- 
tiquity." Finally,  the  institution  of  chivalry  itself  succumbed,  in  turn,, 
under  the  radical  changes  in  warfare  effected  by  the  development  of  scien- 
tific tactics,  which  made  infantry  superior  to  cavalry,  and  by  the  discovery 
of  gunpowder,  which  diminished  the  importance  of  individual  prowess. 

Although  the  abandonment  of  military  gymnastics  was  in  part  com- 
pensated by  the  continued  practice  of  various  exercises  and  games,  which 
still  retained  their  popularity  among  nations  of  Teutonic  origin,  and,  to  a 
less  degree,  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  where  the  Germanic  tribes  had 
established  themselves  during  a  considerable  period  as  a  conquering  race,, 
the  interest  awakened  in  the  institutions  of  ancient  society  by  the  Renais- 
sance in  time  directed  attention  to  the  importance  of  a  more  systematic 
physical  education  for  the  young.*  A  return  to  Hellenic  gymnastics  was 
vigorously  advocated  by  the  German  reformers  Luther  arid  Melancthon, 
as  well  as  by  the  Swiss  Zwingli,  but  without  much  practical  result,  except 
the  introduction  of  physical  exercises  into  a  few  schools  and  colleges 
established  by  their  pupils.  From  time  to  time  similar  views  were  pre- 
sented by  other  writers;  Camerarius,  of  Bamberg,  in  his  Rules  of  Life 
for  Boys  (about  1540);  Mercurialis,  a  few  years  later,  in  a  work,  De  arte 
gymnastica  ;  Montaigne,  in  his  admirable  essay  on  The  Education  of 
Children  (1580)  ;  Locke,  in  his  Thoughts  concerning  Education  (1693)  ; 
and  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  in  his  Emilius  (1732),  one  o'f  the  seminal 
works  of  literature,  to  which,  with  all  its  faults,  modern  education  owes  a 
deep  debt  of  gratitude.     In  France,  Rousseau's  educational  theories  pro- 

'  The  reader  of  the  old  German  epic,  "  The  Fall  of  the  Nibelungers,"  will  recall 
the  couditious  upon  which  "Good  King  Gunther"  won  the  hand  of  the  fierce  bub 
beautiful  Scandinavian  maiden,  Brunhild,  viz.,  that,  at  the  peril  of  his  life,  he  should 
vanquish  her  in  hurling  the  spear,  casting  the  stone,  and  leaping  after  the  stone  as  it 
was  thrown  ;  also,  how  he  succeeded  only  with  the  assistance  of  his  nolile  friend  Sieg- 
fried, and  was  again  obliged  to  invoke  the  latter's  services,  after  the  mruTiage,  to  sub- 
due the  refractory  bride. 

^  For  an  excellent  account  of  the  rise  of  modern  gymnastics,  see  :  An  Essay  on  the 
Systematic  Training  of  the  Body,  by  0.  H.  Schaible,  M.D.,  London,  1878. 


34:8  *         PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

cluced  a  profound  impression,  but  led  to  no  immediate  general  reform,  as 
the  education  of  the  young  was  at  that  time  almost  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy.  In  Germany,  however,  where  a  movement  towards 
greater  naturalness  and  freedom  in  education  was  already  in  progress, 
Rousseau's  ideas  were  enthusiastically  welcomed  by  a  few  educational 
reformers,  Basedow,  Campe,  Pestalozzi,  and  Salzmann,  who  introduced 
physical  exercises  into  the  curriculum  of  the  schools  under  their  charge. 
At  Salzmann's  institution,  in  Thuringia,  gymnastics  were  systematically 
taught  by  the  celebrated  Gutsmuths,  the  author  of  several  works  on 
physical  education,  the  last  one  being  his  Turnbuch  (1818),  The  result 
of  the  plan  adopted  at  this  school  was  seen  in  the  remarkable  health  of 
the  boys,  since  not  a  single  death  occurred  during  a  period  of  thirty-two 
years  among  the  334  pupils  who  had  been  educated  there.  Gymnastics 
never  became  popularized  in  Germany,  however,  until  after  the  humilia- 
tion inflicted  upon  this  nation  by  Napoleon,  when  a  vigorous  movement 
in  favor  of  physical  education  was  initiated  by  Frederick  Ludwig  Jahn, 
affectionately  known  by  his  countrymen  as  "  Vater  Jahn."  His  famous 
gymnasium,  or  Turnplatz,  at  Berlin,  was  established  as  early  as  1811; 
two  years  afterward  he  left  it  to  enter  the  army  against  Napoleon,  and 
in  1816  returned  to  Berlin,  where,  in  connection  with  his  pupil  Eisilen,  he 
published  his  famous  work,  Deutsche  Turnkunst.  The  importance  of 
Jahn's  services  to  the  cause  of  physical  education,  particularly  in  Ger- 
many, cannot  well  be  overestimated.  He  greatly  enlarged  and  improved 
the  hitherto  im]Derfect  system  of  exercises  by  the  introduction  of  horizon- 
tal and  parallel  bars,  and  other  new  apj)aratus,  and  organized  numerous 
gymnastic  societies,  or  Turnvereine,  which,  notwithstanding  their  re- 
peated suppression  by  the  government  for  political  causes,  have  done 
valuable  work  in  maintaining  a  high  standard  of  physical  culture  in  Ger- 
many. In  1844  several  States  of  the  German  Confederation  j^assed  de- 
crees introducing  gymnastics  into  all  educational  institutions,  and  central 
schools  of  gymnastics  were  soon  afterward  established  for  the  education 
of  teachers  of  the  art.'  At  the  same  time  a  modified  system  of  exercises, 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  military  service,  was  adopted  by  the  Prus- 
sian government  for  the  training  of  army  recruits,  and  this  system  is  now 
employed  for  all  the  armies  of  the  German  Empire,  As  three  years  of 
personal  service  in  the  ranks  is  exacted  of  all  able-bodied  citizens  after 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  it  will  be  seen  that  almost  the  entire  male 
population  of  Germany  enjoys  the  advantages  of  a  systematic  physical 
education  at  a  period  of  life  when  such  training  cannot  but  be  extremely 
valuable. 

In  Switzerland  a  similar  popular  movement  was  begun  about  1815,  by 
Clias,  professor  of  gymnastics  in  the  Academy  of  Berne.^  Soon  after- 
ward  gymnastics  were  introduced  into  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the 

1  The  central  gymnastic  school  of  Prussia  was  established  at  Berlin  in  1847. 

^  Clias  was  the  author  of  two  important  works  on  gymnastics :  Anfangsgriinde 
der  G-ymnastik  oler  Tarnkunst  (1816),  and  Elementary  Course  of  Gymnastic  Exer- 
cises (London,  1825). 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  849 

country,  and  were  thoroughly  taught  at  the  national  training-schools  for 
teachers,  so  that  the  primary  schools  were  kept  well  supplied  with  capable 
instructors  of  the  art.  Numerous  gymnastic  societies  were  organized  in 
all  the  cantons,  and  in  1832  these  societies  were  united  into  the  Swiss 
Gymnastic  Association,  which  held  annual  celebrations,  and  included  in 
its  membership  all  classes  of  the  community.  By  a  law  passed  in  1849, 
gymnastic  exercises  were  made  obligatory  in  all  educational  institutions. 

In  Denmark,  a  gymnasium  was  opened  as  early  as  1799,  by  Nachtigall, 
through  whose  influence  gymnastics  soon  became  popular  throughout  the 
kingdom.  The  labors  of  Ling  at  about  the  same  time,  in  Sweden,  were 
less  successful,  though  after  several  years'  delay  they  were  finally  recog- 
nized by  the  government,  and  a  Central  Academy  of  Gymnastics  was  es- 
tablished in  1814  at  Stockholm.  Ling's  system  of  free  exercises  was 
radically  defective,  however,  in  being  based  on  a  wrong  conception  of  the 
true  function  of  muscular  exercise.  He  failed  to  see  that  the  full  benefits 
of  exercise  are  not  obtained  unless  the  muscular  contractions  are  suffi- 
ciently energetic  to  produce  a  decided  impression  upon  the  vascular  and 
respiratory  systems — a  result  very  imperfectly  attained  by  his  ing-enious 
system  of  mere  movements  of  the  body  and  limbs.  His  system  of  passive 
movements  for  invalids,  however,  has  proved  to  be  a  valuable  addition  to 
therapeutics. 

The  application  of  gymnastic  exercises  to  the  treatment  of  disease  had 
before  this  time  been  advocated  in  France  by  C  J.  Tissot,  a  physician  of 
some  prominence,  in  a  work  entitled  Gymnastique  Medicale  (1781).  The 
introduction  of  the  gymnastic  art  into  that  country  dates,  however,  from 
the  second  decade  of  the  present  century,  when  a  popular  interest  in  the 
subject  was  awakened  by  Clias  and  Col.  F.  Amoros,'  and  gymnastics 
were  gradually  adopted  by  educational  institutions,  and  finally  by  the 
g'overnment  for  the  training  of  army  recruits.^  The  French  system  of 
military  gymnastics  is  much  more  elaborate  than  the  German.  While  the 
latter  consists  of  only  a  few  simple  movements,  which  are  to  be  executed 
with  great  precision,  the  course  of  exercises  for  the  French  recruit  is  very 
extended,  beginning  with  a  series  of  elementary  exercises  designed  to  ren- 
der the  body  supple  as  well  as  to  increase  muscular  strength,  and  ending 
with  applied  ox  practical  exercises,  which  are  executed  upon  fixed  appara- 
tus, and  are  adapted  to  the  professional  duties  of  the  soldier.  The  French 
system  has  much  to  commend  it;  but,  as  Maclaren  ^  has  pointed  out,  it  is 
ill-arranged  and  unnecessarily  elaborate.  "  The  French,"  he  says,  "  have 
elaborated  their  system  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  where 
it  begins  or  where  it  ends,  or  to  tell  not  what  it  does,  but  what  it  does 
not  embrace.  For  quite  apart,  and  in  addition  to,  an  extended  range 
of  exercises,  with  and  without  apparatus,  it  embraces  all  defensive  ex- 
ercises with    bayonet  and    sword,  stick,  foil,    fist,  and    foot,   swimming, 


'  The  gymnasium  of  Grenelle,  in  Paris,  was  founded  in  1818. 

^  The  Central  School  of  (J-ymnastics,  near  Vincennes,  was  established  in  1852. 

^  A  System  of  Physical  Education  :  Archibald  Maclaren,  Oxford,  18G9,  p.  81. 


350  ,        PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

dancing,  and  singing,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  if  not  the  use  of 
the  globes.  The  soldier  is  taught  to  throw  bullets  and  bars  of  iron;  he  is 
taught  to  walk  on  stilts  and  on  pegs  of  wood  driven  into  the  ground;  he  is 
taught  to  push,  to  pull,  and  to  wrestle;  and  although  the  boxing  which  he 
is  taught  will  never  enable  him  to  hit  an  adversary,  he  is  taught  manfully 
to  hit  himself,  first  on  the  right  breast,  then  on  the  left,  and  then  on  both 
together,  with  both  hands  at  once;  and  last,  but  not  least,  he  is  taught  to 
kick  himself  behind,  of  which  performance  I  have  seen  Monsieur  as  proud 
as  if  he  were  ignominiously  expelling  an  invader  from  the  sol  sacre  of  La 
belle  France.  Now,  I  know  of  no  particular  reason  why  a  soldier  should 
not  be  taught  all  these  requirements,  and  I  know  many  important  reasons 
why  he  should  be  taught  some  of  them;  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  assign 
any  reason,  either  important  or  particular,  why  they  should  be  called 
gymnastics,  or  be  included  in  a  system  of  bodily  training." 

In  England,  gymnastics  have  never  been  cultivated  with  the  same 
general  enthusiasm  as  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  probably  on  account 
of  the  partiality  of  the  English  for  out-door  exercises.  The  first  successful 
attempt  to  introduce  German  gymnastics  into  England  was  made  by 
■Clias,  whose  labors  in  Switzerland  and  France  have  already  been  noticed. 
In  1823  he  was  invited  to  England,  and  in  the  following  year  was  ap- 
pointed Teacher  of  Gymnastics  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Wool- 
wich. Through  his  instrumentality,  gymnastics  were  introduced  into  the 
army  and  numerous  educational  institutions,  but  the  interest  awakened 
was  short-lived,  and  after  the  resignation  of  Clias,  in  1825,  the  movement 
which  he  had  initiated  gradually  died  out.  No  important  revival  of  gym- 
nastics took  place  until  18G1,  when  a  gymnastic  association  was  formed 
in  London  by  E.  G.  Ravenstein'  and  Roman  Schweitzer,  the  success  of 
which  led  to  the  formation  of  similar  organizations  in  many  other  cities. 
After  the  Crimean  war,  the  English  government  (1859)  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  examine  the  systems  of  military  gymnastics  used  in  the  conti- 
nental armies.  The  report  of  the  commission  strongly  urged  the  adoption 
of  some  similar  course  of  bodily  training  for  English  recruits,  and  measures 
were  at  once  taken  to  carry  the  recommendation  into  practical  effect. 
Two  detachments  of  non-commissioned  officers,  under  command  of  Colonel 
Hammersly,  who  was  to  superintend  the  new  work,  were  sent  to  Oxford 
to  be  qualified  as  teachers  by  Mr.  Maclaren,  and,  after  proper  training, 
were  then  removed  to  Aldershot,  where  a  central  school  of  gymnastics 
was  established  (1861)  for  the  regular  supply  of  instructors  to  the  army. 
Gymnasia  have  been  erected  at  all  barracks  of  the  British  army,  and  the 
system  is  now  in  complete  and  very  satisfactory  operation.  The  code  of 
instruction,  which  was  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Maclaren,"  is  much  less  elaborate 
than  the  French  system,  while  it  is  more  thorough  and  practical  than  the 

^  The  author,  in  connection  with  Mr.  John  HuUey,  gymnasiarch,  of  Liverpool,  of  a 
very  excellent  Handbook  of  Gymnastics  and  Athletics,  London,  18G7. 

■-'  A  Military  System  of  Gymnastic  Exercises  for  the  use  of  Instructors  :  Archibald 
Maclaren,  Adjutant-General's  Office,  Horse  Guards,  February,  18G3. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  351 

German,  and  is  based  upon  the  sound  principle  that  the  first  requisite  is 
to  develop  physical  power  by  a  simple  and  gradually  progressive  course  of 
exercises,  after  which  the  practical  application  of  this  acquired  power  to 
the  special  duties  of  the  soldier  becomes  a  comparatively  easy  task. 

From  Germany  gymnastics  were  introduced  into  the  United  States  by 
a  pupil  of  Jahn,  Dr.  Beck,  who  established  a  gymnasium  in  1835,  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts;  at  least  this  was  the  first  gymnasium  in 
this  country,  so  far  as  we  can  learn,  where  the  gymnastic  art  was  taught 
by  a  competent  instructor.^  Although  at  no  time  very  popular  in  this 
country,  gymnastics  have  gradually  gained  a  firm  support  in  all  the  large 
cities,  particularly  in  those  with  a  large  German  population,  while  the 
gymnasium  is  now  regarded  as  a  necessary  adjunct  to  most  of  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning.  With  few  exceptions,  however,  the  gymnasia  of 
this  country  are  deficient  in  proper  means  for  instruction.  We  shall  have 
occasion  to  refer  to  this  serious  defect  with  more  particularity  hereafter. 

In  concluding  this  brief  historical  sketch  a  word  is  necessary  with 
reference  to  the  origin  of  the  present  system  of  amateur  "  athletic  sports," 
which  include  walking,  running,  leaping,  throwing  the  hammer,  putting 
the  weight,  and  occasionally  a  few  other  exercises.  The  present  system 
has  been  of  gradual  growth,  the  exercises  at  first  consisting  only  of  feats 
of  pedestrianism,  walking  and  running,  other  events  being  introduced 
from  time  to  time  as  the  sports  increased  in  popularity.  Half-yearly 
meetings  for  this  purpose  were  held  as  early  as  1812,  at  the  Royal  Military 
College  at  Sandhurst,  England;  but  the  example  was  not  followed  at  the 
principal  English  schools  until  about  1840,  when  the  games  were  intro- 
duced at  Rugby,  Eton,  Harrow,  and  several  other  schools  and  colleges. 
Annual  meetings  were  established  at  Oxford  (Exeter  College)  in  1852, 
and  at  Cambridge  (St.  John's  and  Emanuel  Colleges)  in  1855,  while  the 
University  sports  Avere  inaugurated  at  Cambridge  in  1857,  and  at  Oxford 
in  18G0.  In  18G4  was  held  the  first  annual  meeting  of  Oxford  vs.  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  18G6  the  annual  championship  meeting  was  founded  at 
London,  where  the  college  champions  contend  with  representatives  from 
amateur  organizations  in  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  same 
year  was  formed  the  celebrated  London  Athletic  Club,  which  is  now  re- 
garded as  the  chief  authority  upon  subjects  connected  with  athletic  sports. 
Amateur  sports  as  distinguished  from  professional  contests''  have  been  less 

'  Mr.  Ofctignon,  whose  name  is  familiar  to  many  of  our  readers  in  connection  with  the 
«arly  history  of  gymnastics  in  New  York,  informs  me  that  the  Latia  School  of  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  possessed  a  gymnasium  as  early  as  the  year  1821,  but  that  no  system- 
atic instruction  was  given  there.  A  gymnasium  was  established  in  Boston  about  1825, 
in  Tremont  street,  on  the  grounds  then  known  as  the  Washington  Gardens.  In  New 
York  the  first  gymnasium  was  opened  about  1834,  by  Mr  Fuller,  in  Ann  street.  In 
1842  another  one  was  established  by  Mr.  Ottignon,  at  the  south-west  corner  of  Broad- 
way and  Chambers  street,  and  this  was  removed  in  1845  to  Canal  street,  in  1848  to 
598  Broadway,  and  in  1849  to  Crosby  street,  near  Bleecker. 

^  In  Great  Britain  the  distinction  between  an  amateur  and  a  professional  is  rigidly 
enforced.  An  amateur  athlete  is  defined  as  :  "  Any  person  who  has  never  competed  in 
an  open  competition,  or  for  public  money,  or  for  admission  money,  or  with  professionals 


352  PHYSICAL    EXEECISE. 

popular  in  Scotland,  and  but  few  amateur  clubs  have  been  formed,  except 
those  connected  with  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  St.  Andrew's, 
and  Aberdeen,  and  some  of  the  larger  public  schools.  In  1871  the  Scotch 
Inter-university  Association  was  formed,  and  annual  meetings  are  now 
held  alternately  at  the  universities  composing  the  organization.  In  Ire- 
land athletic  sports  have  been  cultivated  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  with 
remarkable  success  in  the  record  of  performances.  The  first  regular  games 
took  place  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1857,  and  were  repeated  annually 
thereafter;  but  no  complete  organization  was  effected  until  1871,  when  the 
Dublin  University  Athletic  Club  was  formed.  The  Irish  Civil  Service  had 
formed  an  athletic  club  four  years  previous  to  this  time.  In  1872  was 
founded  the  Irish  Champion  Athletic  Club,  which  is  now  the  most  prominent 
athletic  association  in  Ireland,  and  exerts  the  same  authority  there  that 
is  wielded  by  the  London  Athletic  Club  in  England.  Numerous  other 
clubs  have  been  formed  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  athletic  move- 
ment in  the  United  States,  though  as  yet  less  general  than  in  England  or 
Ireland,  has  upon  the  whole  been  very  successful.  The  New  York  Athletic 
Club,  which  is  now  the  most  prominent  organization  in  this  country,  was 
founded  in  1868,  established  their  present  superior  quarters  at  Mott 
Haven  in  1874,  and  in  1876  opened  annual  contests  for  the  "  Amateur 
Championships  of  America,"  since  which  time  the  English  definition  of 
an  amateur  has,  with  a  few  exceptions,  been  strictly  enforced.  Athletic 
associations  have  also  been  formed  at  all  the  leading  colleges,  and  inter- 
collegiate meetings  have  been  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  "  College 
Athletic  Association  "  which  was  founded  in  1875.  The  progress  of  the 
movement  has  been  very  rapid  within  the  past  five  years,  particularly  in 
the  Middle  and  Eastern  States,  and  promises  to  extend  within  a  short  time 
to  all  parts  of  the  country.' 

POEMS    OF    EXEECISE. 

Rowing. 

Although  the  relative  amount  of  work  accomplished  by  the  individual 
muscles  engaged  in  the  act  of  rowing  varies  more  or  less  with  the  style 
of  stroke,  the  following  analysis  of  the  muscular  movements  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Oxford  system  will  apply,  with  unimportant  modifications, 
to  most  of  the  best  styles  of  rowing  at  present  in  use  for  shells  with  slid- 
ing seats.  If  we  begin  with  the  position  of  the  rower  at  the  completion 
of  a  stroke,  viz.,  with  body  erect,  legs  extended,  arms  flexed,  and  the  oar 

for  a  prize,  public  money,  or  admission  money  ;  nor  has  ever,  at  any  period  of  his  life, 
taught  or  assisted  in  the  pursuit  of  athletic  exercises  as  a  means  of  livelihood  ;  nor  is 
a  mechanic,  artisan,  or  laborer." 

'  An  Athletic  Directory,  published  by  H.  F.  Wilkinson,  in  Modem  Athletics, 
London,  1877,  gives  the  addresses  of  547  athletic  associations  which  hold  annual  meet- 
ings in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  list  is  admittedly  incomijlete,  but  it  shows 
very  strikingly  the  remarkable  extension  of  this  movement. 


PHYSICAL    EXEIiCISE,  853 

feathered  for  its  backward  sweep,  the  first  action  is  a  compound  one,  and 
consists  of:  (1)  a  forward  movement  of  the  entire  body  along  with  the  slid- 
ing seat,  the  lower  limbs  being  at  the  same  time  fully  flexed;  (3)  flexion 
of  the  trunk  upon  the  lower  extremities;  and  (3)  extension  of  the  arms  to 
the  fullest  possible  length.  The  forward  sliding  movement  is  effected  by 
the  action  of  \\\q  i^sterior  femoral  muscles  aided  by  the  extensor  muscles 
of  the  foot;  the  trunk  is  flexed  chiefly  by  t\).& psoas  and  iliacus  muscles, 
but  in  part  also  by  the  sa7'torkcs,  tensor  vaginm  fenioris  and  rectus 
feinoris'  while  the  complete  extension  of  the  arms  is  accomplished  by  the 
serratus  '>nagnus  and  pectoralis  minor  muscles,  which  draw  the  scapulas 
forward  and  downward  toward  the  side  of  the  chest,  and  by  the  triceps 
and  anconeus,  which  extend  the  forearm.  These  movements  involve  but 
a  triflirig  expenditure  of  force,  and  are  merely  preliminary  to  the  effective 
part  of  the  stroke,  which  begins  as  the  oar-blade  enters  the  water. 

The  propulsion  of  the  blade  through  the  water  is  effected  by  three 
principal  movements,  viz.:  (1)  Erection  of  the  trunk  to,  or  slightly  be- 
yond, the  vertical  position;  (2)  a  backward  movement  of  the  entire  body, 
produced  by  forcible  extension  of  the  lower  extremities;  and  (3)  retraction 
of  the  shoulder  and  flexion  of  the  arms.  In  the  Oxford  system  these 
movements  are  consecutive.  Thus,  the  sliding  motion  does  not  begin 
until  a  firm  hold  of  the  water  has  been  obtained  by  the  erective  movement 
of  the  trunk,  and  the  arras  are  kept  fully  extended  Lintil  the  latter  motion 
is  completed.  Whether  this  method  has  the  advantages  claimed  for  it, 
experience  alone  must  decide;  but  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
muscles  will  act  to  better  advantage  if  they  are  consecutively  rather  than 
simultaneously  engaged.  The  muscles  chiefly  concerned  in  the  above 
movements  are:  (1)  The  glutei,  and,  to  a  much  less  degree,  the  erector 
spince,  by  which  the  trunk  is  raised  to  the  erect  position ;  (2)  the  quadriceps 
extensor  cruris  and  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  foot,  by  which  the  lower  ex- 
tremities are  forcibly  extended;  and  (3)  the  trapezius  and  the  rhoniboidei, 
which  replace  the  scapulge,  the  latissimiis  dorsi  and  \)a%  pectoralis  major, 
which  draw  the  humerus  down  to  the  side  of  the  chest,  and  the  hiceps  and 
hrachialis  cmticus,  by  which  the  arms  are  flexed.  At  the  completion  of 
the  stroke  the  oar  is  withdrawn  from  the  water  and  feathered  by  a  rapid 
extension  of  the  wrist  by  means  of  the  extensor  carpi  radialis  longior  and 
hrevior  and  the  extensor  carpi  ulnaris.  The  ahdomincd  onuscles  are  also 
engaged  (a)  in  steadying  the  abdominal  viscera  against  shock,  (b)  to  a 
slight  extent  also  in  flexing  the  thorax  on  the  pelvis,  and  (c)  in  antagoniz- 
ing the  action  of  the  erector  spinse  and  glutei  in  drawing  the  trunk  too 
far  backward.  Several  small  muscles  are  likewise  engaged  in  the  above 
movements. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  analysis  of  the  muscular  movements  in  rowing 

that  the  main  work  is  done  by  the  glutei  and  quadriceps  extensor  muscles, 

a  subordinate  part  only  being  taken  by  the  erector  spinas  and  calf -muscles, 

while  the  arms  are  but  slightly  taxed,  as  they  are  not  called  into  action 

until  the  oar  has  leached  a  right  angle  with  the  boat — that  is,  not  until 

after  the  most  arduous  portion  of  the  stroke  has  been  completed. 
Vol,  I.— 23 


354  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  advantages  afforded  by  sliding  as  compared 
with  iixed  seats :  increased  length  of  stroke^  distribution  of  tJie  work  among  a  greater 
number  of  muscles,  and  greater  ease  in  breathing.  With  the  fixed  seat,  the  trunk  turns 
upon  a  fixed  axis  running  through  the  hip-joints,  the  legs  being  employed  merely  in 
maintaining  the  axis  in  a  stationary  position  ;  with  the  sliding  seat,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  axis  moves  with  the  seat  and  gives  the  rower  a  longer  reach,  thereby  rendering 
fewer  strokes  necessary  for  the  same  rate  of  speed.  A  greater  expenditure  of  force  is, 
to  be  sure,  required  for  each  stroke,  but  this  demand  is  met  by  muscles  which  are 
scarcely  exercised  at  all  with  the  fixed  seat,  viz.,  the  powerful  quadriceps  extensor 
cruris,  and,  to  a  less  degree,  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  foot.  The  chief  advantage  of 
slidiug  seats  consists,  however,  in  the  greater  ease  with  which  respiration  is  carried  on, 
as  the  ribs  and  abdomen  escape  the  compression  which  attends  the  extreme  flexion  of 
the  trunk  necessary  with  the  fixed  seat. 

Efficient  as  this  style  of  rowing  is  in  securing  a  high  rate  of  speed,  it 
certainly  does  much  less  to  develop  respiratory  power  than  was  accom- 
plished by  the  old  system,  in  which  more  work  was  done  with  the  arms — 
and  in  a  boat-race  respiratory  capacity  is  even  more  important  than  mus- 
cular power.  The  conditions  of  respiration  in  rowing  at  speed  are  differ- 
ent from  those  of  any  other  form  of  active  exercise.  The  breathing  is 
regulated  by  the  frequency  of  the  stroke  (36  to  40  and  upward  per  minute) 
rather  than  by  the  demands  of  the  system,  while  the  complete  expansion 
of  the  chest  is  prevented  by  the  position  of  the  arms.  After  each  hurried 
inspiration,  moreover,  the  breath  is  held  during  the  stroke,  to  be  followed  by 
an  equally  hurried,  instead  of  the  normally  gradual,  expiration.  Let  this 
rapid  and  incomplete  breathing  be  continued  through  a  four-mile  race, 
with  the  heart  contracting  violently  110  or  more  times  a  minute  to  supply 
the  muscles  with  blood,  and  we  have  all  the  conditions  necessary  for  a 
profound  disturbance  of  the  pulmo-cardiac  equilibruim,  unless  the  heart 
and  lungs  have  been  carefully  trained  for  the  unusual  work.  Now,  ceteris 
2^aribiis,  that  system  of  rowing  will  develop  the  greatest  respiratory  power 
which  gives  most  vigorous  employment  to  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  as  it  is 
usually  found  that  the  dimensions  of  the  thoracic  cavity  increase  just  in 
proportion  as  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  chest  become  larger  and  stronger. 
Not  that  we  advocate  a  return  to  heavy  boats  and  arm-rowing,  although 
we  are  satisfied  that  Mr.  Maclaren  is  correct  in  his  assertion  that,  while 
rowing  has  advanced  as  an  art,  it  has  deteriorated  as  an  exerciser '  still 
it  is  important  that  this  serious  defect  of  the  modern  style  should  be 
fully  recognized,  and  corrected  by  the  employment  of  other  exercises  to 
secure  proper  thoracic  development.      (See  later,  under  '■^Training.'''') 

As  the  chief  strain  in  boat-racing  falls  upon  the  heart  and  lungs,  the 
question  of  respiratory  capacity,  in  the  selection  of  a  racing-crew,  becomes 
even  more  important  than  the  question  of  merely  muscular  power.  For- 
tunately, a  good  muscular  development  is  usually  associated  with  a  spa- 
cious chest  and  vigorous  heart;  but  this  is  by  no  means  always  the  case, 
and  to  neglect  a  careful  examination  upon  these  points  is  needlessly  to 
court  disaster.     Among  the  contra-indications  which  should  debar  from  a 

^  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  :  Archibald  Miclaren,  London,  p.  16,  1874. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  355 

position  on  a  racing-crew  may  be  mentioned:  a  small  girth  of  chest  (below 
oO  inches),  the  existence  of  a  marked  family  tendency  to  pulmonary  or 
cardiac  disease,  or  the  previous  history,  in  the  individual  himself,  of  any 
affection  by  which  these  organs  may  have  been  weakened,  and  early  age 
in  connection  with  rapid  growth  and  ^tnusual  height  of  the  body.  The 
latter  point  deserves  more  careful  attention  than  is  usually  given  to 
it.  Even  at  a  mature  age,  very  tall  men  are  generally  deficient  in 
stamina,  as  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  the 
armies  of  Great  Britain  and  this  country;  while,  below  the  age  of  twenty, 
it  will  very  commonly  be  found  that  the  loosely  knit  frames  of  such  indi- 
viduals, although  sometimes  presenting  the  appearance  of  great  muscular 
strength,  are  incapable  of  prolonged  excessive  exertion.'  In  the  case  of  men 
who  have  had  some  boating  experience,  the  best  of  all  tests  for  resjDiratory 
power  is  the  effect  of  one  or  two  sharp  pulls.  One  of  Dr.  Morgan's  corre- 
spondents (op.  cit.,  p.  308)  writes:  "  If  a  man  can't  stand  a  sharp  practice,  he 
can't  stand  a  race;  and  I  never  felt  any  difficulty  in  making  luy  selection 
where  there  was  staple  enough  to  select  from.  I  had  a  good  look  at  my 
man  as  he  got  out  of  the  boat.  If  a  man  dropped  his  head  and  held  his 
sides,  and  coixld  not  speak  for  a  minute  or  two,  and  showed  continuance  of 
distress  after  the  effort  was  over,  out  of  the  crew  went  he,  as  certain  as  I 
had  charge  of  it.  If,  on  arrival,  he  could  laugh  and  romp,  and  jump  high 
over  a  boat-hook,  or  square  up  for  a  right  and  left,  he  was  '  one  born  to 
the  giant,'  the  right  sort,  and  no  mistake;  a  man  who  would  repay  the 
trainer's  trouble,  and  do  a  good  eighth  part  of  the  work."  With  men  who 
are  unaccustomed  to  rowing,  and  to  whom,  therefore,  the  preceding  test 
Avould  be  inapplicable,  a  fair  estimate  of  the  respiratory  capacity  may  be 
made  with  Holden's  siren  pneumatometer,  which  gauges  the  force  exerted 
by  the  respiratory  muscles,  and  thus  affords  more  reliable  indications  than 
can  be  obtained  by  the  spirometer.- 

As  an  exercise,  especially  for  young  men  at  an  age  when  the  frame 
is  still  flexible  and  capable  of  considerable  expansion,  rowing  presents 
many  advantages.  It  calls  into  action  more  muscles  than  are  engaged 
in  almost  any  other  form  of  athletic  exercise,  and  is  practised  under  hy- 
gienic surroundings,  and  with  a  degree  of  pleasurable  excitement  that  add 
materially  to  its  sanitary  value;  while  the  strain  upon  the  respiratory  and 
•circulating  systems,  even  in  boat-racing,  is  no  greater  than  can  be  safely 
borne  by  healthy  young  men,  if  the  rules  of  training  have  been  carefully 
followed.     From  numerous  sphygmographic  observations  upon  the  mem- 

^  At  our  own  universities,  where  boating  has  been  long  practised,  selections  for 
racing-crews  ire  usually  made  with  good  judgment ;  but,  at  a  recent  important  regatta, 
the  defeated  boat  contained  a  youth  eighteen  years  of  age  and  dx  feet  two  inches  in 
height ! 

'-'  See  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  April,  1877 :  New  Investigations  in 
Respiratory  Pathology,  by  Edgar  Holden,  M.D.  This  ingenious  instrument  consists  of 
a  glass  cylinder,  nine  and  a  half  inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diameter,  containing  a  siren 
attached  to  a  spiral  spring.  An  index  placed  in  front  of  the  siren  records  the  maxi- 
mum power  used  in  insjDiration  or  expiration. 


356  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

bers  of  an  English  university  racing-crew,  both  before  and  after  their 
sharp  practice  pulls,  Dr.  Fraser'  draws  the  following  conclusions  :  that 
the  arterial  tension  is  diminished  in  consequence  of  dilatation  of  the  blood- 
vessels; that  the  heart  propels  a  large  stream  of  blood  during  each  ven- 
tricular contraction,  so  as  to  fully  distend  the  arterial  system,  notwith- 
standing its  dilated  condition;  and  that,  finally,  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  amount  of  blood  propelled  into  the  arteries  during  each  ventricular 
contraction  is  greater  than  can  freely  pass  into  the  veins.  He  adds:  "It 
is  obvious  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  functional  and  organic  diseases  of 
the  vascular  system,  the  condition  shown  by  the  tracings  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  maintained.  The  subjects  of  these  diseases  are  therefore  com- 
pletely incapacitated  from  violent  rowing  exercise,  and  cannot  be  in  a 
position  to  be  injured  by  it.  It  is  possible  that  the  presence  of  incipient 
forms  of  disease  of  the  vascular  system  may  not  altogether  prevent  such 
exercise  from  being  undertaken;  but  I  believe  that  all  such  diseases  may 
be  detected  by  the  use  of  the  sphygmograph  in  time  to  prevent  further 
mischief." 

Training. 

"To  the  question,  'What  is  Training,  and  what  is  it  meant  to  do  ? '' 
I  would  answer,"  says  Mr.  Maclaren,"  "  it  is  to  put  the  body,  with  ex- 
treme and  exceptional  care,  under  the  influence  of  all  the  agents  which 
promote  its  health  and  strength,  in  order  to  enable  it  to  meet  extreme 
and  exceptional  demands  upon  its  energies."  A  strict  adherence  to  this 
definition  would,  of  course,  obviate  the  objection  commonly  urged  to  a 
course  of  training,  viz.,  that  it  tends  to  prematurely  exhaust  the  stock  of 
vital  force,  or  at  least  to  place  the  individual  in  a  condition  of  "  morbid 
imminence."  In  point  of  fact,  however,  as  training  is  commonly  prac- 
tised, it  too  often  puts  the  body  under  the  influence  of  agents  which  da 
not  promote  its  health  and  strength,  but,  on  the  contrary,  directly  tend 
to  exhaust  its  energies.  Nor  is  it  surprising  that  this  should  be  the  case 
when  it  is  considered  thait  m.odern  training  originated  with  professional 
watermen  and  pugilists,  who  were  grossly  ignorant  of  the  most  elemen- 
tary principles  of  physiology;  and  that  although  great  improvements  in 
the  system  of  training  have  been  made  of  late  years,  certain  errors  are 
still  clung  to  with  an  obstinacy  that  would  seem  remarkable,  were  it 
not  paralleled  by  the  persistence  with  which  many  other  traditional  mis- 
conceptions of  the  laws  of  health  retain  their  hold  upon  the  popular  mind. 
Some  of  these  errors  will  engage  our  attention  in  the  following  very  brief 


'  The  Effects  of  Rowing  on  the  Circulation,  as  shown  by  Examination  with  the 
Sphygmograph,  by  Thomas  R.  Eraser,  M.D.,  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
Nov.,  1868. 

'  Of  the  numerous  treatises  on  this  subject,  Maclaren's  work  on  Training  (op.  cit. ) 
is  by  far  the  best,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  young  men  engaged  in  athletic 
exercises.  See  also  Exercise  and  Training  :  their  Effects  upon  Health,  R.  J.  Lee, 
M.D.,  London,  1873;  Athletic  Training  and  Health,  John  Harrison,  M.R.C.S.,  Lon- 
don, 1869;  and  Dr.  Morgan's  University  Oars  (op.  cit.). 


HYSICAL    EXEKCLSE.  357 

discussion  of  our  subject  ;  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  it  is  always  difficult  to  regulate  so  delicate  an  organization  as  the 
Imman  body  by  fixed  rules,  however  correct  they  may  be  in  their  general 
application.  For  numerous  details,  which  cannot  be  given  here,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  excellent  treatises  already  mentioned.  AVe  shall 
be  obliged  to  limit  our  remarks  chiefly  to  training  as  practised  in  connec- 
tion with  amateur  boat-racing. 

(a.)  Duration  of  Training. — A  moment's  consideration  of  the  work  to 
be  accomplished  in  preparing  young  men,  who  have  been  leading  more  or 
less  sedentary  lives,  for  the  severe  and  long-continued  exertion  involved 
in  a  hotly  contested  boat-race,  will  show  the  importance  of  time  as  an 
element  of  training.  Besides  the  necessary  acquisition  of  dexterity  in 
the  complicated  movements  of  the  stroke,  organic  changes  must  be  ef- 
fected ;  the  muscles  are  to  be  slowly  built  up  and  improved  in  tone,  the 
lungs  enlarged,  and  probably  new  air-cells  formed,  while  the  heart  is  to 
be  educated  to  rapidly  contract  upon,  and  the  blood-vessels  to  carry,  an 
unusually  large  volume  of  blood.  Moreover,  these  changes  must  be 
brought  about  gradualhj,  so  as  at  no  time  to  overtax  the  organs  in  ques- 
tion. To  attempt  to  force  the  process  of  development  wuthin  the  limits 
of  a  few  weeks  is  to  incur  the  risk  of  the  breakdown  known  as  "  over- 
training ; "  indeed,  the  danger  of  this  result  is  far  greater  from  a  short 
course  of  severe  training  than  from  a  properly  graduated  one,  however 
prolonged. 

(b.)  Heduction  of  w eight. — Under  this  general  head  may  be  considered 
several  very  common  errors  of  training,  based  ujjon  the  popular  belief 
that  with  most  men  the  perfect  action  of  the  muscles  is  impeded  by  the 
presence  of  superfluous  solids  and  water,  and  that  to  rid  the  body  of  this 
surplus  is  one  of  the  most  important  objects  of  training.  Fat,  particu- 
larly, is  the  Mte  noir  of  rowing  men  ;  in  the  form  of  "  internal  fat  "  it  is 
supposed  to  clog  the  lungs,  and  thus  produce  the  "  loss  of  wind  "  which  is 
experienced  on  commencing  training.  To  drive  out  this  enemy  of  good 
breathing,  running  with  lieavy  clothing  is  resorted  to,  under  the  impression 
that  the  fat  is  melted  by  the  increased  temperature  of  the  body,  and  elimi- 
nated through  the  skin  along  with  the  copious  perspiration.'  In  order  to 
maintain  the  reduction  in  weight  which  is  thus  effected  by  free  perspira- 
tion, the  allowance  of  water  is  often  restricted  to  the  lowest  possible  limit. 
This  practice  is,  to  be  sure,  less  common  now  than  formerly  ;  but  by  most 
trainers  water  is  still  regarded  as  a  sort  of  necessary  evil,  wdiich,  to  say  the 
least,  requires  careful  supervision.  Nor  is  it  difficult  to  see  how  the  above- 
mentioned  errors  originated.  The  English  watermen  and  pugilists  of  fifty 
years  ago  were,  as  a  class,  free  livers  and  heavy  beer-drinkers  when  off  train- 
ing, and  with  them  the  reduction  of  accumulated  fat  and  fluids,  by  active 
exercise  and  forced  perspiration,  was  often  a  necessary  preliminary  to  putting 
the  tissues  into  proper  condition.    Among  young  men  of  temperate  habits, 

'  The  writer  has  been  at  some  pains  to  ascertain  how  commonly  this  opinion  is  en- 
tertained among  persons  who  subject  themselves  to  courses  of  training,  and  has  rarely 
found  any  one  who  did  not  regard  it  as  an  orthodox  tenet  of  tramtng.  • 


358  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

however,  a  tendency  to  obesity  is  certainly  uncommon,  at  least  in  this 
country,  although  there  is  frequently  a  small  amount  of  subcutaneous  fat, 
the  removal  of  which  may  perhaps  give  freer  play  to  the  muscles.  This 
fat  is  gradually  removed  during  a  course  of  active  exercise  by  the  natural 
processes  of  oxidation  and  elimination  chiefly  through  the  lungs  ;  but,  if 
the  training  be  cautiously  conducted,  the  weight  thus  lost  is  usually 
nearly  or  quite  restored  by  the  gain  in  the  muscles  and  other  tissues/ 
A  slight  reduction  of  weight  is  effected  also,  at  the  outset  of  training, 
by  the  change  from  an  ordinary  diet  to  one  still  more  highly  nitro- 
genous. The  experiments  of  Bischoff  and  Voit^  on  animals,  and  of  J. 
Eanke  ^  on  man,  show  that,  independently  of  exercise,  the  effect  of  an 
increased  consumption  of  nitrogenous  food  is  not  only  to  eliminate  a  por- 
tion of  the  fat  of  the  body,  but  also,  for  a  time,  to  increase  the  discharge 
of  water  above  what  is  taken  in,  the  tissues  thus  becoming  more  solid 
and  firmer  in  texture.  While  there  appears  to  be,  therefore,  a  natural 
tendency  to  a  slight  reduction  of  weight  early  in  a  course  of  training  as 
a  result  of  altered  diet  and  active  exercise,  there  is  also  a  natural  tenden- 
cy to  gain  in  weight,  arising  from  the  larger  amount  of  food  consumed 
and  the  increased  vigor  of  the  assimilative  processes,  so  that  any  consid- 
erable permanent  reduction  in  young  men  with  a  moderately  developed 
panniculus  adiposus  may  very  generally  be  regarded  as  an  evidence  of 
faulty  training. 

(c.)  As  regards  loater,  the  only  restriction  needed  is  as  to  the  mode  of 
ingestion.,  since  the  total  quantity  required  for  each  day  is  best  regulated 
by  the  demands  of  the  S3"stem.  The  sensation  of  thirst  is  a  proper  guide, 
however,  only  when  correctly  interpreted.  The  distressing  thirst  which 
is  often  exjDerienced  during  and  shortly  after  severe  exercise,  particularly 
in  warm  weather,  arises  only  in  part  from  the  large  loss  of  water  through 
the  lungs  and  skin  (see  p.  323) ;  the  main  element  in  its  production  is 
generally  a  parched  condition  of  the  buccal  and  phar3mgeal  mucous  mem- 
brane, induced  by  rapid  breathing  through  the  mouth.  This  purely  local 
sensation  should  be  first  relieved  by  thoroughly  rinsing  the  mouth,  or  by 
chewing  a  bit  of  lemon-  or  orange-peel  to  stimulate  the  secretions,  and  then 
frequent  moderate  draughts  of  water  may  be  taken  until  the  general 
thirst  is  entirely  allayed.  By  this  means  the  danger  of  shock  to  the 
stomach  from  the  introduction  of  a  large  quantity  of  cold  water  is  avoided, 
while  the  restoration  of  water  to  the  blood  and  tissues  is  effected  gradu- 
ally. The  same  rule  will  apply  also  to  the  use  of  water  during  the  period 
of  exertion  when  the  latter  is  long  continued,  as  in  feats  of  pedestrianism. 
Small  draughts  of  water  at  such  times  are  entirely  unobjectionable, 
whereas  copious  drinking,  besides  being  open  to  the  above  objections, 
tends  to  distend  the  stomach  and  interfere  with  the  free  action  of  tho 
diaphragm.     It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  injuries  which   sometimes  result 

'  This  remark  applies  only  to  training  during  cool  weather.     In  summer  most  men 
fall  ofif  a  little  in  weight  during  training,  even  when  in  good  condition. 
-  Die  Gesetze  der  Ernahrung  des  Fleischfressers,  1860. 
»Archiv  f.  Anat.  etc.,  1862,  p.  311. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  359 

from  neglect  of  these  simple  precautious  should  have  given  rise  to  the 
opinion  entertained  by  many  tx-ainers  and  experienced  travellers,  that 
water  is  a  poison  during  arduous  physical  exertion.  In  the  French  army 
the  men  when  on  a  inarch  are  allowed  to  relieve  thirst  only  by  holding- 
water  or  by  carrying  a  bullet  in  the  mouth.'  The  folly  of  such  a  practice, 
and  the  still  greater  folly  of  keeping  men  habitually  thirsty  during  train- 
ing, is  apparent  when  we  consider  that  the  withdrawal  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  water  from  the  blood  involves  dehydration  of  the  tissues,  and 
that  the  muscles  rapidly  lose  contractile  power  when  their  normal  per- 
centage of  water  (75  per  cent.)  is  much  reduced.^ 

(d.)  Nature  and  amount  of  exercise. — We  have  already  seen  that  while 
vigorous  respiratory  power  is  indispensable  to  the  rower,  rowing  itself 
cultivates  this  power  only  imperfectly,  on  account  of  the  fixed  position 
and  incomplete  expansion  of  the  chest  during*  the  exercise.  To  remedy 
this  deficiency  no  auxiliary  exercise  is  so  useful  as  running.  By  it  the 
lungs  are  freely  expanded  under  normal  conditions,  and  the  capacity  of 
the  chest  is  enlarged  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  its  contents,  while  at 
the  same  time  muscles  are  called  into  action  which  are  unemployed  in 
rowing,  thus  securing  an  equal  development  of  the  muscles  of  the  lower 
extremities.  Upon  the  general  value  of  running  as  an  aid  to  rowing  ail 
authorities  are  agreed,  but  there  is  by  no  means  the  same  unanimity  with 
regard  to  its  practical  utility  in  short  courses  of  training,  or  in  longer 
courses  toward  the  close  of  the  training.  The  objection  commonly  urged 
against  it  in  these  connections  is  that  it  "takes  too  much  out  of  a  man," 
when  added  to  the  hard  work  done  in  rowing.  Mr.  Maclaren  (op.  cit.) 
vigorously  combats  this  objection  on  the  ground:  (1)  that  the  fatigue  ex- 
perienced after  rowing  is  chiefly  respiratory,  and  is  therefore  no  test  of 
the  actual  muscular  work;  and  (2)  that,  in  point  of  fact,  the  amount  of 
muscular  work  performed  in  rowing  at  speed  is  by  no  means  considerable. 
In  evidence  of  the  latter  statement  he  gives  the  results  of  calculations 
made  by  Professor  Haughton,  of  the  University  of  Dublin,  to  demonstrate 
the  force  employed  in  the  propulsion  of  an  eight-oar  boat  at  racing  speed 
(one  mile  in  seven  minutes),  and  compares  this  result  with  the  work  done 
in  walking  the  same  distance. 

The  work  done  per  man  in  rowing  one  mile  at  racing 

speed  is 18.56  foot-tons. 

The  work  done  by  one  of  the  crew  weighing  158  lbs.  in 

racing  costume,  walking  one  mile,  would  be 18.62         "  ^ 

'  Parke's  Practical  Hygiene,  1878,  p.  418. 

^  Although,  as  before  remarked,  the  severe  restrictions  formerly  practised  upon 
this  point  are  now  very  generally  discarded,  several  instances  have  recently  come  to 
the  writer's  knowledge,  which  show  that  the  old  fear  of  water  during  training  has  nob 
entirely  disappeared  from  athletic  circles.  In  one  of  these  instances  a  racing-crew 
was  kept  on  such  a  small  allowance  of  water  in  warm  weather,  that  during  practice- 
pulls  the  men,  while  resting  on  their  oars,  would  sometimes  dip  up  the  salt-water  in. 
their  hands  and  drink  it  to  relieve  the  tormenting  thirst ! 

"Op.  cit.,  p.  317. 


360  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

The  above  comparison  is  clearly  misleading,  unless  we  take  into  account 
the  rate  of  work,  since  muscular  fatigue  depends  fully  as  much  upon  this 
factor  as  upon  the  amount  of  work  accomplished,  as  measured  by  foot- 
tons.  A  mile  walked  at  a  leisurely  gait  hardly  deserves  to  be  called  ex- 
ercise, but  if  the  speed  be  increased  to  a  mile  in  seven  minutes,  the  muscu- 
lar exertion  becomes  very  severe.  Moreover,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  actual  racing  speed  for  an  eight-oar  boat  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  upon  which  the  above  calculation  is  based,  and  that  in  training 
for  long-distance  races  (three  to  five  miles)  the  practice-pulls  involve  a  very 
considerably  increased  amount  of  exertion.  Certainly  the  experience  of 
the  men  themselves  in  this  matter  is  a  better  guide  than  mathematical 
calculations  can  be,  and  the  disinclination  commonly  felt  for  the  morning 
run,  during  the  period  of  training  when  the  crews  row  twice  a  day,  may 
safely  be  regarded  as  nature's  warning  against  an  excess  of  work.  In 
this  country,  where  rowing  is  usually  impracticable  during  the  winter 
months,  the  work  of  developing  respiratory  power  by  running  is  generally 
relegated  to  this  season,  the  continuance  of  the  exercise  during  the  period 
of  full  training  being  left  optional  with  the  individual  members  of  the 
crew.  Another  point  of  practical  interest  connected  with  the  preparatory 
winter  training  deserves  a  moment's  consideration.  It  being  conceded  that 
one  of  the  chief  objects  of  training  is  to  concentrate  power  in  the  chan- 
nel of  the  muscles  used  in  rowing,  how  is  this  result  best  accomplished? 
Will  the  greatest  effective  power  of  the  muscles  be  developed  by  a  single 
exercise  which  simulates  as  closely  as  possible  the  movements  of  rowing, 
or  by  a  number  of  exercises  which  shall  give  the  muscles  the  varied  action 
that  nature  intended  ^or  them  ?  In  other  words,  should  the  necessary 
work  at  the  rowing-machines  be  supplemented  by  gymnastic  or  other  ex- 
ercises in  which  the  same  muscles  are  called  into  action  in  a  somewhat 
different  manner?  There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt,  it  seems  to  us,  as  to 
the  answer  to  be  given  to  this  question.  A  certain  amount  of  monoto- 
nous repetition  of  movements  is  of  course  necessary  to  acquire  dexterity, 
but  the  more  these  movements  can  be  varied  the  greater  will  be  the  force 
elicited  from  the  muscles  within  a  given  time,  and  consequently  the  more 
vigorous  their  growth.  We  have  briefly  referred  to  this  point  because 
the  opposite  view  is  entertained  by  some  trainers,  who  restrict  the  work 
of  the  winter  months  exclusively  to  running  and  exercise  at  the  rowing- 
machines. 

(e.)  Diet. — Little  requires  to  be  said  under  this  head,  as  the  dietary 
now  generally  used  in  training  differs  from  that  of  ordinary  life  only  in 
the  exclusion  of  all  articles  of  food  that  are  not  easily  digestible,  and  in 
the  more  liberal  allowance  of  food,  particularly  of  its  nitrogenous  ele- 
ments, A  word  of  caution,  however,  in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  food, 
may  not  be  out  of  place.  Fortunately  the  danger  of  over-eating  is  com- 
monly averted  by  the  good  digestion  that  usually  waits  upon  the  "  training  " 
appetite,  but  the  danger  is  not  so  remote  as  might  be  inferred  from  the 
little  attention  paid  to  it  by  trainers.  The  exaggerated  value  which  is 
attached  to  animal  food  as  a  source  of  muscular  power  not  very  infrequently 


PHYSICAL  exp:rcise.  ;i01 

leads  to  indulgence  in  this  direction  far  in  excess  of  tlie  actual  demands 
of  the  body.  Such  excess,  instead  of  adding  to  muscular  power,  in 
reality  lessens  it  by  withdrawing  an  unusual  quantity  of  blood  to  the 
digestive  tract,  and  by  producing  in  a  lesser  degree  the  torpidity  seen  in 
the  lower  animals  when  gorged  with  animal  food.  On  the  other  hand, 
over-indulgence  in  vegetable,  particularly  starchy  and  saccharine  food, 
tends  to  induce  attacks  of  flatulent  dyspepsia,  accompanied  by  distention 
of  tl^e  stomach,  and  the  "shortness  of  wind"  so  commonly  ascribed  to 
"internal  fat." 

As  regards  alcoliolic  stimulants,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  habitual 
vise  of  ardent  spirits  during  training  should  be  absolutely  forbidden,  and 
that  the  milder  stimulants,  such  as  light  wines  and  beer,  even  if  not  di- 
rectly injurious,  are,  or  at  least  should  be,  unnecessary.  Depressed  con- 
ditions of  the  body,  which  may  seem  to  call  for  their  use,  are  generally 
the  result  of  over-training,  the  proper  remedy  for  which  is  relaxation  in 
the  amount  of  work,  rather  than  the  application  of  a  goad  to  the  flagging 
powers.  The  English  rules  upon  this  point,  which  not  only  allow,  but 
recommend,  the  moderate  use  of  the  milder  stimulants,  are  an  unsafe  guide 
for  this  country.  The  bracing  character  of  our  climate,^  as  well  as  the 
more  highly  sensitive  nervous  org'anization  of  the  American,  render  him 
much  less  tolerant  of  alcohol  than  his  British  cousin,  and,  therefore,  much 
more  likely  to  be  injured  by  its  use.  AA^e  have  no  disposition  to  take  ex- 
treme ground  upon  this  question,  and  are  perfectly  willing  to  admit  that 
a  very  moderate  allowance  of  light  wine  or  thoroughly  fermented  ale  at 
dinner  may  occasionally  be  serviceable,  particularly  toward  the  close  of 
training,  when  men  are  apt  to  fall  off  in  condition,  and  yet  are  unable  to 
take  the  relaxation  which  is  really  required.  Let  stimulants  be  reserved 
for  such  emergencies,  but  let  it  be  understood  at  the  same  time  that  the 
occurrence  of  such  an  emergency,  when  due  to  avoidable  causes,  is  evi- 
dence of  a  fault}"  training,  and  is  a  virtual  confession,  therefore,  that  the 
training  has  failed  in  its  object  of  securing  a  jDerfect  condition  of  bodily 
health  and  strength. 

Still  less  defensible  is  tlie  use  of  tobacco  during  trainino-.  Its  influence 
upon  the  nervous  system  in  early  life  is  very  generally  depressing,  "Where 
the  habit  is  a  confirmed  one,  a  gradual  abandonment  may  be  necessary  to 
avoid  undue  depression ;  but,  as  a  rule,  less  inconvenience  will  be  experienced 
by  an  immediate  discontinuance  on  commencing  training.  Good  material 
for  a  racing-crew  will  rarely  be  found  among  those  who  are  so  addicted  to 
tobacco  as  to  be  seriously  distressed  by  leaving  it  off  suddenly,  while  the 
morale  of  the  crew  is  more  easily  maintained  if  no  discrimination  is  allowed 
in  favor  of  particular  members.  In  long  courses  of  training,  however,  the 
same  strictness  need  not  be  observed  at  the  outset,  but  a  limit  of  time  may 
be  set  beyond  which  entire  abstinence  should  be  insisted  upon. 

(f.)    Over-training. — On  some  constitutions,  strict  training,  especially 


'  Englisli  travellers  in  this  country  very  commonly  experience  an  intolerance  of  the 
stimulants  to  which  they  are  accustomed  at  home. 


362  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

if  long  continued,  exerts  a  depressing  influence,  manifesting  itself  in  loss 
of  appetite,  lassitude,  and  often  in  the  appearance  of  boils  or  abscesses. 
These  symptoms  are  sometimes  developed  early  in  training,  but  most  fre- 
quently toward  the  close  of  the  course,  when  anxiety  as  to  the  result  of 
the  approaching  contest,  loss  of  sleep,  and  perhaps  the  depressing  influ- 
ence of  hot  weather,  are  occasionally  superadded  to  the  effects  of  over- 
exertion. Among  boating  men  the  most  common  situation  of  furuncular 
inflammations  is  upon  the  palms  of  the  hands  or  the  fundament,  where  the 
skin  is  subjected  to  the  greatest  amount  of  friction,  and  even  a  trifling 
irritation  of  these  parts  is  liable  to  be  developed,  by  continued  exercise, 
into  a  diffuse  inflammation  which  entirely  disables  the  rower.  Absolute 
rest  of  the  parts,  or  at  least  a  considerable  diminution  in  the  amount  of 
Avork,  is  indispensable  whenever  such  a  result  is  threatened.  In  less 
serious  forms  of  constitutional  depression,  the  administration  of  tonics, 
with  a  moderate  allowance  of  wine  or  Bass's  ale,  may  be  sufficient  to  revive 
appetite  and  restore  strength;  but,  when  these  measures  fail  after  a  short 
trial,  a  few  days'  relaxation,  especially  if  accompanied  by  a  change  of  air 
and  scene,  will  generally  produce  a  marked  improvement.  Palpitation 
and  irritable  action  of  the  heart  are  also  of  not  infrequent  occurrence,  par- 
ticularly at  the  outset  of  the  training.  When  not  due  to  gastric  disorder, 
these  annoying  symptoms  will  generally  be  found  to  depend  upon  mal- 
adjustment of  the  work  to  the  vital  capacity  of  the  heart.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  training  is  to  educate  the 
vascular  system  to  transmit,  with  great  rapidity,  a  very  much  increased 
volume  of  blood.  With  a  healthy  heart,  this  process  of  education  is  un- 
attended with  risk,  so  long  as  the  work  is  regulated  according  to  the 
gradually  developing  power  of  the  organ;  but,  when  an  attempt  is  made 
to  force  the  process  by  unduly  increasing  the  labor,  symptoms  of  cardiac 
exhaustion,  such  as  those  described,  will  arise  in  a  certain  proportion  of 
cases.  A  temporary  reduction  in  the  amount  of  exercise,  and,  in  cases  of 
palpitation  sufficiently  annoying  to  disturb  sleep,  the  administration  of 
digitalis  or  aconite,  will  usually  give  prompt  relief. 

(g.)  Cautions  to  be  observed  on  abandoning  training. — The  dangers  to 
be  apprehended  from  an  incautious  abandonment  of  "  training  "  habits  of 
diet  and  exercise  are  connected  chiefly  with  the  digestive  and  vascular 
systems.  The  temptation  to  indulge  in  indigestible  articles  of  food,  and 
particularly  in  the  excessive  use  of  tobacco  and  alcoholic  stimulants,  is  fre- 
quently very  strong,  and,  unfortunately,  is  not  always  resisted.  Even 
when  no  such  imprudence  is  committed,  the  same  amount  of  food  which 
was  used  in  trainina:  is  often  continued  after  the  abandonment  of  exercise 
has  rendered  it  unnecessary,  and  thus  the  foundation  is  laid  for  digestive 
disorders.  Again,  the  heart,  which  has  been  gradually  educated  to  un- 
usually powerful  contractions,  and  which,  in  a  long  course  of  training,  has 
undergone  a  certain  degree  of  normal  hypertrophy,  has  now  to  unlearn 
its  task,  and  to  pass  through  a  stage  of  subinvolution.  That  this  stage 
should  be  made  a  gradual  one  by  continuing  moderate  exercise  for  some 
time  after  training  has  ceased,  can  scarcely  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon.. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  36 i> 

Fortunately,  the  vascular  system  possesses  a  marvellous  capacity  of  self- 
regulation,  and  with  most  men  the  changes  in  question  are  effected  without 
disturbance,  even  when  no  precaxition  is  taken.  But  this  is  not  always  the 
case ;  a  sudden  return  to  sedentary  habits  is  sometimes  followed  for  a  time  by 
a  sense  of  oppression  in  the  chest  and  violent  beating  of  the  heart,  due  to  a 
failure  of  the  oi-gan  to  adjust  itself  to  the  work  required  of  it.  While  we 
would  not  underestimate  the  harm  that  may  be,  and  often  is,  done  by  in- 
judicious training,  we  are  entirely  satisfied  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
cases  of  impaired  health  in  after-life,  which  are  ascribed  to  this  cause,  are 
really  the  result  of  immoderate  indulgence  or  of  thoughtless  inattention  to 
simple  hygienic  rules  on  abandoning  training. 

The  same  necessity  for  careful  training  exists  also  in  the  case  of  all 
other  competitive  athletic  exercises  which  involve  an  intense  strain  upon 
the  vascular  system.  This  is  jjarticularly  true  of  running,  whether  in  the 
form  of  racing,  steeple-chasing,  or  in  the  game  of  "hare  and  hounds." 
Notwithstanding  the  greater  freedom  of  the  respiratory  movements  in 
running  as  compared  with  rowing,  there  is  much  more  danger  of  over- 
strain of  the  heart  in  a  sharply  contested  foot-race  than  in  boat-racing,  as 
is  shown  by  the  more  frequent  occurrence  of  faintness  or  actual  syncope 
in  running  matches.  Even  sprint-races  (100  to  400  yards),  though  less  try- 
ing than  long-distance  courses,  are  not  exempt  from  this  danger,  as  they 
are  generally  run  through  from  the  start  at  full  speed,  while  the  hundred, 
yards  distance  is  usually  finished  in  a  single  respiration.  We  have  already 
pointed  out  the  marked  liability  of  professional  pedestrians  to  hypertrophy 
and  chronic  dilatation  of  the  heart.  With  amateur  pedestrians  the  danger 
lies  not  so  much  in  this  direction  as  in  the  production  of  acute  dilatation 
or  rupture  of  a  valve  by  a  single  intense  effort,  or  else  in  the  development 
of  obstinate  functional  irritability  by  too  frequent  repetitions  of  the  exer- 
cise. The  best  safeguard  against  these  risks  is  a  carefully  graduated 
course  of  preparatory  training.^ 

'  The  following  record  of  a  few  of  the  best  performances  in  walking,  running,  and 
jumping  (compiled  to  January  1,  1879)  maybe  of  interest : 

Walking. 

B^  Professionals. 
One  mile  in  6  min.  23  sees.,  by  W.  Perkins,  June  1,  1874,  England. 
Ten  miles  in  1  hour  15  min.  58  sees.,  by  W.  Perkins,  July  16,  1877,  England. 

By  Amateurs. 
One  mile  in  6  min.  44|  sees.,  by  T.  H.  Armstrong,  Oct.  20,  1877,  New  York. 
Ten  miles  in  1  hour  26  min.  37  sees.,  by  F.  Pace,  March  11,  1865,  London,  Eng- 
land. 

Running. 

By  Professionals. 

100  yards  in  9i  sees.,  by  G-.  Seward,  U.  S.  America,  Sept.  30,  1844,  Hammersmitii, 
England. 


364  PHYSICAL    EXEUCISE. 

Before  concluding  our  brief  consideration  of  the  dangerous  side  of  ath- 
letic sports,  a  word  of  caution  seems  desirable  with  regard  to  the  game  of 
foot-ball,  which  has  sprung  into  sudden  popularity  in  this  countr}^  within  the 
jjast  five  years.  Much  may  be  said  in  its  favor.  It  afPords  vigorous  exer- 
cise to  a  large  number  of  muscles,  without  demanding  extreme  exertion; 
it  is  inexpensive,  and  hence  it  is  available  for  all  classes;  and  furthermore, 
it  teaches  the  valuable  lesson  of  strict  discipline,  concerted  action,  and 
presence  of  mind  in  the  midst  of  intense  excitement.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  game  is  a  very  rough  one,  and  exposes  the  player  to  the  risk  of  serious 
accidents.  In  the  reign  of  James  L  the  game  was  regarded  as  so 
dangerous  to  the  limbs  of  his  Majesty's  subjects  that  it  was  prohibited  by 
law,  and  although  the  game  as  now  played  in  England  is  much  less  hazard- 
ous than  it  was  at  that  time,  the  annual  list  of  foot-ball  accidents  in  that 
country  is  a  formidable   one.'     The  American  game,  so  far  as  it  is    at 


Half-mile  in  1  mtti.  53^  sees.,  by  F.  Hewitt,  Sep.  17,  1871,  Lyttleton,  Australia. 

One  mile  in  4  mtri.  17^  sees.,  by  W.  Eichards  and  W.  Lang,  Aug.  19,  1865,  Man- 
chester, England. 

Ten  miles  in  51  min.  26  sees.,  by  L.  Bennett,  Cattaratigns  Indian,  April  3,  1863, 
Brompton,  England. 

By  Amateurs. 

100  yards  in  10  sees.,  by  W.  C.  Wilmer,  Oct.  12,  1878,  Mott  Haven,  New  York. 

Half-mile  in  1  min.  57i  sees.,  by  F.  T.  Elborough,  Oct.  7,  1876,  Lillie  Bridge 
Ground,  England. 

One  mile  in  4  min.  244-  sec,  by  W.  Slade,  June  19,  1875,  Lillie  Bridge  Ground, 
England. 

Ten  miles  in  54  min.  49  sees.,  by  J.  Gibb,  Nov.  17,  1877,  London,  England. 

JUJIPING. 

By  ProfessionnU. 

Eunning  wide  jump  with  dumb-bells,  29  feet  7  iuches,  by  J.  Howard,  May  8,  1854, 
Chester  Race  Course,  England. 

Running  wide  jump,  23  feet  4  inches,  by  T.  Carruthers,  July,  1871,  Levan,  Scotland. 

Standing  wide  jump,  13  feet  10  inches,  by  J.  Dean,  Sept.  19,  1878,  Oil  City, 
Pennsylvania. 

Running  high  jump,  5  feet  11  inches,  by  E.  Vardy,  Aug.  27,  1859,  Hay  den  Race 
Course.  England. 

Running  high  pole  jump,  10  feet  101  inches,  by  G.  Musgrove,  Aug.,  1866,  Cocker- 
mouth,  England. 

By  Amateurs. 

Running  wide  jump,  23  feet  1^  inches,  by  J.  Lane,  June  11, 1874,  Dublin,  Ireland. 

Standing  wide  jump,  10  feet  5  inches,  by  J.  J.  Tickle,  Sept.  2,  1871,  Leigh,  Man- 
chester, England. 

Running  high  jump,  6  feet  2\  inches,  by  M.  J.  Brooks,  April  7,  1876,  Lillie  Bridge 
Ground,  England. 

Running  high  pole  jump,  11  feet  1  inch,  by  J.  E.  Woodburn,  July  21,  1876,  Elver- 
stone,  England. 

'  See  cases  of  fracture,  strains,  joeriosteal  swellings  on  the  shins,  concussion  of  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  etc.,  reported  by  Dr.  Robert  Farquharson,  Medical  Officer  to 
Rugby  School.  Lancet,  April  16.  1870.  p.  545.  Also  numerous  serious  accidents  re- 
ported in  Lancet,  1875,  1876.  1877,  1878. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  865 

present  systematized,  is  based  upon  the  rules  of  the  Rugby  Union, 
which  allow  the  ball  to  be  picked  up  and  run  with  toward  the  opponent's 
goal.  This  practice  is  forbidden  by  the  rules  of  the  English  Foot-ball 
Association,  and  with  good  reason,  it  seems  to  us,  for  most  of  the  serious 
accidents  occur  from  a  player's  being  violently  thrown  to  the  ground  while 
running  with  the  ball.  Another  source  of  danger  is  the  "  scrimmages," 
which  play  an  important  part  in  all  forms  of  the  game,  and  in  which 
physical  strength  is  allowed  an  undue  advantage  over  skill.  Probably  no 
alterations  can  be  made  in  the  game,  which  would  render  it  entirely  harm- 
less, without  at  the  same  time  destroying  its  distinctive  character  as  well 
as  its  attractiveness.  In  this  country  the  game  has  hitherto,  so  far  as  we 
are  aware,  been  unattended  by  any  very  serious  accidents;  but  it  is  easy 
to  prophesy  that  they  will  in  time  be  the  certain  result  of  increasing- 
rivalry,  and  that  some  important  modifications,  which  shall  at  least  dimin- 
ish the  danger,  will  ultimately  be  imperatively  demanded. 

GYMNASTIC    EXERCISES. 

As  compared  with  out -door  exercises,  such  as  athletic  sports  and  games, 
hunting,  horse-back  riding,  etc.,  gymnastics  labor  under  two  disadvan- 
tages: (1)  they  are  conducted  under  cover,  and  in  winter  in  apartments 
where  the  artificially  heated  air  is  never  absolutely  pure,  however  perfect 
the  ventilation;  and  (2)  they  are  generally  undertaken  as  tasks,  and  there- 
fore lack  the  mental  exhilaration  which  forms  so  valuable  an  element  of 
recreative  exercises.  Without  such  mental  stimulus,  physical  exercise 
loses  most  of  its  invio-oratino-  influence.  "  In  mind,"  said  Mr.  Erasmus 
Wilson,  "  lies  the  great  secret  of  beneficial  exercise,  and  without  it 
exercise  is  a  misnomer,  and  a  fraud  on  the  constitution."  The  same  idea, 
expressed  in  a  less  exaggerated  form,  is  carried  out  at  some  length  by  Dr. 
Strachan  in  an  excellent  little  essay  on  the  function  of  ^^/ay  in  the  phys- 
ical and  intellectual  development  of  children.'  Still,  although  this  spon- 
taneous recreative  element  is  necessarily  very  generally  absent  from  sys- 
tematic exercises,  gymnastics  are  not  without  special  advantages  of  their 
own.  In  a  well-ordered  course  of  gymnastics  the  amount  of  exercise  may 
be  regulated,  deficiencies  of  development  corrected,  and  a  proportionate 
culture  of  the  bodily  powers  secured  with  a  greater  degree  of  cer- 
tainty, and  with  less  danger  of  injurious  results,  than  is  possible  with 
any  single  form  of  exercise.  We  say  toell-ordered  course  of  gymnastics, 
because  the  gymnasium  should  be  a  school  of  physical  culture,  where  the 
novice,  at  least,  should  be  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a  competent 
trainer,  who  selects  for  him,  not  the  exercises  which  he  likes  best,  but 
those  which  are  best  for  him.  This  educational  function  of  the  gym- 
nasium is  too  often  lost  sight  of  in  this  country,  particularly  at  our 
colleges  and  academies,  where  large  sums  are  often  expended  in  erecting 
spacious  buildings  filled  with  numerous  apparatus,  but  without  any  ade- 
quate provision  for  proper  instruction.     With  a  few  notable  exceptions 

'  What  is  Play  ?  Its  Bearing-  upon  Education  and  Training  :  a  Physiological  Inquiry, 
by  John  Strachan,  M.D.,  Edinburgh,  1877. 


366  PHYSICAL    EXEECISE. 

this  serious  fault  of  our  gymnastic  system  is  almost  universal,  and  largely 
accounts  for  the  absurdly  disproportionate  results  which  are  obtained 
from  the  outlay  of  money.  Spend  less,  if  need  be,  upon  buildings  and 
apparatus,  but  provide,  as  the  fundamental  condition  for  the  successful 
operation  of  the  gymnasium,  a  competent  instructor,  who  shall  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  gradual  and  proportionate  development  of  those  under 
his  charge,  and  who  shall  be  able  to  inspire  them  with  his  own  enthusiasm 
lor  physical  culture. 


THE    CARE    OF   THE    PERSON. 


BY 

ARTHUR  VAN   HARLINGEN,   M.D., 
PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 

CHIEF   OF   THE   CLINIC   FOB  DISEASES   OF   THE   SKIN,    HOSPITAL   OF   THE    UNITERSITT    OF   PENNSYLVANIA, 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  PERSON". 


The  care  of  the  person,  viewed  from  a  hygienic  stand-point,  includes 
chiefly  those  means  by  which  cleanliness  and  the  proper  performance  of 
the  functions  of  the  skin  and  its  appendages  are  maintained,  together 
with  protection  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  and  from  external 
injury.  The  various  additional  measures  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
preserving  and  increasing  personal  comeliness  and  beauty  belong  rather 
to  the  subject  of  cosmetics  than  to  that  of  hygiene. 

Anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  skin. — The  outer  layer  of  the  skin 
(epidermis)  is  composed  of  an  innumerable  number  of  fine  horny  lamelte 
or  scales  no  larger  than  the  •g-g'o-y-  inch  in  diameter,  which  are  subject  to 
constant  waste  and  renewal,  like  other  portions  of  the  human  body,  and 
which  are  constantly  being  east  off  in  the  form  of  a  dry  branny  scurf. 
Below  these  and  in  the  lower  layers  of  the  skin  are  thousands  of  minute 
projections  called  papillge,  which  are  the  organs  of  common  sensation,  of 
touch,  and  of  the  sense  of  pain.  Each  one  of  these  contains  the  terminal 
end  of  a  nerve  by  means  of  which  impressions  made  upon  the  surface  are 
carried  to  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  motor  impulses,  such  as  cause 
contraction  or  expansion  of  the  blood-vessels  or  of  the  muscles,  are  sent 
back  again  to  the  skin.  In  addition,  the  skin  contains  a  rich  network  of 
blood-vessels,  ra,mifying  through  its  tissues  in  all  directions  and,  like  the 
nerve  endings,  spreading  over  an  area  of  nearly  fifteen  square  feet.  Be- 
side these,  the  skin  contains  several  millions  of  perspiratory  and  oil  glands. 

The  skin  may  be  regarded  in  a  fourfold  light  :  1.  Tt  is  a  jwotective 
organ. — The  skin  guards  the  parts  underneath  from  mechanical  injury, 
protecting  them  by  its  bad  conducting  power  from  excessive  heat  and 
cold,  and  regulating  the  bodily  temperature  by  the  dilatation  or  contrac- 
tion of  its  blood-vessels,  and  by  the  greater  or  less  amount  of  perspiration 
which  it  pours  forth.  2.  It  is  a  vascular  organ. — The  importance  of  the 
skin  as  a  vascular  organ  is  seen  in  the  faintness  produced  when  its  capil- 
laries are  filled,  and  the  blood  drawn  from  the  brain,  as  by  a  hot  bath, 
and  also  by  the  dangerous  congestions  brought  on  by  chilling  of  the  sur- 
face, driving  a  large  body  of  blood  in  upon  the  internal  organs.  3.  It  is 
a  glandular  organ. — The  number  of  the  perspiratory  glands  being  as 
great  as  it  is,  their  function  must  be  an  important  one.     Ordinarily  the 

perspiratory  secretion  does  not  reach  the  surface,  but  is  diffused  through 
Vol.  I.— 24 


370  THE  CAEE  OF  THE  PERSON. 

the  pulverulent  layers  of  the  skin  and  lost  like  the  water  of  rivers  flowing 
into  the  sands  of  the  desert.  This  is  what  is  called  insensible  perspiration, 
of  which  about  two  pounds  are,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  secreted  in 
twenty-four  hours.  Being  diffused  in  this  way  its  evaporation  helps  to 
equalize  the  bodily  temjDerature.  Under  the  influence  of  violent  exercise 
or  in  the  hot-air  bath  a  large  quantity  of  perspiratory  secretion  may  be 
poured  out  in  a  very  short  time,  showing  itself  in  bead-like  drops  at  the 
openings  of  the  sweat -tubes,  and  forming  what  is  known  as  sensible  per- 
spiration. The  sebaceous  or  oil-glands  are  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  per- 
spiratory glands;  they  serve  to  lubricate  the  skin  and  aid  in  the  exclusion 
of  extraneous  fluids  and  gases.  When  diseased  or  clogged  by  dirt  and 
neglect  they  display  black  points,  and  on  pressure  their  secretion  can  be 
squeezed  out  in  the  form  of  greasy  plugs,  the  so-called  "  flesh  worms," 
found  in  the  face  and  shoulders.  A  certain  proportion  of  carbonic  acid 
is  also  excreted  by  the  skin,  the  amount  being  about  -gJy-  of  that  thrown 
off  by  the  lungs.  4.  It  is  a  7iervoiis  organ. — Every  impression  made  on 
the  surface  of  our  bodies  is  conveyed  to  the  nerve-centres  and  produces 
its  due  effect,  and  very  many  mental  impressions  are  exj^ressed  by  some 
change  in  the  condition  and  aspect  of  the  skin.  Every  one  has  noticed 
instances  of  the  former  influence  in  the  involuntary  muscular  movements 
caused  by  tickling  the  soles,  and  the  sighing  or  gasping  which  follows 
when  water  is  dashed  upon  the  face  or  breast.  Instances  of  mental  im- 
pressions having  their  reflex  in  conditions  of  the  skin  are  noticed  in  the 
blanching  of  fear,  the  blushing  of  shame,  the  copious  perspiration  of 
mental  anxiety,  and  the  standing  on  end  of  the  hair  from  horror. 

The  constant  secretion  and  discharge  of  perspiratory  and  oily  matter 
upon  the  surface  of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  continual  shedding  of  epider- 
mic scales,  involves  a  double  source  of  defilement — from  within  and  from 
without.  For  while  these  effete  products  are  themselves  constantly  ac- 
cumulating upon  the  skin,  they  attract,  at  the  same  time,  from  their 
oleaginous  character,  floating  dust  and  dirt.  If  the  skin  is  not  kept  clean, 
its  glands  or  "  jDores  "  become  clogged  by  these  accumulations  and  it  be- 
comes unable  to  perform  its  functions  as  a  glandular  and  respiratory  organ. 
To  promote  the  proper  accomplishment  of  these  functions  of  the  skin  is 
one  of  the  chief  objects  of  bathing.  Another  object  is  refreshment  by 
the  influence  of  the  bath  on  the  terminal  nerve  fibres  and  on  the  circulation 
of  the  integument,  an  influence  which  may  be  either  soothing  or  stimu- 
lating, depending  upon  the  character  of  the  bath. 

The  bath. — The  simplest  form  of  the  bath  is  that  employed  in  the  cus- 
tomary uses  of  the  toilet.  Those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  most  ex- 
posed to  dirt,  as  the  face,  neck,  arms,  and  hands,  should  be  washed  at 
least  twice  a  day,  preferably,  as  a  general  thing,  in  luke-warm  water, 
and  with  the  use  of  soap.  Certain  j^arts,  as  the  feet,  arm-pits,  groins, 
and  neighboring  parts,  should  be  washed  every  evening  with  the  spar- 
ing use  of  soap.  The  amount  of  soap  used  in  the  toilet  should  de- 
pend upon  the  delicacy  of  the  skin  and  the  exposure  to  which  it  has  been 
subjected.      A  man  with  a  coarse,  greasy  skin,  who  has  been  exposed  to 


THE    (JAKE    OE    THE    PERSON.  37l 

the  dust  all  day,  naturally  requires  much  more  soap  than  a  delicate  wo- 
man whose  skin  is  dry,  and  who  is  not  much  out  of  doors.  Persons  in 
whom  the  oil-glands  of  the  skin  are  well  developed  and  active,  especially 
those  about  the  face  or  shoulders,  require  much  more  soap  in  washing" 
than  do  those  whose  skin  is  harsh,  dry,  and  lacking-  in  oily  secretion. 

It  is  better  to  apply  the  soap,  by  means  of  the  hands  directly,  without 
the  intervention  of  sponges,  wash-rags,  etc.  The  fingers  insinuate  them- 
selves more  deftly  into  any  crevice  or  hollow  of  the  surface  than  is  pos- 
sible for  a  bit  of  flannel  or  a  sponge;  they  can  use  just  the  requisite 
amount  of  jDressure  and  friction,  and  they  are  not  so  liable  to  do  damage 
in  unduly  rubbing  or  chafing  the  skin. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  choice  between  the  various  soaps  which  are 
offered  in  the  market  for  toilet  use.  These  soaps  are,  or  should  be,  com- 
pounded of  caustic  soda  and  refined  animal  fat  or  the  best  olive-oil,  with 
some  suitable  perfume.  In  point  of  fact,  not  only  are  such  ingredients  as 
rosin,  cotton-seed  oil,  etc.,  made  use  of,  but  frequently  rancid  fats,  as  well 
as  oleaginous  refuse,  enter  into  the  composition  of  so-called  "  toilet  soaps," 
strong  scents  being  added  to  disguise  the  original  evil  odor.  Well-knowri 
brands,  as  the  '•'  old  brown  Windsor,"  are  thus  sophisticated,  and  some- 
times produce  deleterious  effects  upon  the  skin.  Opaque  and  mottled 
soaps  give  such  opportunity  for  adulteration  that  they  cannot  be  unquali- 
fiedly recommended  for  toilet  use.  The  best  and  safest  soap  for  every- 
day employment  is  undoubtedly  the  pure  white  Castile  soap  of  Spanish, 
Freaich,  or  Italian  manufacture.  Purchased  from  dealers  of  reputation,  its 
good  quality  may  be  depended  upon,  and  it  possesses  every  necessary  at- 
tribute for  purposes  of  ablution.  Transparent  soaps  are,  as  a  general 
thing,  less  apt  to  be  adulterated,  since  they  are  made  by  dissolving  "  curd  " 
soap  in  alcohol,  and  will  not  assume  a  perfect  transparency  unless  the  in- 
g'redients  are  of  good  quality.  The  transparent  soaps  made  by  the  Pears, 
of  London,  and  by  Rieger,  are  among  the  best  in  the  market,  though  some 
of  American  make,  as  the  "  glycerine  tablet,"  are,  so  far  as  my  experience 
goes,  equally  good.  When  carefully  perfumed,  these  soaps  leave  nothing 
to  be  desired  for  ^^ractical  use,  and  they  are  sufficiently  luxurious  for  the 
toilet. 

Cosmetics. — A  few  words  may  be  said  with  regard  to  "  cosmetics," 
properly  so  called.  These  are  substances  applied  to  the  skin,  hair  of  the 
head  and  beard,  nails,  and  teeth  to  improve  their  appearance.  None  are 
essential  to  health,  and  some  are  deleterious.  Numerous  instances  are  on 
record  of  poisoning  from  the  use  of  cosmetics  to  improve  the  complexion. 
Those  which  contain  lead  in  the  form  of  "  flake  white  "  are  usually  most 
injurious.  Occasionally  awkward  results  may  occur  from  the  use  of  the 
comparatively  harmless  magister  of  bismuth,  a  mixture  of  the  nitrate  and 
oxide,  which  turns  black  ujDon  exposure  to  fumes  of  sulphurous  acid,  or 
even  onions  ! 

General  bathing. — General  bathing,  aside  from  purposes  of  ablution, 
has  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  the  functions  of  the  skin  and  the 
general  refreshment  of  the,  body.      The  effects  of  baths   are  produced 


372  THE  CAKE  OF  THE  PERSON. 

mainly  by  their  action  on  the  cutaneous  nerves.  The  sudden  immersion 
of  the  body  in  cold  'water  causes  a  shock,  the  cutaneous  capillaries  con- 
tract,  there  is  often  a  slight  gaspnig,  the  pulse  and  respiration  are  quick- 
ened. If  the  water  be  very  cold  and  the  immersion  continued,  these 
symptoms  deepen  in  intensity,  but  if  the  body  be  quickly  removed  from 
the  bath,  "  reaction  "  sets  in;  the  cutaneous  vessels  dilate,  and  there  is  a 
general  sense  of  warmth  and  vigor.  The  effects  of  the  cold  bath  being 
naainly  due  to  impressions  made  upon  the  cutaneous  nerves,  its  various 
modifications  largely  depend  for  their  influence  on  their  power  of  increased 
stimulating  action.  Extreme  coldness  of  the  water;  frequent  changes,  as 
in  the  sea  or  in  running  streams;  great  force  of  impact,  as  when  water 
falls  from  a  height,  or  comes  forcibly  through  a  hose  upon  the  body;  di- 
vision of  the  stream  as  in  shower  and  needle  baths,  and  the  addition  of 
acids  or  salts  to  the  water;  all  appear  to  act  by  increasing  the  stimulat- 
ing power  which  the  water  exerts  upon  the  cutaneous  nerves. 

Warm  baths  produce  an  effect  uj^on  the  skin  directly  contrary  to  that 
which  is  brought  about  by  cold  water :  the  cutaneous  vessels  are  dilated, 
and  the  temperature  is  raised.  While  a  cold  bath  causes  a  certain  stiff- 
ness in  the  muscles  if  continued  too  long  a  time,  a  warm  bath  relieves 
stiffness  and  fatigue  (^Lancet). 

Substances  in  watery  solution  are  slightly  or  not  at  all  absorbed  by  the 
skin,  although  gases  are  thus  absorbed  and  also  substances  dissolved  in 
a  greasy  medium.  Shipwrecked  sailors  are  able  to  retard  the  pangs  of 
thirst  by  keeping  their  clothing  saturated  with  water,  not  because  the 
water  soaks  in  through  the  skin,  but  because  the  transudation  of  water 
and  its  loss  is  thus  hindered.  On  the  other  hand,  in  what  is  known  as 
the  "  continuous  bath,"  persons  live  day  and  night  for  months,  experien- 
cing thirst  as  if  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  simplest  form  of  bath  and  that  best  adapted  to  weak  and  delicate 
individuals,  is  by  means  of  the  wetted  sponge.  The  water  may  have  any 
temperature  desired,  and  a  part  of  the  body  only  need  be  exposed  at  any 
time.  This  bath  affords  a  most  convenient  method  of  applying  the  stimu- 
lating or  soothing  effect  of  water  without  danger.  If  the  water  is  used 
cold,  a  reaction  should  be  induced  in  this,  as  in  all  cold  baths.  When  a 
reaction  is  wanting,  something  is  wrong,  either  in  the  condition  of  the 
individual  or  in  the  manner  of  giving  the  bath,  and  it  should  not  be  per- 
sisted in. 

Another  form  of  the  sponge-hatli  requires  the  use  of  a  large,  shallow 
tub,  in  which  the  bather  stands  or  sits  while  he  receives  the  water  from  a 
sponge  squeezed  over  his  shoulders  and  against  his  body.  The  shock  here 
is  somewhat  greater  when  cold  water  is  used  than  in  the  first  form  of 
sponge-bath.  A  single  affusion  from  the  sponge  is  enough;  the  bather 
should  then  dry  the  body  quickly.  The  bath  should  be  taken  in  the  morn- 
ing on  rising  and  in  a  warm  room. 

The  douche  consists  in  a  stream  of  water,  varying  in  size  and  force, 
applied  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  against  different  parts  of  the  body. 
The  douche  exercises  a  certain  amount  of  friction  and  a  continuous  im- 


THE    CARE    OF    THE    PEKSOjN'.  873 

pulse  on  the  sjDot  to  which  it  is  apjDlied.  It  quickens  the  circulation,  and 
is  said  to  favor  the  absorption  of  various  diseased  deposits.  Its  effects 
are  so  powerful  that  it  cannot  be  applied 'for  a  long  time  continuously,  but 
after  every  two  or  three  minutes  should  be  suspended  for  a  short  interval. 

The  ordinary  shoioer-hath  is  a  form  of  douche,  the  effect  of  wliich 
varies  considerably  according  to  the  height  above  the  head  at  which  it  is 
placed  and  the  size  of  the  apertures  through  which  the  stream  pours.  To 
obtain  the  most  satisfactory  effect — a  moderate  stimulation,  without  too 
great  a  shock — the  stream  should  pass  through  a  large  number  of  very 
small  holes,  and,  in  this  state  of  fine  subdivision,  should  be  poured  upon 
the  head  from  a  very  moderate  height. 

A  variety  of  shower-bath — not  often  used,  however,  outside  of  hydro- 
pathic establishments — is  the  circular  or  needle  bath,  in  which  the  bather 
stands  within  a  series  of  rings,  formed  of  tubes  lined  on  the  inside  with 
holes,  from  which  thousands  of  minute  jets  of  water  are  projected  simul- 
taneously against  every  portion  of  the  body.  The  stimulant  effect  of  this 
bath  is  too  great  to  allow  of  its  continuance  for  more  than  a  few  moments 
in  the  case  of  most  persons.  Other  forms  of  the  douche,  as  the  wave- 
bath,  etc.,  are  modifications  of  this  form,  without  material  difference  in 
their  mode  of  action  or  effect.  What  is  known  as  the  Ecossaise  is  a 
douche  of  alternate  hot  and  cold  water.  Employed  in  the  ordinary 
shower-bath,  which,  as  usually  set  up  in  most  houses,  can  be  used  with 
hot  and  cold  water,  this  form  of  bath  is  convenient  and  agreeable.  The 
bather,  soaping  himself  thoroughly,  can  wash  off  the  superfluous,  cuta- 
neous, oily  matter  and  epidermic  debris  under  the  hot  shower,  which  opens 
the  pores,  and  allows  of  somewhat  free  transudation  of  their  secretion,  and 
■can  then,  by  a  movement  of  the  hand,  change  the  hot  stream  to  a  cold 
■one,  and,  experiencing  a  momentary  shock,  will,  an  instant  later,  enjoy 
the  refreshing  reaction  which  is  sure  to  follow.  A  warm  bath,  taken  for 
■cleansing  purposes  by  a  healthy  person,  should  always  be  followed  by  a 
■cold  affusion  ;  otherwise  the  bather  runs  a  decided  risk  of  catching  cold, 
by  dressing  and  going  about  while  the  pores,  or  rather  the  cutaneous 
capillaries,  are  in  that  state  of  dilatation  and  semi-paralysis,  in  which  they 
are  left  by  the  warm  bath. 

In  addition  to  the  douche  in  its  various  forms,  we  may  mention  the  half- 
bath,  the  sitz-bath,  and  the  full-bath.  The  half-bath,  in  which  the  bather 
sits  in  a  tub  filled  with  water  to  the  depth  of  from  ten  to  twelve  inches, 
while  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  sponged  off,  is  adapted  to  invalids 
in  whom  some  chest  affection  forbids  the  exercise  of  pressure.  For  in  an 
ordinary  bath  there  is  considerable  pressure  upon  the  surface,  as  much  as 
a  pound  to  the  square  inch,  the  influence  of  which  on  the  functions  of  the 
body  cannot  be  inconsiderable,  although  exactly  what  its  effects  may  be 
has  never  been  ascertained.  The  sitz-bath  is  usually  taken  in  a  tub  made 
for  the  purpose,  in  which  the  hips  and  neighboring  parts  are  exposed  to 
the  action  of  water,  maintained  at  the  desired  temperature.  The  full  or 
ordinary  bath  needs  no  description;  its  effect  depends  largely  upon  the 
temperature  at  which  it  is  taken. 


374  THE    CARE    OF    THE    PEKSOJS^. 

Thus  far  cold  baths  have  been  spoken  of  for  the  most  part.  Hot  baths 
exercise  a  very  salutary  effect  in  many  instances,  depending  somewhat  on 
the  degree  of  their  heat.  As  ordinarily  understood,  the  cold  hath  may 
be  of  any  temperature,  from  below  50°  F.  up  to  70°  F.  Very  cold  baths, 
below  50°  F.,  cannot  be  borne  long.  The  tepid  hath  is  usually  taken  at 
85°  to  95°  F.  The  loarm  hath  may  range  between  96°  and  104°  F.,  while 
the  hot  hath  is  usually  regarded  as  102°  to  110°  F.  Very  hot  baths,  110° 
to  120°  F.,  are  not  safe;  they  tend  to  scalding,  and  can  only  be  borne  a 
very  few  moments,  as  violent  action  of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels  sets  in. 

The  vapor-hath  is  taken  at  a  temperature  of  90°  to  110°  F.  There  is- 
a  good  deal  of  oppression  at  first  and  some  difficulty  in  breathing,  but 
soon  perspiration  bursts  through  the  pores  and  the  breathing  is  easy  and 
agreeable.  In  the  simplest  form  of  vapor-bath  the  individual  sits  on  a 
chair  surrounded  by  a  water-proof  sheet  fitting  closely  about  the  neck. 
Hot  water  is  then  poured  over  heated  bricks  placed  conveniently  under 
the  chair.  The  most  extensively  used  vapor-bath  is  that  known  as  the 
Husslan  hath.  In  this  bath  the  bather  lies  upon  a  sort  of  staging,  the 
lower  stejDs  of  which  expose  him  to  a  moderate  temperature  (usually  about 
104°  F.),  Avhile  the  higher  ones  place  him  in  an  almost  unbearable  heat 
(132°  F.).  Douches  of  hot  water,  copious  lathering  with  soap,  and  rub- 
bing with  birch  twigs  and  leaves  are  among  the  adjuncts  of  this  bath. 
As  taken  by  the  Russians  themselves  in  former  times,  flagellation,  witlt 
birch  twigrs,  was  resorted  to  and  the  bather  was  accustomed  to  rush  out 
of  the  bath  and  roll  himself,  all  naked  and  steaming  as  he  was,  in  the 
snow.  Milder  customs  we  believe  prevail  among  the  Russians  of  to-day, 
nevertheless  the  vapor-bath  is  not  to  be  indulged  in  at  all  times  and  by 
all  persons  with  impunity.  When  there  is  any  tendency  to  heart  disease, 
palpitation,  etc.,  or  fulness  of  the  head,  the  vapor-bath  should  be  in- 
dulged in  with  caution,  or  not  at  all. 

The  Turkish  hath  differs  from  the  Russian,  essentially  in  the  fact  that 
its  atmosphere  is  dry,  while  that  of  the  Russian  bath  is  loaded  with 
watery  vajDor,  In  taking  a  Turkish  bath,  the  bather  first  enters  the  "  fri- 
gidarium"  or  cooling-room,  when  he  undresses  and  passes  into  the  "  tepi- 
darium,"  the  temperature  of  which  ranges  from  110°  to  140°  F.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  room  is  to  bring  on  a  gentle  perspiration  and  to  prepare  the 
system  for  exposure  to  a  still  higher  temperature.  This  is  attained  in  the 
''calidarium,"  the  temperature  of  which  is  140°  to  180°  or  200°  F.  In 
this  room  the  bather  undergoes  the  operation  of  kneading  or  shampooing. 
To  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  Turkish  bath,  this  procedure  should  not  be 
omitted;  it  should  be  performed  thoroughly  and  gently  by  a  skilled  at- 
tendant, the  hands  alone  being  employed  and  rough  towels,  flesh-brushes, 
and  the  like  entirely  avoided.  After  sweating,  shampooing,  and  soaping, 
the  bather  passes  into  the  "  lavatorium,"  or  wash-room.  In  this  room  he 
bsgins  with  a  warm  shower-bath,  which  is  gradually  changed  to  cool,  and 
then  to  cold.  This  not  only  serves  to  wash  away  the  perspiration,  soap, 
etc.,  but  also  closes  the  pores  and  causes  a  vigorous  reaction.  This  last 
important  result  is  always  readily  obtained,  after  passing  through  the  hot- 


THE    CARE    OF    THE    PEliSON.  375 

air  bath,  the  feeblest  persons  reacting-  without  difficulty.  The  bather  then 
returns  to  the  ''frigiclariuni  "  wiien  he  dresses  slowly,  or,  reclining*  wrapped 
in  a  sheet,  waits  the  cessation  of  the  secondary  perspiration.  (Jos.  AVil- 
son,  M.D.)  The  foregoing-  description  will  apply  essentially  to  all  forms 
of  the  Turkish  bath  as  found  in  this  country.  In  our  larg-er  cities  various 
luxurious  accessories  are  found,  which,  however,  do  not  add  to  the  real 
efficiency  of  the  bath. 

The  Turkish  bath  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  means  of  refreshment 
and  reinvig'oration  we  possess.  Used  in  moderation,  it  is  absolutely  with- 
out dang'er,  even  to  the  delicate,  and  the  feeling-  resulting-  from  its  use  is 
one  of  o-eneral  vigor  and  lightness. 

O  O  C5 

While  on  this  subject,  a  few  words  may  be  said  with  reference  to  the 
sudden  shock  and  change  of  temperature  broug-ht  about  by  the  successive 
use  of  hot  air  and  cold  water.  So  far  from  being-  injurious  to  pass  into 
water  while  in  a  state  of  profuse  perspiration,  nothing-  can  be  less  harmful. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  practice  of  "  cooling  off "  before  going  into  the 
water  should  be  condemned.  When  the  skin  is  in  a  state  of  excitation 
and  the  nervous  powers  are  at  their  natural  standard  or  elevated  above 
their  normal  range,  no  danger  can  result  from  the  sudden  contact  with 
cold  water.  It  is  only  when, the  body  is  chilled,  and  the  powers  of  the  ner- 
vous system  are  depressed  from  exposure,  fatigue,  or  disease,  that  any  ill 
consequences  can  accrue. 

Certain  precautions  must  always  be  exercised  in  bathing  of  whatever 
sort.  The  bath  should  not  be  taken  "on  an  em23ty  stomach," — that  is, 
when  one  is  conscious  of  being  hungry, — or  when  one  is  fatigued.  Nor 
should  it  follow  a  meal  too  closely;  three  or  four  hours  should  be  permitted 
to  elapse.  Ordinarily,  the  proper  time  for  bathing  is  in  the  morning,  either 
before  breakfast  or  about  noon.  A  good  reaction  is  a  necessity  to  the 
advantageous  use  of  the  bath;  iinless  thebather  feels  a  "glow"  after  the 
bath,  it  has  done  him  no  good,  and  possibly  may  have  done  him  harm.  Of 
course  this  does  not  apply  to  tepid  or  wai-m  baths  when  relaxation  alone 
is  desired.  Too  much  bathing,  especially  in  connection  with  the  free 
use  of  soap,  is  injvirious  to  the  skin,  since  it  is  thus  robbed  of  its  oily 
matters,  which  serve  to  keep  it  smooth,  soft,  and  supple.  Every  one 
knows  how  readily  chap^Ded  hands  are  brought  on  in  winter,  and  in  some 
persons  with  thin  dry  skins  in  summer  as  well,  by  the  use  of  soap  and 
warm  water,  without  adequate  drying  and  cooling.  As  has  been  said 
above,  soap  is  to  be  used,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  only  upon  those 
portions  of  the  body  which  are  particularly  exposed  to  dust  and  dirt  and 
when  the  oil-glands  are  active.  As  a  general  thing,  the  rest  of  the  body 
should  only  occasionally  be  washed  with  the  use  of  soap.  The  prolonged 
employment  of  sweating,  as  in  the  "  packing  "  of  the  Water  Cures,  gives 
rise  not  unfrequently  to  the  occurrence  of  boils  and  other  eruptions,  often 
stubborn  and  difficult  to  cure.  Hydropathists  point  to  these  eruptions 
with  satisfaction,  as  evincing  the  escape  of  "humors"  from  the  system, 
but  they  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  the  unfortunate  results  of  a  debili- 
tating: treatment. 


376  THE    CARE    OF    THE    PERSOJS". 

Sea-bathing  is  one  of  the  most  important  forms  of  the  bath.  In  con- 
nection with  the  usual  accessories  of  fresh  air  and  freedom  from  toil  and 
care,  it  affords  a  most  important  aid  to  tiie  preservation  of  health.  The 
beneficial  results  derived  from  bathing  in  the  open  sea  are  chiefly  due  :  1. 
To  the  composition  of  sea-water.  2.  To  the  shock  occasioned  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  waves  and  the  low  temperature  of  the  water.  The  effect  of 
such  baths  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  douche,  only  more  stimulating 
and  with  the  addition  of  the  exhilarating  surroundings.  When  sea- 
bathing is  employed  in  unsuitable  cases,  or  too  often  ;  or  if,  the  bather 
remaining  too  long  in  the  water,  the  body  becomes  cooled  off,  the  stage 
of  reaction  is  replaced  by  one  of  depression,  local  congestions  occur  inter- 
nally, as  is  evinced  by  torpidity  of  the  liver,  imperfect  digestion,  throbbing 
headache,  etc. 

Bathing  in  the  sea  should  not  be  indulged  in  by  the  very  old  or  young; 
by  those  whose  circulation  is  languid;  by  persons  who  have  disease  of  the 
heart,  chronic  lung  disorders,  affections  of  the  brain,  or  local  determina- 
tions of  blood.  Persons  in  moderate  health  should  bathe  in  the  sea  only 
every  other  day;  while  people  of  robust  constitution  can  bathe  daily. 
The  best  time  to  bathe  in  the  ocean  is  in  the  middle  of  the  morning.  If, 
on  account  of  the  tide,  or  for  any  other  reason,  bathing  in  the  early  morn- 
ing is  indulged  in,  the  bather  should  first  take  some  light  refreshment,  as  a 
cup  of  tea,  coffee,  or  chocolate,  and  some  bread  and  butter.  On  no  account 
should  sea-bathing  be  indulged  in  after  a  hearty  meal  or  when  fatigued. 
The  duration  of  the  bath  must,  of  course,  vary  considerably  with  the  in- 
dividual, and  also  according  to  the  time  of  year,  temperature,  state  of  the 
weather,  etc.  Children  may  stay  in  at  first  five,  and  later  ten,  minutes; 
women,  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes;  and  men,  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or 
more.  This  is  a  fair  average  time,  and  cannot  generally  be  prolonged 
without  vitiating  the  original  good  effect  of  the  bath.  How  often  one 
sees,  in  a  stroll  along  a  popular  sea-beach,  groups  of  drenched,  miserable 
objects,  with  blue  lips,  chattering  teeth,  and  wrinkled,  clammy  skin,  who 
have  been  spending  half  a  morning  in  alternately  plunging  into  the  waves 
and  then  walking  about,  dripping,  in  the  cool  air.  All  trace  of  reaction 
has  disappeared  in  these  too  enthusiastic  bathers;  and  they  return,  from 
what  should  have  been  an  invigorating  dip,  in  a  condition  approaching 
collapse,  and  often  requiring  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  to  restore  the 
system  to  full  vitality.  Such  abuse  of  sea-bathing  is,  unfortunately,  too 
common,  even  among  those  who  have  sought  the  sea-side  for  the  improve- 
ment of  impaired  health. 

On  entering  the  water,  the  bather  should  immerse  the  whole  of  the 
body  two  or  three  times,  so  as  to  get  the  action  of  the  shock  from  the 
cold  water  distributed  over  its  entire  surface;  there  should  be  no  hesita- 
tion, no  dabbling  in  the  water,  but  a  bold  plunge  should  be  taken  at  once. 
To  repeat  what  was  said  before:  it  is  a  mistake  to  "  cool  off  "  before  the 
plunge;  all  the  warmth  of  the  body  is  needed  to  gain  a  vigorous  reaction. 
Nor  is  it  requisite  to  sprinkle  or  pour  water  upon  the  head,  wrists,  etc.:  this 
is  quite  unnecessary.     The  head  ought  to  be  uncovered  and  exposed  to 


THE    CAKE    OF    THE    PERSOiY,  377 

the  action  of  the  watei",  unless  the  hair  is  very  thick  and  long,  or  for  some 
equally  valid  reason.  On  coming  out  of  the  water,  the  bather  should  dry 
himself  quickly  with  a  thick,  rough  towel,  dress  rapidly,  and  take  a  brisk 
walk  for  a  short  distance.  This  is  better  than  to  pui'sue  the  practice  com- 
mon, at  least  among  ladies,  of  retiring  at  once  for  a  siesta.  Should  there 
be  any  feeling  of  exhaustion  or  nervous  depression  following  the  bath,  a 
little  food  or  drink  should  be  taken.  The  cause  of  such  depression  should, 
however,  be  looked  into  and  rectified;  for  if  this  is  the  usual  result  of 
the  bath,  either  the  individual  is  not  in  a  condition  to  profit  by  it,  or  else 
there  is  something  wrong  in  the  way  the  bath  is  taken.  In  bathing  of 
any  sort,  and  particularly  in  sea-bathing,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  ears  getting  filled  with  water,  which  may  give  rise  to  much  annoyance, 
and  is  said  to  be  an  occasional  cause  of  permanent  deafness. 

With  children,  the  first  sea-baths  should  not  consist  in  more  than  one 
or  two  rapid  and  successive  immersions.  Subsequent  baths  may  be 
somewhat  prolonged,  but  the  child  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
water  until  chilled.  Children  should  never  be  forced  into  the  water,  par- 
ticularly into  the  surf,  against  their  will.  No  worse  preparation  for  a 
good  reaction  can  be  imagined  than  the  condition  of  fright  and  depression 
existing  when  a  terrified  and  screaming  child  is  dragged,  or,  as  I  have 
seen,  even  thrown,  bodily  into  the  water  by  a  criminally  foolish  parent. 
Regard  for  the  little  sufferer's  health,  not  to  speak  of  motives  of  the 
merest  humanity,  should  prevent  such  cruelty. 

Once  in  the  water,  the  child  should  be  encouraged  to  take  active  ex- 
ercise, than  which  no  form  is  more  beneficial  than  sioimming.  This  is  an 
accomplishment  which  should  be  taught  all  children  at  as  early  an  age  as 
practicable.  One  never  knows  at  what  moment  the  possession  of  such  a 
faculty  as  swimming  may  come  into  play,  enabling  one  to  preserve  one's 
own  life  or  to  rescue  another.  As  a  means  of  exercise,  swimming  is  un- 
rivalled. In  an  ordinary  gymnasium  but  one  muscle  or  set  of  muscles  can 
be  brought  into  play  at  a  time,  but  in  swimming  all  are  used  in  concert, 
and  in  a  medium  which,  while  permitting  free  play  of  every  limb,  yet 
offers  sufficient  resistance  to  bring  out  and  exercise  the  muscular  powers. 
In  sea-bathing,  we  must  add  to  this  the  stimulating  dash  of  the  salt 
waves  and  the  delight  of  the  pure  and  exhilarating  atmosphere, — the 
most  perfect  combination  of  health-giving  circumstances  which  can  be 
conceived. 

In  cases  where  bathing  in  the  open  sea  is  inadmissible,  warm  sea- 
water  baths  are  often  valuable.  Feeble  persons  or  invalids  may  thus 
gradually  accustom  themselves  to  the  use  of  bathing,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  being  lowered  by  degrees  until  open  sea-bathing  can  be  re- 
sorted to. 

When  natural  sea-water  is  unattainable,  artificial  salt-water  baths  are 
sometimes  employed.  They  are  stimulant  to  the  skin,  and  may  be  compared 
in  their  effect  to  those  still  pools  on  the  sea-beach  in  which  invalids  and  chil- 
dren sometimes  bathe — lacking,  of  course,  the  advantage  of  the  bracing  sea- 
air.     Their  influence  is  largely  due  to  the  saline  particles  which  they  con- 


878  THE    CAKE    OE    THE    PEKSOJN". 

tain,  and  any  solution  which  contains  the  chief  constituents  of  sea-water 
will  answer  the  purpose.     Such  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt) 9  lbs. 

Crystallized  sulphate  of  sodium 4  lbs. 

Crystallized  chloride  of  calcium 12  oz. 

Crystallized  chloride  of  magnesium o^  lbs. 

This  amount  is  sufficient  for  a  single  bath,  and  is  to  be  dissolved  in 
thirty  gallons  of  water.  A  prepared  sea  salt  is  sold  in  the  shops,  but  it 
has  no  advantages  over  the  above  preparation. 

Pnblic  hatlis. — The  question  of  the  establishment  of  public  baths  is 
one  which  should  commend  itself  to  all  intelligent  people,  and  yet  it  is 
one  which  in  most  parts  of  this  country  excites  little  or  no  interest. 
Every  facility  for  proper  cleanliness  should  be  afforded  the  poorer,  and 
especially  the  working  classes,  who  are  not  onl}^  more  exposed  from  the 
nature  of  their  avocations  to  various  sources  of  uncleanliness,  but  are  also 
rarely  so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  cleanse  themselves  properly  at  home, 
much  less  to  enjoy  the  luxury  of  a  complete  bath  for  refreshment.  When 
our  cities  were  small  and  the  surrounding  streams  could  easily  be  reached, 
personal  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  working-people  was  not  so  difficult 
of  attainment;  but  now,  in  our  larger  towns  and  cities,  the  lack  of  any, 
even  the  simplest,  means  of  general  ablution  is  a  disgrace  to  our  civiliza- 
tion. Public  baths  have  been  established  recently,  I  believe,  in  Boston 
and  New  York.  The  latter,  unfortunately,  are  simply  floating  houses 
moored  in  the  slips  along  the  river  fronts,  and  the  water  with  which  they 
are  supplied  is  filled  with  garbage  of  all  kinds,  and  more  or  less  tainted 
with  sewage.  AVretched  as  these  baths  are,  and  they  have  been  de- 
nounced as  sources  of  disease,  the  crowds  which  use  them  show  the 
demand  for  some  such  means  of  refreshment.  In  Philadelphia  a  number 
of  public  bathing  houses  were  built  by  the  municipal  authorities  a  few 
vears  ago,  which  were  very  highly  appreciated  by  those  for  whom  they 
were  intended.  The  extensive  river  front  of  this  city,  and  the  com- 
parative purity  of  the  water  permitted  of  these  baths  being  placed  in 
close  proximity  to  the  wharves;  the  current  of  the  river  being  sufficiently 
strong  to  constantly  renew  the  supply  of  water.  After  a  season  or  two, 
jiowever,  they  were  given  up  and  allowed  to  go  to  ruin — on  the  score  of 
economy.  At  present,  although  Philadeljohia  possesses  a  greater  num- 
ber of  private  bath-tubs,  in  proportion  to  the  population,  than  any  large 
city  in  the  world,  yet,  for  the  lowest  classes,  no  provision  for  cleanliness 
is  made,  excepting  by  the  comparatively  limited  efforts  of  some  religious 
societies. 

Many  years  ago  Dr.  Bell  suggested  that  the  waste  steam  of  manufac- 
tories could  be  utilized  in  heating  the  water  for  public  baths.  He  said  : 
"  Much  might  be  done  by  the  heads  of  manufacturing  establishments  in 
which  steam-power  is  employed.  It  has  been  computed  that  the  waste 
water  of  a  500  horse-power  steam  engine  would  suffice  to  furnish  baths 


THE    CARE    OF    THE    PERSOIS".  379 

for  26,000  persons  daily  at  an  average  temperature  of  70°  to  75°  F, 
The  water  taken  from  the  hot  well  of  the  engine,  ranges  from  92°  to 
110°  F." 

Clothing. — The  object  of  clothing  is  chiefly  the  protection  of  the  body 
from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  from  the  effects  of  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.  Clothing  acts  mainly  in  virtue  of  its  being  a 
bad  conductor  of  heat.  In  winter  it  keeps  the  body-heat  from  waste,  *in 
summer  it  prevents  the  absorption  of  heat  from  without.  The  more 
slowly  a  given  material  conducts  heat  the  more  efficacious  is  it  for  the 
purposes  of  clothing.  Exact  experiments  have  shown  the  comparative 
value  in  this  respect  of  different  staffs.  "Woollen  materials  rank  first,  and 
with  them  the  furs  of  certain  animals  and  the  down  of  birds;  next  come 
materials  of  silk  and  cotton,  while  those  of  linen  come  last.  Color  makes 
little  difference  with  regard  to  heat  radiated  from  the  body.  When,  how- 
ever, the  question  is  of  heat  received,  as  from  the  sun,  color  makes  a 
great  difference,  and  material  very  little.     For  instance,  when 

White  cotton  received 100°  F. 

White  linen  received 98°  F. 

White  flannel  received 102°  F. 

White  silk  received 108°  F. 

Taking,  however,  shirtings — the  same  material — of  different  colors,  the 
following  differences  were  observed: 

When  white  received 100°  F. 

Pale  straw  received 102°  F. 

Dark  yellow  received 140°  F. 

Light  green  received 155°  F. 

Dark  green  received 168°  F. 

Turkey  red  received 165°  F. 

Light  blue  received 198°  F. 

Black  received 208°  F. 

This  agrees  with  our  experience.  Every  one  knows  how  much  hotter  one 
feels  in  the  sun  with  a  black  than  with  a  white  coat. 

Loosely-fitting  clothing,  other  things  being  equal,  is  warmer  than 
tight-fitting.  Clothing  worn  in  successive  layers  is  warmer  than  a 
single  layer;  two  shirts  worn  one  over  the  other  are  warmer  than  a  single 
one  containing  the  same  amount  of  material.  Clothing  should  be  perme- 
able to  air,  if  it  is  to  be  either  comfortable  or  healthy.  Few  people  feel 
comfortable  in  india-rubber  garments. 

The  varying  facility  with  which  different  articles  of  clothing  take  up 
water  into  their  interstices  causes  great  difference  in  their  warming  proper- 
ties. Water  is  a  much  better  conductor  of  heat  than  air,  and  the  frequent 
injury  from  damp  clothes  depends  upon  their  rapidly  conducting  away  the 
bodily  heat,  as  well  as  cooling  the  surface  by  evaporation  of  their  con- 
tained water.     An  atmosphere  loaded  with  moisture  in  cold  weather  gives 


^80  THE    CAKE    OF    THE    PERSOjS". 

the  greatest  discomfoi-t.  Every  one  knows  the  days  when  it  seems  im- 
possible to  keep  warm,  and  when  the  cold  "  strikes  through  "  one.  The 
garments  under  these  atmospheric  conditions  become  themselves  moist, 
and  conduct  away  the  heat  of  the  body  more  rapidly  than  usual.  Linen 
readily  imbibes  moisture,  and  by  condensing  the  products  of  cutaneous 
exhalation  and  allowing  their  evaporation,  cools  the  skin  and  gives  rise 
to-  chilliness.  On  the  other  hand,  vestments  of  linen  worn  next  to  the 
skin  are  useful  in  a  condition  of  excitement,  soothing  the  irritable  cuta- 
neous surface  by  the  coolness  which  they  produce,  as  well  as  by  the 
absence  of  fine  spicule.  Cotton-stuffs  imbibe  moisture  much  less  readily 
than  linen,  and  those  of  wool  and  silk  are  still  less  hygroscopic.  On  this 
-account,  and  because  of  their  comparatively  open  texture,  through  which 
vapors  escape,  these  latter  materials  are  slow  to  receive  or  retain  the  per- 
spiration, and  cool  the  surface  less  rapidly  than  linen.  Flannel,  for  in- 
stance, absorbs  or  diffuses  the  perspiration  and  prevents  too  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  One  may  sit  down  on  a  cool  bank,  after  violent  exertion, 
with  much  less  danger  if  dressed  in  a  flannel-shirt  than  if  one's  dress  were 
linen. 

The  non-conducting  quality  of  clothing  depends  not  only  on  its  material 
but  also  upon  its  texture.  A  material  of  loose  texture  confining  much  air 
in  its  interstices  is  warmer  than  the  same  amount  of  clothing  closely 
woven.  Wool  or  cotton,  carded  and  spread  out  in  the  shape  of  wadding, 
and  enclosed  in  an  envelope  of  silk,  will  make  a  warmer  garment  than  the 
same  quantity  of  material  spun  and  woven  and  similarly  covered.  This 
action  of  clothing  may  be  likened  to  that  of  the  double  window-sashes 
used  in  northern  countries.  It  is  well  known  how  well  these  serve  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  intended;  but  if  the  double-sashes  could  be 
closely  joined  together  their  united  value  for  keeping  in  the  heat  would 
be  scarcely  greater  than  that  of  one  alone.  Coarseness  or  fineness  of 
texture  must  be  taken  into  account,  as  well  as  roughness  of  surface,  A 
woollen  garment,  as  flannel,  by  its  innumerable  points  or  capillary  pro- 
jections keeps  up  a  continual  excitement  of  the  skin,  which,  in  those  in 
whom  this  organ  is  sensitive,  amounts  to  irritation.  In  this  respect,  cotton, 
and,  more  especially,  silk  stuffs  of  looser  texture,  come  midway  between 
woollen  and  linen  clothing  in  being  less  irritating  than  the  woollen  and 
securing  more  warmth  than  the  linen. 

What  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  clothing  in  general,  applies  with 
peculiar  force  to  underclothing,  as  coming  in  more  immediate  contact  with 
the  skin.  Linen,  it  is  safe  to  say,  should  never  be  worn  next  the  skin, 
unless  under  certain  circumstances,  when  the  undue  sensitiveness  of  the 
cutaneous  surface  renders  its  employment  necessary,  "  Gauze  "  under- 
wear can  be  procured  of  so  light  weight  that  there  is  no  excuse  for  its 
abandonment  even  in  the  heat  of  summer.  It  takes  up  the  perspiration, 
prevents  clamminess  of  the  skin,  and  guards  against  sudden  chilling  of  the 
surface  after  profuse  perspiration.  Knit  underclothing  is  the  proper  wear 
for  most  persons  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Delicate  individuals 
may,  however,  preferably  wear  flannel,  if  the  skin  is  not  too   sensitive. 


THE    CARE    OF   THE    PERSOJN".  381 

The  flannel  used  in  underclothing  should  not  be  of  too  fine  quality,  nor  of 
too  close  texture,  or  free  transpiration  may  be  hindered.  It  should  not  be 
worn  when  it  chafes  and  reddens  the  skin.  While  due  changes  in  weight 
and  thickness  of  underclothing  may  be  made  in  accordance  with  the 
changing  seasons,  care  must  be  taken  that  these  are  not  premature.  It  is 
better  to  staffer  from  an  excess  of  clothing,  than  to  change  rashly  and  run 
the  risk  of  contracting  disease. 

Too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  shape  and  form  of  clothing,  with 
reference  to  its  influence  upon  the  general  health.  It  would  seem  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  no  part  of  the  body  should  be  so  limited  and  com- 
pressed by  the  clothing  as  that  the  due  performance  of  its  functions 
should  he  interfered  with.  But,  unfortunately,  the  dictates  of  fashion,  or 
the  promptings  of  vanity,  lead  many  to  wear  clothing  of  such  a  shape  as 
almost  inevitably  to  give  rise  to  disease  or  deformity. ,  Perhaps  the  most 
pernicious  article  of  dress  in  common  use  among  women  is  the  corset,  a 
garment  which,  in  spite  of  the  removal  of  some  of  its  worst  features,  is 
still  the  prolific  cause  of  numerous  ills.  I  shall  not  waste  words  in  rail- 
ing against  the  corset  ;  indeed  I  am  prepared  to  admit  that  as  a  support, 
in  the  case  of  obese  persons,  it  may  be  of  use.  But  when  the  corset  i& 
worn  tightly  laced,  it  presses  downward  all  the  abdominal  viscera,  con- 
fines the  play  of  the  thorax,  and  interferes  greatly  with  the  movements  of 
the  diaphragm,  injuring  the  organs  of  digestion,  respiration,  and  circula- 
tion. Among  men  the  support  of  the  clothing  by  means  of  straps  or  belts 
is  likely  to  give  rise  to  trouble.  "  Bracing  up,"  by  buckling  a  belt  tightly 
about  the  waist,  as  practised  by  school-boys  about  to  use  violent  exercise, 
is  an  unsafe  procedure,  and  is  calculated  to  promote  the  occurrence  of 
rupture.  The  pressure  of  a  tight  cravat  is  injurious,  as  also  that  of  a 
tight  garter,  which  is  sure  sooner  or  later  to  give  rise  to  varicose  veins  of 
the  leg.  The  full,  flowing,  and  long  skirts  often  worn  by  women,  even  in 
the  streets,  the  whole  weight  of  which  is  suspended  from  the  waist,  are 
pernicious  and  extremely  uncleanly.  The  bearers  of  these  trains  move 
under  an  encumbering  load,  which  renders  proper  exercise  for  the  limbs 
impossible;  and  even  when  the  skirts  are  carried  in  the  hand,  they  are  em- 
barrassing. In  addition,  it  would  seem  incredible,  if  it  were  not  so  fre- 
quently observed,  that  delicate,  and  in  most  respects  fastidious,  women 
should  permit  their  clothing  to  sweep  along  and  gather  up  the  filth  and 
garbage  of  the  public  streets. 

There  are  certain  dye-stuffs  used  in  coloring  clothing  which  give  rise 
to  irritation  and  at  times  to  disease  of  the  skin.  Such  are  the  various 
shades  of  red  derived  from  aniline,  which  are  used  in  dying  stockings  and 
sometimes  other  underclothing.  Numerous  cases  of  poisoning  from  gar- 
ments thus  dyed  have  been  recorded  in  the  medical  journals  during  the 
past  few  years.  Some  of  the  dyes  used  in  coloring  leather  are  likewise 
irritating  to  the  skin.  A  case  came  under  my  notice  a  few  years  ago  in 
which  a  band  of  blisters  around  the  ankle  occurred  in  a  young  woman 
who  had  worn  for  a  few  days  a  pair  of  shoes  lined  with  yellow  leather. 
The  action  of  the  perspiration  seems  to  arouse  the  poisonous  qualities  o£ 


382  THE    OARE    OF    THE    PERSOlSr. 

the  dye,  and  such  garments  may  be  worn  with  imjsiinity  if  not  in  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  skin.' 

Fabrics,  the  texture  of  which  is  coarse  and  tlie  surface  rough,  may 
prove  irritating  to  a  high  degree.  The  popularity  enjoyed  by  red  flannel 
as  a  covering  in  various  ailments  is  dependent  in  no  small  measure  on  the 
stimulant  effects,  upon  the  skin,  of  its  rough  surface  ;  its  color  goes  for 
little  or  nothing.  Eruptions  are  not  unfrequently  caused  upon  delicate 
skins  by  the  contact  of  irritating  underclothing.  Chafing  between  the 
thighs  is  often  due  to  the  irritation  of  woollen  materials,  together  with  the 
saline  particles  from  evaporated  perspiration.  Bathers  at  the  sea-shore, 
whose  coarse  flannel  suits  become  saturated  with  sea- water,  are  apt  to  find 
great  irritation  result  from  even  a  little  exercise  on  the  beach;  the  threads 
of  the  rough  flannel  rapidly  become  crusted  with  fine  spicules  of  crystal- 
line salt,  which  cut  into  the  skin  with  a  thousand  microscopic  edges  at 
•every  step.  Many  a  case  of  so-called  "  poisoning  "  of  the  skin  from  hired 
bathing-clothes  is  nothing  more  than  an  intense  irritation  of  the  surface 
by  this  rough  clothing.  To  prevent  such  irritation,  a  pair  of  cotton  swim- 
ming-drawers may  be  worn;  but  it  may  occur,  under  the  conditions  men- 
tioned, just  as  well  in  using  private  as  public  bathing  suits. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  change  of  clothing 
necessary  at  night;  and  this  may  safely  be  left  to  individual  taste  and 
experience.  It  is  generally  agreed,  however,  that  the  clothing  worn  at 
night  should  be  loose,  easy-fitting,  and  light.  To  this  end  the  bed-room 
should  not  be  too  cold.  There  is  a  widesjjread  delusion  among  other- 
wise intelligent  people  to  the  effect  that  cold  air  is  necessarily  fresh  air. 
But  this  is  far  from  true;  a  bed-room  into  Avhich  a  gentle  current  of 
fresh  and  warmed  air  has  been  jDassing  the  night  long  is  much  more  likely 
to  be  free  from  foul  air  in  the  morning  than  tlie  same  room  with  all 
heat  turned  off  and  hermetically  closed.  There  is  also  much  less  danger 
■of  catching  cold  in  a  slightly-warmed  bed-room  while  dressing  and  un- 
dressing. If  the  atmosphere  of  the  bed-room  is  too  cold,  an  extra  quan- 
tity of  covering  must  be  placed  upon  the  bed,  tending  to  impede  the 
free  breathing  of  the  sleeper,  and  to  prevent,  to  some  extent,  ready 
transpiration  from  the  skin,  ]\Iany  persons  who  wear  woollen  material 
next  the  skin  through  the  day  are  accustomed  to  substitute  linen  or  cot- 

'  The  following  bill  was  introduced  into  the  New  York  legislature  during  its  last 
session  : 

Section  1.  Any  person  who  shall  manufacture  for  sale,  or  who  shall  knowingly 
sell  or  permit  to  be  sold  by  another  for  his  benefit  any  poisoned  or  i^oisonous  goods  or 
garments  injurious  or  dangerous  to  health,  shall,  for  every  such  offence,  be  adjudged 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Sec.  3.  Any  person  injured  by  or  in  consequence  o£  poisoned  or  poisonous  goods 
or  garments,  shall  have  a  right  of  action  against  the  person  or  persons,  firm,  associa- 
tion, or  corporate  body,  by  or  for  whom  such  goods  or  garments  were  manufactured  or 
sold,  for  all  danaages  sustained,  and  for  exemplary  damages. 

Sec  3.  On  the  trial  of  any  action  authorized  by  this  act,  proof  of  the  manufacture 
or  sale  of  poisoned  or  poisonous  goods  or  garments  shall  be  presumptive  evidence  of 
knowledge  by.  the  party  prosecuted  of  such  poisoned  or  poisonous  condition. 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  PERSON.  383 

ton  underclothing'  at  night.  I  think  this  unadvisable,  as  the  cliange  is  too 
great.  The  same  underclothing  should  not  be  worn  day  and  night.  A 
fresh  garment  should  be  worn  next  the  skin  while  in  bed;  and  the  day 
garment,  if  not  cast  off  as  soiled,  should  be  thoroughly  aired  through  the 
night.  The  night-gown,  or  bed-gown,  should  be  preferably  made  of  cot- 
ton, loose,  especially  about  the  neck,  and,  in  winter,  quite  long,  as  the 
feet  and  legs  demand  special  protection  from  cold  during  the  night. 

JBeds. — The  subject  of  beds  and  bedding  demand  more  attention  than 
is  usually  given  them.  We  spend  about  one-third  of  every  twenty-four 
hours  in  bed;  and  the  conditions  connected  with  perfect  and  healthy  repose 
should  be  the  object  of  serious  consideration. 

In  this  country  the  bedstead  is  usually  of  wood,  more  rarely  of  metal. 
A  wrought-iron  or  brass  bedstead,  of  thoroughly  good  construction,  is  per- 
haps the  best  for  general  use:  it  is  lighter  and  more  easily  handled,  and 
is  not  so  likely  to  harbor  dust  or  vermin.  It  should  be  placed  upon  easily 
rolling  castors,  in  order  that  it  may  readily  be  moved  about  and  exposed 
to  the  air;  for  it  is  an  ordinary  experience  of  housekeepers  that  clumsy 
and  heavy  pieces  of  furniture  are  not  cared  for  and  kept  clean  as  they 
.should  be  by  servants.  No  articles,  of  whatever  kind,  should  be  kept 
under  the  bed.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  tuck  in  the  bed- 
clothes, or  at  least  not  to  let  them  hang  down  too  near  the  floor.  The 
old-fashioned  "  valence,"  which  has  recently  begun  to  come  into  use 
again,  is  to  be  condemned,  in  spite  of  its  neat  appearance,  as  favoring 
the  concealment  of  odds  and  ends  beneath  the  bed.  Bed-curtains  have 
also  recently  again  come  into  limited  employment,  but  are  ordinarily  put 
up  rather  with  a  view  to  joicturesqueness  than  for  comfort's  sake.  They 
were  formerly  emj^loyed  to  protect  the  sleeper  from  cold  currents  of  air; 
but  in  a  comfortable,  modern  bed-room  they  are  mere  worthless  dirt- 
catchers,  lacking,  however  fine  in  material  or  adornment,  the  first  essential 
of  beauty  in  furniture — usefulness.  Bed-curtains  of  woollen  or  silken 
stuffs  may  also  afford,  on  occasion,  a  resting-place  for  germs  of  infection. 

The  matrass  should  be  made  of  elastic  material,  not  giving  way  too 
easily  and  sinking  into  hollows  in  places,  but  supporting  the  body  at  all 
points.  For  the  very  young  and  old,  matrasses  should  be  made  of  warmer 
materials  than  for  those  of  middle  age.  The  materials  ordinarily  used 
for  matrasses,  stated  in  the  order  of  their  increasing  power  for  retaining  the 
warmth  of  the  body,  are  as  follows:  1.  Straw.  2.  Corn-husks,  or  palm- 
fibres.  3.  Paper  shavings.  4.  Sea-moss,  or  Florida-moss.  5.  Cotton- 
flock.       6.  Hair.     7.  Wool.     8.  Feathers.     9.  Down. 

Formerly  the  matrass  was  simply  a  bag  of  feathers,  and  later  was 
made  of  corn-husks,  straw,  etc.  At  the  j)resent  day,  however,  the  hair 
matrass  is  most  widely  used,  and,  when  attainable,  is  to  be  preferred  above 
other  kinds.  It  should  be  made  of  the  best  black  horsehair,  carefully 
steamed  (lest  it  should  harbor  a  minute  moth,  which  is  said  to  infest  the 
natural  hair),  and  curled.  The  elasticity  of  the  hair  matrass  is  remarkably 
persistent,  and  it  may  be  re-steamed  and  twisted  from  time  to  time,  last- 
ing a  number  of  years.     The  hair  matrass  is  not  too  warm  for  ordinary 


384  THE  CAEE  OF  THE  PERSON. 

use:  it  does  not  provoke  perspiration,  as  the  feather  matrass  does,  often  to 
an  uncomfortable  degree.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  sufficiently  warm  even 
for  old  persons,  excepting  in  cold  weather,  when  a  down  comforter  can  be 
laid  over  it.  Sometimes  a  quantity  of  inferior  material,  as  husk,  is  cov- 
ered with  a  layer  of  hair,  making  a  reasonably  comfortable  matrass,  and 
formerly  it  was  the  custom  to  place  a  husk,  straw,  or  sponge,  matrass  upon 
the  bed-frame  and  to  lay  the  hair  matrass  upon  that.  Of  late  years  spring 
matrasses  have  been  substituted,  the  frame  containing  the  springs  fitting 
to  the  bedstead,  and  the  hair  matrass  lying  directly  upon  it.  Of  the 
great  variety  of  spring  matrasses  in  the  market,  two  have  proved  pre- 
eminently satisfactory.  One  of  these  is  known  as  the  "Tucker  matrass." 
It  is  composed  of  a  frame  containing  longitudinal  slats  which  are  sup- 
ported at  each  end  by  springs.  The  weight  of  the  body  is  so  evenly  dis- 
tributed, that  it  never  causes  an  undue  strain  iipon  any  single  spring,  and, 
consequently,  these  matrasses  are  very  durable.  They  can,  moreover,  be 
easily  repaired,  and  any  worn-out  spring  can  be  replaced.  The  "  woven 
wire  matrass,"  when  of  the  best  make,  is  perhaps  as  nearly  perfect  as  any 
form  of  spring  matrass  yet  devised.  It  is  composed  of  galvanized  wire, 
"  woven "  into  an  open-work  sheet,  but  with  the  wires  of  each  mesh 
curved,  so  as  to  give  an  innumerable  number  of  small  and  very  elastic 
springs.  It  has  been  comjjlained  of  these  matrasses  that  they  are  liable 
to  sag  under  the  weight  of  heavy  people;  but  I  am  informed  by  trust- 
worthy persons  that,  w^hen  made  of  the  best  material,  they  are  very 
durable,  and  they  are  certainly  very  luxurious,  A  very  cool  bed  for  the 
summer  season  may  be  made  by  covering  the  woven  wire  with  a  coverlet 
or  very  thin  hair  matrass. 

Pillows  are  variously  made  of  feathers,  hair,  sponge,  etc. ;  occasionally 
rubber  air-pillows  are  employed.  Many  persons  cannot  sleep  on  feather 
pillows,  either  because  they  heat  the  head  unduly,  or  because  of  some  con- 
stitutional irritability  of  the  air-passages,  giving  rise  to  asthma  from  the 
emanations  of  the  feathers.  Hair  pillows  are  very  suitable  for  such  per- 
sons, and  also  for  children  whose  heads  perspire  readily. 

The  proper  and  usual  material  for  sheets  and  pillow-cases  is  linen. 
Cotton  is  only  appropriate  in  the  case  of  persons  so  easily  chilled  as  to 
feel  cold  between  linen  sheets. 

Blankets  should  be  all-wool  and  of  the  best  quality.  On  the  principle 
stated  above,  several  thin  blankets  are  warmer  than  a  single  thicker  one 
of  equal  weight.  The  eider-down  coverlet  is  one  of  the  warmest  and  at 
the  same  time  the  lightest  of  all  coverings;  its  effects  arc  insidious,  how- 
ever, and  in  the  case  of  invalids  should  be  watched;  it  is  apt  to  throw  the 
sleeper  into  a  violent  perspiration.  The  old-fashioned  coverlet  of  quilted 
cotton,  which  is  still  a  favorite  bed-covering  in  country  districts,  is  one  of 
the  worst  which  can  be  imagined;  it  combines  the  maximum  of  weight 
Avith  the  minimum  of  warmth. 

Beds  should  be  carefully  aired,  daily.  This  may  seem  to  some  an  un- 
necessary piece  of  advice,  yet  it  is  far  otherwise,  for  if  this  part  of  house- 
hold work  be  left  to  servants  it  is  not  likely  to  be  well  attended  to.     Each 


THE  CAKE  OF  THE  PERSON.  385 

covering  of  a  bed  which  has  been,  slept  in  should  be  removed,  the  matrass 
doubled  over,  the  pillows  beaten,  and  the  whole  of  the  bed  gear  exposed 
to  fresh  air  for  at  least  an  hour  every  morning.  Otherwise  the  effluvia 
thrown  off  by  the  body  through  the  night  cannot  properly  be  removed. 

Tlie  feet. — Among  the  different  parts  of  the  person  requiring  especial 
mention  with  reference  to  their  care,  the  feet  are  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant. No  portion  of  the  body  is  more  abused  and  neglected,  and  few 
parts  have  suffered  more  woefully  at  the  bidding  of  fashion  and  vanity. 
Composed,  as  the  foot  is,  of  a  delicate  but  wonderfully  firm  and  elastic 
tissue  of  bones  and  tendons  arranged  in  the  form  of  an  arch,  so  as  best  to 
support  the  weight  and  to  distribute  the  shock  of  jumping,  walking,  etc., 
it  is  evident  that  the  less  its  movements  are  hampered  the  more  graceful 
must  be  the  carriage  of  the  individual  and  the  less  the  danger  of  deformity 
and  disease.  If  a  healthy  foot  is  planted  firmly  upon  the  ground,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  great  toe  lies  in  a  line  with  the  inside  of  the  foot,  while 
the  others  lie  evenly  in  a  row,  each  one  barely  touching  its  neighbor,  and 
the  outline  of  the  whole  member  as  different  from  that  of  an  ordinary 
shoe  as  can  be  imagined.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  the  "  neatly- 
fitting  "  shoe,  as  ordinarily  worn,  one  or  more  of  the  toes — and  usually 
several — must  of  necessity  vide  the  others.  As  a  result,  we  have  not  only 
corns  and  bunions,  but  occasionally  the  most  grotesque  deformities.  To 
preserve  the  natural  shape  of  the  foot  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  shoe  must 
be  rightly  shaped — that  is,  in  accordance  with  the  proper  outline  of  the 
foot, — it  must  fit  closely,  neither  tightly  nor  loosely,  and  it  must  be  made 
of  pliable  and  soft  leather.  In  addition,  the  feet  must  receive  regular 
care;  they  must  be  bathed  frequently,  the  nails  kept  well  trimmed,  and 
any  abnormally  thick  skin  scraped  away  to  prevent  the  formation  of  cal- 
losities. Shoes  made  upon  what  is  called  the  "  Waukenphast "  model  are 
the  best  and  most  perfectly  devised,  with  reference  to  their  adaptabilit}'' 
to  the  natural  shape  of  the  foot,  of  any  at  present  made.  They  can  now 
be  procured  of  shoemakers  in  all  our  large  cities,  and  are  very  generally 
worn  by  those  intelligent  members  of  the  community,  both  men  and  women,, 
to  whom  comfort  and  appropriateness  are  the  first  requisite  in  matters  of 
dress.  Closely  connected  with  the  shape  of  the  shoe  itself  is  that  of 
the  heel.  This  is  almost  invariably  too  small,  usually  too  high  and  not 
unfrequently  misplaced.  The  size  of  the  heel  may  vary  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  the  weight  of  the  individual;  for  men  it  should  be  very  nearly  as- 
large  as  the  ball  of  the  heel  itself.  It  should  not  be  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  high  and  should  be  placed  well  back.  In  women's 
shoes  the  heel  is  almost  always  too  small  and  invariably  placed  too  far 
forward.  ^Yhen  the  heel  is  too  high  the  foot  is  pressed  forward  by  the 
weight  of  the  body,  and  the  toes  are  forcibly  compressed  into  the  funnel- 
shaped  point  of  the  shoe,  the  nails  are  driven  backward  or  curved  out  of 
shape,  and  the  severe  malady  known  as  ingrown  toe-nail  is  not  seldom 
the  result.  Heels  placed  too  far  forward  break  the  spring  of  the  pedal- 
arch,  and,  as  if  one  placed  a  block  of  wood  under  the  spring  of  a  carriagey 

every  jolt   is   transmitted   without   any  mitigation  to  the   whole  frame. 
Vol.  I.— S.I 


38(3  THE    CARE    OF    THE    PERSON". 

With  high  heels,  tlie  strain  on  the  ankle-joint  of  any  slight  deviation  from 
the  perpendicular  is  felt  much  more  strongly,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to 
easily  sprain  the  ankle.  The  gait  of  a  j^erson  wearing  high-heeled  shoes 
is  tottering  and  ungainly,  as  may  be  noticed  even  at  a  distance  and  by 
the  unpractised  eye. 

Shoes  should  not  be  made  of  hard  or  unyielding  material,  but  of  the 
softest  and  most  pliable  which  can  be  obtained.  The  sole  should  not  be 
very  thick,  as  this  prevents  due  bending  in  walking  and  tires  the  pedes- 
trian unconsciously.  The  best  form  of  shoe  is  the  tie;  elastic  gaiters, 
though  convenient,  can  never,  after  the  first  few  times  of  wearing,  fit 
snugly.  High  boots  are  inadmissible  ;  they  comprise  a  quantity  of  use- 
less leather,  which  keeps  the  leg  in  a  perspiration  and  prevents  due  venti- 
lation about  the  foot.  They  never  can  be  made  to  fit  closely  around  the 
ankle  and  instep  without  being  too  tight.  They  are  apt  to  chafe  the 
heel.  Ready-made  shoes  are  an  abomination,  and  should  never  be  worn. 
The  small  economy  in  jDurchasing  such  shoes  is  more  than  counterbalanced 
by  the  discomfort  and  injury  which  they  inflict,  A  well-made  shoe  should 
fit  so  comfortably  that  it  may  be  worn  continuously  from  the  time  it  is 
first  put  on.  To  "  break  in  "  a  pair  of  ill-fitting  shoes  at  the  expense  of 
the  feet  is  to  voluntarily  repeat  the  cruelties  of  fabled  Procrustes  upon 
one's  own  flesh  and  blood.  The  best  form  of  shoe  for  every-day  use  is 
that  known  as  the  "  Balmoral,"  which  covers  the  ankle-joint  and  fits 
snugly,  in  consequence  of  the  strings  with  which  the  pressure  can  every- 
where be  regulated  and  equalized.  Those  parts  of  the  foot  which  need 
full  play  are  thus  allowed  to  move  freely,  while  about  the  ankle,  where  the 
tendons  lie  close  to  the  bone,  the  shoe  can  be  securely  fastened.  Chil- 
dren are  sometimes  caused  to  wear  their  shoes  on  alternate  feet,  with  the 
view  of  preventing  running  down  at  the  heel.  This  custom  is  extremely 
pernicious.  Shoes  should  not  be  allowed  to  wear  down  on  one  side  or  the 
other  without  being  reinforced  in  good  time.  This  tendency  to  wear 
down  on  one  side  is  usually  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  heel;  some- 
times it  appears  to  be  due  to  some  peculiarity  of  shape  in  the  foot  itself, 
A  skilful  shoemaker  can  often  obviate  this  by  altering  slightly  the  shape 
of  the  shoe. 

Ill-shaped  stockings  sometimes  aid  in  deforming  the  feet.  The  stock- 
ing, while  it  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  lie  in  wrinkles  over  the  foot 
and  chafe  it  in  walking,  should  be  long  and  wide  enough  to  give  the  toes 
full  play.  Most  stockings  are  pointed  at  the  toe,  and  are  for  this  reason 
ill-shaped.  Stockings  are  sometimes  woven  larger  at  the  toes  than  usual: 
such  are  to  be  preferred  when  they  can  be  procured,  A  stocking  divided 
for  the  toes,  or  at  least  for  the  great  toe,  has  often  been  suggested,  and 
has  indeed  been  worn ;  it  would  seem  to  be  a  salutary  shape, 

A  sheet  of  india-rubber  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  layers  of 
leather  in  the  soles  of  shoes  in  order  to  aid  in  keeping  the  feet  dry. 
Occasionally  felt  or  cork-soles  are  placed  within  the  shoe  with  the  same 
object.  There  is  no  objection  to  the  use  of  these  if  they  do  not  supplant 
the  rubber  overshoe,  which  should  always  be  worn  in  wet  weather,  and 


THE    CARE    OF   THE    PERSOl^.  387 

especially  in  the  snow.  Too  often  ladies  go  without  overshoes  in  damp 
and  wet  weather,  relying  on  the  thickness  of  the  soles  of  their  shoes,  and 
exposing  themselves  to  unnecessary  risk  in  order  to  avoid  the  cramping 
feeling  given  by  overshoes,  and  to  preserve  the  neat  appearance  of  the 
feet. 

The  proper  care  of  the  feet  demands  that,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances and  with  the  usual  conveniences  at  hand,  they  should  be  bathed 
every  evening  in  cool  water  before  retiring  This  is  the  more  essential 
in  hot  weather  or  when  the  feet  tend  to  undue  perspiration.  In  the  latter 
case  alcohol  and  cold  water  should  be  employed.  Hot  water  and  soap 
should  not  be  used  when  excessive  perspiration  of  the  feet  exists,  as  they 
tend  to  aggravate  the  condition.  When  a  foot-bath  cannot  be  obtained, 
the  feet  may  be  rubbed  off  with  a  little  acidulated  or  astringent  water. 
Even  dry  frictions  with  a  soft  towel  are  of  use  in  removing  the  accumu- 
lated perspiratory  matter  and  effete  scarf  skin.  The  toe-nails  should  be 
cut  regularly  and  carefully,  otherwise  they  are  pressed  upon  by  the  shoe 
and  may  become  distorted  or  grow  under  the  skin  surrounding  them. 
The  skin  about  the  toe-nails  should  be  carefully  pressed  back  from  time 
to  time,  or  it  is  apt  to  become  stretched  and  tear.  When  callous  patches 
begin  to  form  on  any  part  of  the  foot,  they  should  be  taken  in  hand  at 
once.  If  the  shoe  presses  or  rubs  at  that  point  it  should  be  enlarged  or 
changed,  and  the  foot  being  well  soaked  in  warm  water,  the  callosities 
should  be  rasped  with  a  file  or  scraped  with  a  dull  knife  every  evening 
until  they  are  removed.  Corns  and  bunions  should  not  form  when  prop- 
erly shaped  shoes  are  worn.  When  corns  do  occur,  the  same  method  of 
removing  them  should  be  practised  as  in  the  case  of  callosities,  or,  if  they 
are  inveterate,  the  services  of  a  competent  chiropodist  should  be  sought. 
Repeated  soaking  and  scraping,  relief  from  pressure  by  diachylon  or 
annular  "  corn-plasters,"  with  frequent  change  of  shoes,  will  usually  suf- 
fice, however,  to  remove  all  but  the  most  obstinate.  Bunions  belong  to 
the  care  of  the  surgeon;  they  should  not  be  trifled  with.  Corns  should 
be  treated  with  great  care  under  any  circumstances,  and  should  never  be 
cut  with  a  razor  or  sharp  knife.  Scarcely  a  year  passes  without  an  ac- 
count, in  the  medical  journals,  of  death  by  tetanus,  or  "  lock-jaw,"  as  the 
result  of  indiscreet  corn  cutting. 

The  hands. — The  care  of  the  hands  demands  some  notice.  During  the 
summer  the  hands  are  usually  supple,  moist,  and  in  good  condition,  and 
require  little  attention  beyond  cleanliness.  In  cold  weather,  however,  the 
hands  of  most  persons  tend  to  dry,  crack  and  chap,  unless  taken  care  of. 
To  prevent  this  occurrence,  cold  water  should  alone  be  used  in  washing 
the  hands,  and  soap,  sparingly  or  not  at  all,  unless  when  absolutely  re- 
quired. The  hands  should  not  be  washed  just  before  going  out  of  doors. 
If  this  must  be  done,  a  small  quantity  of  cosmoline  should  be  rubbed  into 
the  skin  to  prevent  the  action  of  the  cold  air.  Gloves  should  always  be 
worn  in  cold  weather,  and  preferably  they  should  be  made  of  skin,  as  kid, 
dog-skin,  castor,  buck-skin,  etc.  Silken  or  woollen  gloves  are  more  apt 
to  give  rise  to  chapping.     When  the  hands  for  any  reason  have  become 


388  THE  CAEE  OF  THE  PERSON. 

chapped,  they  should  be  anointed,  on  retiring,  with  some  emollient,  as 
perfumed  tallow,  rose  ointment,  etc,  and  gloves  worn  over  night.  In 
the  morning  the  hands  should  be  vnped  off — not  washed. 

The  finger-nails  should  always  be  kept  well  trimmed  and  smooth,  and 
the  skin  pushed  back  about  their  roots,  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of 
annoying  "hangnails."  The  length  of  the  nails  should  be  moderate, 
neither  too  long  nor  very  short,  and  their  edges  should  be  smoothly 
rounded.  Long  nails  are  receptacles  for  all  kinds  of  dirt,  and  cannot  be 
kept  properly  cleaned:  they  are  also  liable  to  split.  Very  short  nails  fail 
to  protect  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  which  are  apt  to  become  mis-shaped 
and  clubbed  in  time. 

The  mouth: — The  care  of  the  mouth  involves  something  more  than 
merely  the  due  cleansing  of  the  teeth.  The  mouth  is  too  often  made  the 
receptacle  of  articles  of  the  most  varied  kind,  which  had  better  be  placed 
almost  anywhere  else.  The  tongue,  too,  is  abused  in  the  same  way,  in  being 
made  to  perform  functions  for  which  it  was  never  intended,  and  is  conse- 
quently exposed  to  numerous  unnecessary  dangers  and  injuries.  The 
delicacy  and  thinness  of  the  integument  lining  the  lips  and  mouth  and 
covering  the  tongue  permit  the  absorption  of  matters  placed  in  contact 
with  this  membrane,  which  would  not  affect  other  and  more  exposed  parts 
of  the  general  surface.  The  danger  from  this  source,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  contagion  from  certain  diseases,  is  not  altogether  imaginary. 
No  one  who  has  been  carefully  brought  up,  or  who  is  not  extremely 
careless  in  his  personal  habits,  will  place  in  the  mouth  coins  or  other  cur- 
rent property  which  passes  from  hand  to  hand  among  all  kinds  of  people. 
When  one  has  just  seen  a  sheet  of  postage-stamps  shoved  across  a  dirty 
counter,  on  which  all  kinds  of  paper  and  metal  coin,  and  many  dirty  hands, 
have  been  laid,  one  is  loth  to  apply  the  delicate  tip  of  the  tongue  to  mois- 
ten it.  But  there  are  other  points  of  contact,  to  some  of  which  allusion 
need  merely  be  made,  in  which  proper  care  of  the  person  would  suggest 
caution.  The  handles  of  street-cars,  books  in  public  libraries,  etc.,  are 
touched  by  every  one,  high  and  low,  cleanly  and  dirty.  If,  therefore,  one 
touches  anything  of  the  kind  without  gloves,  one  should  be  very  careful 
not  to  put  the  fingers  near  the  mouth  without  washing.  The  only  safe 
rule,  in  fact,  is  to  be  as  careful  of  the  hands  as  if  one  were  a  dentist;  never 
to  put  them  near  the  mouth  without  having  just  washed  them.  This  pre- 
caution may  seem  an  unnecessary  requirement;  but,  although  the  danger 
is  small,  yet  the  consequences  of  possible  contagion  are  so  terrible,  that  it 
may  well  be  judged  advisable  to  take  every  precaution  in  the  manifold 
contacts  of  our  daily  life. 

Attention  has  recently  been  called  to  the  dangers  lurking  in  a  very 
unsuspected  place,  namely,  the  covers  of  children's  books.  These  some- 
times derive  their  brilliant  coloring  from  poisonous  dyes,  which  are,  to  a 
certain  degree,  soluble,  especially  in  the  fluids  of  the  mouth,  and  may 
easily  be  absorbed  by  children  in  handling,  and  perhaps  sucking,  the 
covers. 

The  care  of  the  teeth  should  begin  at  an  early  age;  and  parents  should 


THE  CAKE  OE  THE  PERSON.  389 

carefully  instil  good  habits  in  this  respect  into  their  children.  The  period  of 
shedding-  of  the  temporary  teeth,  and  their  replacement  by  the  permanent 
set,  lasts  \isually  from  about  the  seventh  to  about  the  thirteenth  year.  It  is 
a  critical  epoch  for  the  teeth;  and  not  only  should  the  most  scrupulous  at- 
tention to  cleanliness  on  the  child's  part  be  exacted  by  the  parent,  but  the 
aid  of  a  competent  dentist  should  be  secured,  under  whose  supervision  the 
child  should  be  placed,  and  to  whom  regular  visits  should  be  made  for 
inspection.  I  think  there  is  no  doubt  that  many  cases  of  decayed  and 
deformed  teeth,  even  among  intelligent  people,  occur  simply  from  early 
neglect.  The  temporary  teeth  must  be  removed  in  due  time,  the  perma- 
nent ones  trained  to  fill  their  proper  i^laces,  and  contact,  with  the  cei'tain 
resultant  decay,  prevented.  The  severe  suffering  which  children  often 
undergo  with  their  decaying  teeth  is  largely  unnecessary,  and  can 
generally  be  prevented  by  due  care  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  par- 
ents. 

Properly,  the  teeth  should  be  cleaned  on  rising,  on  retiring,  and  after 
each  meal.  It  is  in  fact  more  important  to  cleanse  them  after  eating  and 
before  retiring  than  in  the  morning,  since  particles  of  food  are  sure  to  re- 
main between  the  teeth  after  a  meal;  and  whatever  may  happen  to  be  be- 
tween the  teeth  on  retiring,  rests  there  all  night.  A  soft  brush  should  be 
employed,  since  a  stiff  one  wounds  the  gums,  and  causes  them  to  retract,  and 
it  should  be  used  either  with  water  alone,  or  else  first  dipped  in  a  little 
precipitated  chalk,  with  which  orris-root  may  be  mixed  to  give  an  agree- 
able perfume.  White  castile  soap  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  at  times. 
No  further  dentifrice  is  required;  and  such  as  contain  cuttle-fish  bone, 
charcoal,  or  pumice  are  injurious  to  a  high  degree  to  the  enamel  of  the 
teeth.  As  a  mouth-wash,  a  little  tincture  of  myrrh  dropped  into  a  glass 
of  water  is  aromatic  and  astringent,  and  is  beneficial  when  the  gums  are 
spongy  and  tend  to  bleed.  All  further  additions  to  the  toilet  of  the 
teeth  are  purely  cosmetic  in  character,  and  do  not  come  under  considera- 
tion here. 

The  hair. — The  management  of  the  hair  in  health  is  a  simple  matter. 
The  fii'st  requisite  is  cleanliness.  The  epidermis  of  the  scalp,  like  that  of 
the  body,  is  constantly  being  thrown  off,  and  must  be  removed,  while  the 
glands  of  the  scalp,  particularly  the  oil  glands,  are  very  active,  constantly 
pouring  out  their  secretion,  which  spreads  along  the  hairs  by  capillary 
attraction,  serving  to  lubricate  them  and  keep  them  in  a  glossy  condition, 
but  at  the  same  time  rendering  them  particularly  liable  to  catch  dust  and 
floating  particles.  The  best  method  of  keeping  the  scalp  and  hair  clean 
and  in  good  condition  is  to  brush  them  frequently  and  thoroughly  with  a 
soft  brush.  The  scalp  should  be  brushed — not  merely  the  hair.  A  barber 
of  experience  said,  "  One  cannot  brush  the  hair  too  little  or  the  scalp  too 
much."  Brushing  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  hair,  and,  where  this  is 
dry,  tends  to  induce  proper  action  of  the  oil-glands.  It  is  much  better 
for  this  purpose  than  the  use  of  pomades,  which  should  only  be  employed 
in  case  of  such  persistent  dryness  of  the  hair  as  prevents  its  being  prop- 
erly dressed.     Persons  whose  hair  is  short,  as  children  and  men,  derive 


390  THE  CAEE  OF  THE  PEKSON. 

advantage  from  ^^lunging  the  head  in  a  basin  of  cold  water  morning  and 
evening,  and  then  rubbing  the  scalp  briskly  with  a  coarse  towel. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  frequent  brushing  is  sufficient  to  keep 
the  skin  and  the  hair  of  the  scalp  clean  and  in  good  condition,  and  wash- 
ing is  only  occasionally  required.  Travellers,  however,  and  persons  whose 
occupations  expose  them  much  to  the  influence  of  dust  and  dirt,  as  well  as 
those  whose  scalps  are  by  nature  excessively  oily,  find  it  necessary  to 
cleanse  the  scalp  and  hair  more  frequently.  In  such  cases,  plain  Castile 
soap  and  water,  or,  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  collection  of  scales 
("  dandruff  "),  a  solution  of  borax  in  water  may  be  employed  to  advantage. 
In  individuals  with  long,  thick  hair,  delay  and  annoyance  is  sometimes 
experienced  in  getting  this  properly  dried.  Occasionally  women  suffer 
from  frightful  attacks  of  neuralgia  of  the  scalp,  as  the  result  of  exposure 
to  cold  with  the  hair  not  perfectly  dry.  No  one  should  venture  out  of 
doors  in  cold  weather  while  the  hair  remains  at  all  moist.  Even  when  the 
individual  remains  in  the  house,  the  scalp  should  be  thoroughly  dried  after 
washing.  Water,  if  allowed  to  dry  in  the  hair,  promotes  decomposition 
and  rancidity  of  the  natural  oil,  giving  rise  to  a  peculiar  and  disagreeable 
odor.  To  assist  in  drying  long  hair  after  washing,  a  brush  may  be  dipped 
into  a  little  finely  powdered  starch,  which  is  brushed  thoroughly  into  and 
through  the  hair,  and  is  then  brushed  out  again.  Some  pomatum  may 
afterward  be  employed,  or,  better,  some  perfumed  cosmoline,  which,  by 
the  way,  makes  the  best  dressing  for  the  hair,  since,  when  of  good 
quality,  it  is  not  liable  to  become  rancid  on  keeping.  In  dressing  the 
hair,  the  true  use  of  the  comb  should  be  remembered,  which  is  to  separate 
the  individual  hairs  from  each  other,  to  prevent  matting,  and  to  make  the 
"  part."  The  comb  should  never  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  scraping 
the  scalp  to  relieve  itching  sensations.  The  fine-toothed  comb  should  be 
used  sparingly  in  any  case.  When  scales  collect  in  the  scalp  to  an  extent 
which  brushing  will  not  remove,  they  should  be  washed  out,  and  if  wash- 
ing, frequently  repeated,  does  not  suffice,  medical  advice  should  be  taken. 
Troublesome  and  annoying  disease  of  the  skin  is  occasionally  excited  by 
the  injudicious  use  of  the  comb. 

The  hair  in  children,  and  especially  in  boys,  should  be  kept  closely 
trimmed,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  comfort  and  convenience,  but  also  for 
that  of  cleanliness.  In  girls,  after  the  hair  has  once  been  allowed  to  grow 
long,  it  is  better  not  to  cut  it,  as  it  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  the 
hair  never  afterward  grows  to  the  length  which  it  would  otherwise  have 
attained.  The  hair,  especially  when  thick  and  long,  should  in  sickness  be 
cut  only  with  great  caution,  and  under  the  direction  of  a  physician.  Occa- 
sionally, unfortunate  results  are  reported  from  the  sudden  removal  of  the 
natural  covering  of  the  head  under  such  circumstances. 

"  Crimping  "  the  hair  over  hot  irons  or  pencils  sooner  or  later  causes 
it  to  crack  and  break.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  so  great  importance  in  young- 
girls  when  the  hair  will  grow  again,  but  in  the  case  of  older  women  in 
whom  the  hair  is  beginning  to  thin  out,  it  is  apt  to  hasten  the  fall  of  what 
remains  and  to  cause  partial  baldness  over  the  forehead  and  temples.     The 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  PEKSON.  391 

use  of  soap  in  dressing  the  hair  over  the  forehead,  as  is  at  present  custom- 
ary, where  bandoline  does  not  prove  sufficient  to  preserve  the  desired 
shape,  is  sometimes  injurious.  In  one  case  coming-  under  my  notice  the 
hair,  which  had  been  a  fine,  dark  shade  of  chestnut,  was  turned  gradually 
to  a  rusty  red  by  the  continued  use  of  "  elder-flower  "  soap.  In  this  instance 
white  Castile  soap  had  been  used  with  impunity,  and,  if  soap  must  be  used, 
this  variety  is  likely  to  be  least  injurious,  as  containing  less  free  alkali 
than  others. 

The  hair  usually  begins  to  turn  gray  first  on  the  head,  the  temples 
showing  the  earliest  change.  At  the  beginning  white  hairs  are  few,  but 
their  number  soon  increases.  When  they  fall  out  they  are  frequently  not 
reproduced,  and,  consequently,  thinning  usually  goes  hand-in-hand  with 
graying.  Women  ordinarily  preserve  the  color  of  the  hair  longest.  Fair 
hair,  while  it  is  more  persistent  in  color  than  dark,  falls  out  earlier.  Prema- 
ture grayness  of  the  hair  is  not  unfrequently  brought  about  by  debility, 
anxiety,  or  severe  illness.  Grayness  in  tufts  is  ordinarily  due  to  some 
local  condition,  either  neuralgia  or  some  unknown  cause.  The  sudden 
blanching  of  the  hair  from  fright,  grief,  or  anxiety,  which  is  now  a  well- 
authenticated  fact,  is  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

Dyeing  the  hair,  whatever  may  be  the  inducements  for  such  a  step,  is, 
and  must  be,  a  most  unsatisfactory  procedure.  If  it  is  done  to  conceal  the 
ravages  of  age,  these  cannot  so  easily  be  hidden,  and  no  one  is  in  reality 
deceived.  But  it  is  certainly  a  loss  of  dignity,  and  there  is  no  question 
that  a  person  who  dyes  the  hair  to  look  younger  must  lose,  to  a  certain 
extent  by  this  weakness,  the  good  opinion  of  those  whose  regard  is  most 
to  be  desired.  Every  one  smiles  at  the  thought  of  the  would-be  youthful 
people  whom  one  sees,  with  the  complexion  of  a  peach,  melting  into 
"  crows'  feet "  at  the  corners  of  the  eyes,  and  through  whose  raven  locks 
can  easily  be  seen  a  play  of  iridescent  color  like  that  of  the  "  sulphur- 
escent  "  glass  lately  in  vogue.  Notwithstanding  the  marvellous  stories  one 
sometimes  hears  of  the  pernicious  effects  of  hair-dyes  upon  the  system,  I 
am  inclined  to  believe  that  none  of  those  in  common  use  are  injurious. 
No  authentic  case  of  general  poisoning  from  the  use  of  arsenic,  nitrate  of 
silver,  or  sugar  of  lead  as  a  hair-dye,  has,  to  my  knowledge,  been  recorded; 
and  these  are  the  substances  usually  employed. 

Each  hair  grows  from  its  "  papilla  "  within  the  skin,  lives  its  life  (from 
two  to  four  years  in  healthy  persons),  and  then  dies  and  drops  out,  to  be 
succeeded  by  another;  as  certain  "annual"  plants  grow  year  after  year 
from  the  same  bulbous  root  and  die  down  again.  If  from  any  cause  the  hair 
papilla  becomes  diseased  or  debilitated,  it  either  ceases  to  produce  the 
hair,  or  each  successive  hair  becomes  shorter,  finer,  and  more  brief  in  its 
life  until,  finally,  atrophy  of  the  hair  follicles  occurs  and  the  hair  is  dead. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  hair  of  the  head  begins  to  thin  out 
between  the  ages  of  thirty  and  forty,  and  this  thinning  proceeds  slowly  but 
steadily  during  the  rest  of  the  individual's  life.  But  a  number  of  causes 
combine  to  induce  a  premature  fall  of  the  hair  in  many  persons,  and  among 
these  may  be  mentioned  certain  diseases  of  the  skin,  particularly  that 


392  THE  CARE  OF    THE  PERSON. 

known  among  jihysicians  as  seborrhoea,  or,  commonly,  as  "  dandruff." 
When  in  a  young  person  an  excessive  degree  of  scaliness  is  observed  in 
the  scalp,  measures  should  be  taken  to  cure  this  condition;  otherwise,  be- 
fore long,  the  hair  will  in  all  probability  begin  to  fall.  When  this  latter 
stage  is  once  established,  it  is  usually  too  late  to  do  much  good;  the  falling 
of  the  hair  continues,  and  sooner  or  later,  particularly  in  families  where 
there  is  a  hereditary  tendency  to  baldness,  more  or  less  complete  loss  of 
hair  over  the  forehead  and  crown  of  the  head  ensues.  It  is  true  that 
gradual  progressive  Vjaldness  is  sometimes  observed  without  any  disturb- 
ance of  the  general  system  and  without  the  occurrence  of  "  dandruff." 
On  the  other  hand,  "dandruff"  of  the  scalp  is  now  and  then  observed  in 
persons  whose  hair  is  uncommonly  thick  and  strong.  This  latter  circum- 
stance is  very  unusual,  and  has  given  rise  to  the  erroneous  notion  that 
"  dandruff  "  in  the  scalp  is  a  sign  of  peculiar  vigor  of  the  hair. 

Other  causes  of  premature  baldness  are  :  the  occurrence  of  certain 
diseases  of  the  scalp  other  than  "  dandruff,"  and  certain  debilitated  condi- 
tions of  the  system  occurring  alone  or  following  severe  fevers,  etc. 
Usually  the  baldness  occurring  in  connection  with  skin  diseases  of  the 
scalp  is  only  temporary;  the  bulbs  not  being  destroyed,  the  hair  is  again 
reproduced  so  soon  as  the  skin  disease  is  cured.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  baldness  or  thinning  of  the  hair  following  fevers.  When  these 
occur  in  young  persons,  the  hair  frequently  recovers  after  a  time  its 
strength  and  thickness,  but  in  older  persons  it  rarely  returns  to  its  former 
condition.  Thinning  of  hair  in  states  of  chronic  debility  is  usually  irreme- 
diable unless  the  whole  condition  is  permanently  improved,  and  not  then 
if  the  individual  is  no  longer  young. 

The  remedies  employed  for  the  relief  of  baldness  are  all  stimulants  in- 
tended to  increase  the  circulation  of  blood  in  the  skin  about  the  roots  of 
the  hair.  When  the  falling  of  the  hair  has  been  caused  by  some  fever  or 
other  illness,  such  "  invigorators  "  are  of  use,  and  where  it  is  connected 
wuth  general  debility  of  the  system  these  may  also  be  employed  to  advan- 
tage in  connection  with  proper  medical  treatment.  When,  however,  the 
hair  in  young  persons  begins  to  fall  out,  either  with  or  without  the  con- 
current appearance  of  "dandruff,"  the  best  medical  advice  is  required  to 
prevent,  if  possible,  the  inevitable  baldness  which  will  sooner  or  later 
ensue.  Where  there  is  a  hereditary  tendency  to  baldness  it  is  frequently 
the  case  that  no  treatment  avails. 

Abnormal  growth  of  hair  most  frequently  occurs  in  females  upon  the 
upper  lip  or  chin.  This  is  sometimes  excessive,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
bearded  Avomen  occasionally  exhibited  publicly.  Women  who  possess 
this  unfortunate  peculiarity  are  not  necessarily  in  any  way  deficient  in  the 
best  characteristics  of  the  sex.  By  the  kindness  of  my  friend.  Professor 
Duhring,  I  had  an  opportunity,  a  year  or  two  ago,  of  examining  a  young 
married  woman  who  displayed  a  large,  full,  and  very  handsome  coal-black 
beard  and  moustache.  This  person  was  of  a  delicate  figure,  with  a  soft 
voice  and  pleasing  manner,  and  a  degree  of  refinement  unusual  among 
persons  of  her  station. 


THE    CARE    OF    THE    PERSOIS".  393 

Frequently  more  or  less  considerable  patches  of  hair  are  found  in 
•other  and  abnormal  parts  of  the  face  and  body,  and  cases  are  recorded  of 
"  hairy "  men  and  women  in  whom  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  the 
whole  surface  has  been  covered  witli  liair. 

None  of  the  means  formerly  used  to  remove  superfluous  hair  have 
proved  effectual.  Exti'action  only  stimulates  its  more  rapid  growth,  and 
•depilatory  powders,  besides  being  caustic  and  consequently  often  injurious 
to  the  skin,  only  destroy  the  outer  end  of  the  hair,  leaving  the  root  intact. 
Recently,  however,  more  effectual  methods  have  come  into  use,  and  are 
known  to  physicians,  whereby  this  unsightly  deformity  can  be  remedied. 

Of  the  various  diseases  of  the  hair,  splitting,  knotting,  etc.,  this  is  not 
the  place  to  speak,  although  a  few  words  may  be  said  about  the  care  of 
the  hair  in  general  sickness.  This  resolves  itself,  joractically,  into  cleanli- 
ness. The  hair  should  never  be  cut  in  sickness,  excepting  by  the  physi- 
•cian's  express  order.  In  the  case  of  women  I  think  it  should  in  no  case 
be  cut.  Constant  brushing  and  examination  of  the  scalp  should  be  prac- 
tised in  severe  illness,  and  the  hair  should  not  be  permitted  to  become 
matted,  as  even  in  the  cleanest  persons  we  find  it  harboring  vermin  occa- 
sionally, coming  from  no  one  knows  where.  Even  where  these  occur,  the 
hair  need  not  be  cut;  if  appropriate  remedies  are  used,  the  scalp  can  be 
■completely  cleansed  without  this  sacrifice. 


Editou's  Note. — For  various  reasons  it  has  been  thought  best  to  make  no  allusion 
in  the  present  chapter  to  the  hj^giene  of  the  eye  and  ear.  The  former  subject  is  dis- 
•cussed  in  the  chapter  on  Sohool  Hygiene  (Vol.  II.,  p.  605),  and  the  chief  precautions 
which  it  is  needful  to  take  in  order  to  preserve  the  hearing  are  briefly  given  below. 

All  attempts  to  clean  the  deeper  portions  of  the  outer  passage  of  the  ear  by  means 
of  ear-spoons  and  other  contrivances  are  unnecessary,  and  sometimes  give  rise  to  in- 
flammation. In  health — and  it  is  only  with  a  healthy  state  of  the  body  that  we  are 
here  concerned — the  deeper  parts  of  the  ear  can  be  left  to  take  care  of  themselves. 
The  orifice  of  the  canal  is  to  be  cleaned  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  any  other  de- 
pressed portion  of  the  surface  of  the  body — that  is,  with  a  wet  cloth  or  sponge. 

Bathing  in  salt  water  may  injure  the  ears  in  two  different  ways.  The  water  may 
gain  an  entrance  into  the  external  canal,  and  by  its  irritating  properties  set  up  inflam- 
mation. This  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  way  in  which  bathing  in  salt  water  gives 
rise  to  inflammation  of  the  ear.  From  personal  observation,  however,  I  am  disposed 
to  believe  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  disease  is  caused  in  another  way.  In 
the  manoeuvres  incident  to  diving,  swimming  under  water,  floating  on  the  back,  etc. . 
the  nasal  passages  become  filled  with  saltwater.  The  bather  then  yields  to  an  almost 
irresistible  desire  to  "blow  his  nose,"  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  irritating  fluid.  The 
blowing  is  generally  of  a  vigorous  character,  and  often  forces  some  of  the  salty  fluid  up 
through  the  narrow  passage  (Eastachian  tube)  which  leads  from  the  back  part  of  the 
nose  to  the  drum  cavity,  where  its  presence  may  give  rise  to  even  verj'  severe  inflam- 
mation. If  the  bather  is  careless,  or  not  familiar  with  the  surf,  his  ears  may  receive 
injurj'  from  the  mere  impact  of  the  waves.  Sand  may  also  enter  the  outer  passage 
with  the  water,  and  aid  in  setting  up  inflammation.  In  answer  to  the  question  :  What 
can  be  done  to  avoid  these  injurious  effects  of  bathing  ?  I  would  simply  say  :  After  the 
bath  abstain  from  blowing  the  nose  in  any  but  the  gentlest  manner  until  after  all  the 
active  secretion  of  mucus  has  ceased.  By  that  time  the  salt  water  will  have  been  got 
rid.of,  and  "  blowing  the  nose"  may  be  indulged  in  again  with  wonted  vigor.  Shall 
•cotton  be  worn  in  toe  ears  ?  Yes,  if  the  bather  has  reason  to  believe  that  he  possesses 
an  irritable  skin,  if  he  has  previously  had  some  affection  of  the  external  auditory  canal, 
or  if  he  knows  that  his  drum-head  is  perforated.  Otherwise,  the  protection  afforded 
by  the  cotton  is  too  slight  to  compensate  for  the  annoyance  which  it  causes. 

The  question  of  contracting  deafness  from  habitual  exposure  to  noises  of  a  certain 
character  is  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Hygiene  of  Occupation  (Vol,  II.,  p,  70). 


Part   II. 


HABITATIONS 


SOIL    AN'D    l\rATEE 


WILLIAM  H.   FORD,   A.M.,  M.D., 

PnESIDENT   OF  THE   BOARD  OF  HEALTH, 

PHILADELPPIIA. 


SOIL  AND  WATER. 


Conditions  of  the  Soil  affecting  Health. 

The  term  soil  is  here  ixsed  in  its  broad  sense,  as  comprehending  so 
much  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  of  whatsoever  composition  and  arrange- 
ment, as  may,  in  any  manner,  give  rise  to  conditions  affecting  health. 
These  conditions  may  be  due  solely  to  the  operations  of  nature,  unmodi- 
fied and  uninfluenced  by  human  agency,  or  they  may  be  the  direct  or  in- 
direct result  of  the  interference  of  man.  Under  the  former  class  we  may 
cite,  as  examples,  dampness  of  the  soil  (which  is  a  prime  factor  in  the 
causation  of  many  diseases),  and  those  peculiar  conditions  of  the  natural 
soil  originating  the  morbific  exhalations  described  by  the  term  malaria  ,' 
and  under  the  latter  those  conditions  of  the  soil  resulting  from  its  pollu- 
tion, and  giving  rise  to  diseases  pointedly  and  significantly  designated  by 
Mr,  Simon  as  "  filth-diseases." 

For  convenience  of  description,  an  arbitrary  division  of  the  soil  into 
surface-soil  and  subsoil  has  been  made,  the  latter  being  designated  as  the 
stratum  of  the  earth  which  lies  immediately  beneath  the  surface-soil. 

The  general  subject  of  soil  and  water  may  be  conveniently  studied 
under  the  three  divisions  of  constituents  of  the  soil,  2)ollution  of  the  soil, 
and  diseases  produced  by  conditions  of  the  soil. 

The  constituents  of  the  soil  form  the  groundwork  of  the  theme,  and 
must  be  carefully  studied,  sufficiently  in  detail,  to  determine  their  agency 
in  the  production  of  disease,  with  a  view,  to  point  out  the  best  means  of 
modifying,  counteracting,  or  preventing  all  such  influences  derived  there- 
from as  may  be  antagonistic  to  health.  The  second  branch  of  the  subject 
treats  of  the  pollution  of  the  soil,  its  causes  and  means  of  prevention.  It 
involves  a  study  of  the  methods  of  disposal  of  excreta  and  of  refuse  matters 
from  habitations  and  various  trades,  of  the  construction  of  street  pave- 
ments, the  conservancy  of  surface  area,  the  disposal  of  the  dead,  and  all 
means  of  preserving  the  purity  of  the  soil  and  ground-water;  and,  finally, 
we  shall  endeavor  to  trace  the  influence  of  certain  conditions  of  the  soil 
in  the  causation  of  disease,  as  derived  from  excess  of  water  in  the  soil — 
"  the  ground-water  theory  " — from  emanations  from  the  natural  soil,  from 
pollution  of  the  soil,  and  from  pollution  of  drinking-water. 


400  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

SECTION   I. 

Constituents  of  the  Soil. 

The  soil  consists  of  distinct  mineral  masses  variously  arranged,  and 
considered  by  geologists  under  the  term  rock,  which  is  meant  to  apply  to 
all  these  "  substances,  whether  they  be  soft  or  stony,  for  clay  and  sand  are- 
included  in  the  term,  and  some  have  even  brought  peat  under  this  denom- 
ination." Organic  matter,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  is  also  associated 
with  these  substances  in  variable  quantities  and  conditions.  Air  and 
water  form  other  and  important  ingredients  of  the  soil.  From  a  sanitary 
standpoint  these  latter  elements  furnish  an  exceedingly  important  topic 
for  consideration,  since  it  is  almost  exclusively  through  their  agency  that 
whatever  is  hurtful  in  the  soil  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  human  body.- 

1.  Air  in  the  Soil. 

The  atmosphere  penetrates  the  earth  and  circulates  beneath  its  surface 
to  an  indefinite  depth.  This  fact,  in  its  relation  to  the  superficial  soil,  is- 
practically  recognized  by  the  scientific  agriculturist,  but  it  has  a  differ- 
ent and  not  less  important  significance  to  the  sanitary  scientist,  and  should 
be  a  well  recognized  popular  truth.  All  rocks  are  more  or  less  porous, 
that  is,  endowed  with  the  capacity  for  holding  air  as  well  as  water;  and 
most  uncrystallized  sedimentary  ones  possess  this  character  in  a  very  con- 
siderable degree.  From  actual  experiment  (Hunt),'  the  volume  of  water 
(air)  enclosed  in  100  volumes  of  various  rocks  having  been  determined,  it 
was  found  for  three  specimens  of  Potsdam  sandstone  to  equal  6.94-9.35; 
for  specimens  of  crystalline  dolomite,  5.90-7.22;  for  three  specimens 
of  fine  gray  Devonian  sandstone  from  Ohio,  much  used  for  building, 
20.24-20.62-21.27;  for  specimens  of  dolomite,  Guelph,  10.60;  of  dolo- 
mite, Chazy,  argillaceous,  13.55;  and  for  three  specimens  of  soft  lime- 
stone of  Caen,  France,  so  much  employed  in  that  country  for  architectu- 
ral purposes,  29.49-29.54-29.93.  Some  kinds  of  very  porous  sandstone 
contain  air  to  even  one-third  of  their  bulk.  Sand,  gravel,  and  soils  con- 
tain air  in  very  large  proportions — ^loose  sand,  in  extreme  cases,  to  the 
amount  of  fifty  per  cent.  The  air  of  moderately  well  pulverized  soil  may 
amount  to  no  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  bulk,  and  loose  soils 
turned  up  for  agricultural  purposes  may  contain  as  much  as  from  two  to 
ten  times  its  volume  of  air  (Parkes). 

A  familiar  illustration  of  the  capacity  of  the  soil  for  air  is  afforded  by 
the  well-known  fact  that  Avhen  soil  is  disturbed  it  fills  a  greater  space  than 
it  occupied  before.     The  same  fact   is  demonstrated  by  filling  a  vessel 

'  Cheniical  and  Geologfical  Essays,  1875. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  401 

with  earth  and  adding*  water  to  saturation.  The  amount  of  water  absorbed 
represents  the  amount  of  air  displaced,  and  this  method  may  be  employed 
for  making  a  rough  estimate  of  the  relative  porosity  of  different  soils. 

The  following  experiment,  devised  by  Pettenkofer,  demonstrates  the 
facility  with  which  air  passes  through  compact  soils,  and  even  apparently 
solid  substances. 


Fig.  1. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  cylinder  of  solid,  dry  mortar,  half  lime,  half  sand, 
5  inches  by  If  inches.  With  the  exception  of  the  two  ends,  it  is  covered 
all  over  with  melted  wax,  which  is  impervious  to  air.  To  each  end  of  the 
cylinder  is  attached,  by  means  of  wax,  a  glass  funnel  which  terminates  in 
a  tube.  By  blowing  through  one  of  these  tubes  it  will  be  found  that  the 
air  will  pass  through  the  solid  mortar  and  cause  the  flame  of  a  candle  held 
near  the  end  of  the  opposite  tube  to  sensibly  deviate.  By  an  effort  it 
may  be  extinguished  altogether.  The  porosity  of  soils  is  also  well  illus- 
trated by  an  experiment  represented  at  Fig.  2. 

As  in  the  atmosphere,  so  in  the  ground-air;  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
carbonic  acid  form  the  main  constituents,  though  the  proportions  of  these 
elements  are  subject  to  constant  and  marked  variation.  Moisture  is  also 
present,  and,  in  addition,  are  found  traces  of  ammonia,  and,  occasionally, 
carburetted  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  With  reference  to  the  effluvia 
and  finely  suspended  particles  of  organic  matter  derived  from  animal  and 
vegetable  substances  existing  in  the  soil,  little  can  be  said,  for  as  yet  our 
knowledge  upon  this  point  is  very  imperfect. 

The  recorded  observations  of  Pettenkofer,  Fodor,  Fleck,  Lewis  and 
Cunningham,  and  Nichols,  made  within  recent  years,  have  given  consider- 
able prominence  to  carbonic  acid  as  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  ground- 
air.  It  has  been  found  to  exist  in  remarkable  excess  of  the  amount  con- 
tained in  atmospheric  air,  and  is  exceedingly  variable  in  quantity.  Being 
derived  from  organic  processes  of  oxidation  occurring  in  the  soil,  it  is  in 
amount  inversely  as  the  oxygen. 

Boussingault's  investigations  '  were  made  in  the  interests  of  agricul- 
ture and  were  conducted  in  soils  to  the  depth  of  about  fifteen  inches. 
The  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  determined  by  him  varied  from  2.4  to  9.74 
per  1,000  volumes  of  air,  the  air  for  the  latter  experiment  being  taken 

'  Zeitschrift  fur  Biologie,  VII. ,  p.  395. 
Vol.  I.— 26 


402  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

from  a  recently  manured  soil.  The  examinations  of  the  air  of  the  alluvial 
soil  in  the  neighborhood  of  Munich,  made  by  Pettenkofer'  in  1870-1871, 
revealed  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  increased  with  the 
depth,  and  varied  according  to  season,  its  minimum  being  reached  in 
winter  and  its  maximum  in  summer.  The  amount  per  1,000  volumes  of 
air  varied  from  1.58  at  a  depth  of  5  feet,  to  18.38  at  a  depth  of  13 
feet.  Subsequent  determinations  made  by  Pettenkofer  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Munich,  and  by  Fleck  in  the  vicinity  of  Dresden,  showed  the 
proportion  to  be  frequently  even  greater  than  the  maximum  just  men- 
tioned, and  on  one  occasion  it  was  as  high  as  80  per  1,000.* 

Fodor,^  of  Buda-Pesth,  experimented  on  air  in  different  localities  at 
the  depth  of  3^,  G^,  and  13  feet,  and  likewise  found  the  greatest  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  at  the  lowest  depth,  it  being  in  the  enormous  proportion 
of  107.5  per  1,000;  at  a  depth  of  3;^  feet,  in  one  case,  it  was  only  3.7  per 
1,000.  The  test  also  revealed  the  presence  of  ammonia,  but  no  sul^jhur- 
etted  hydrogen.  The  observations  of  Lewis  and  Cunningham,*  made  at 
Calcutta,  were  somewhat  similar  in  their  results,  the  deepest-lying  strata 
furnishing  the  largest  amount  of  carbonic  acid. 

Nichols  ^  has  made  an  examination  of  the  "  Back-Bay  lands  "  in  Boston, 
which  consist  of  mud  covered  over  mainly  with  gravel.  The  air  was  taken 
Sj  feet  below  the  surface,  at  different  times  and  at  different  levels  of  the 
ground-water.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  determined  varied  from  1.49 
when  the  water-level  stood  at  3  feet  10^  inches  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  to  2.2G  per  1,000  when  the  surface  of  the  ground-water  was  at  a 
depth  of  4  feet  2  inches.  No  sulphuretted  hydrogen  was  detected,  but 
slight  traces  of  ammonia  were  found.  In  another  locality,  where  the  sand 
was  10  feet  in  thickness,  the  results  were  quite  similar,  except  that  a 
larger  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  was  present.  A  more  extended  series 
of  experiments  was  made  at  still  another  locality  in  the  "  Back-Bay 
lands,"  at  a  depth  of  from  G  to  10  feet.  They  were  commenced  in  May  and 
continued  until  the  close  of  the  year  1874.  As  in  the  other  examinations, 
traces  of  ammonia  were  found,  but  no  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  found  at  different  depths  was  not 
always  very  noticeable,  though  many  of  the  observations  showed  a  greater 
amount  at  10  feet  from  the  surface  than  at  a  depth  of  6  feet.  The  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  varied  from  3.23  per  1,000  at  a  depth  of  6  feet — observed 
in  December — the  water-level  being  11  feet  11  inches  below  the  surface, 
to  21.21  at  a  depth  of  10  feet — observed  in  August — the  water-level  being 
10  feet  8^  inches. 

The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  ground-air  has  been  proposed  by 
Pettenkofer  as  a  measure  of  impurity,  but  he  admits  the  possibility  of  a 
better  index  of  impurity  being  found  when  investigations  shall  have  been 

'  Annales  de  chimie  et  de  phj^sique  (3).  XXXVII.,  pp.  5-50. 

2  Sixth  Report  of  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1875,  p.  209. 

^  Deutsche  Vierteljahrschrift  fiir  offeutliche  Gesundheitspflege,  VII.,  p.  205. 

-»  The  Soil  in  its  Relation  to  Disease,  Calcutta,  1875. 

*  Sixth  Report  of  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1875,  p.  213. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  403 

more  accurately  and  extensively  made,  Fodor  dissents  from  this  opinion, 
and  cites  as  his  reason  the  conclusion  arrived  at  from  repeated  examina- 
tions of  the  ground-atmosphere,  namely,  that  the  carbonic  acid  is  not 
produced  by  oxidation  on  the  spot,  and  therefore  cannot  be  taken  as  a  test 
of  impurity  of  the  air  of  any  given  soil. 

Nichols '  seems  to  hold  substantially  the  same  view  of  the  subject,  for 
he  says:  "It  is  to  borne  in  mind  that  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  found 
at  any  time  is  the  difference  between  the  amount  actually  produced  and 
the  amount  carried  off  by  diffusion  and  by  tlie  ground-water.  The 
amount,  then,  that  is  found  in  different  soils  and  under  differing  condi- 
tions, cannot  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  intensity  of  the  processes  con- 
cerned in  its  production,  for  very  much  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
soil,  especially  in  the  matter  of  porosity.  At  present  it  does  not  seem 
to  be  possible  to  draw  much  useful  information  from  the  determination 
of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  ground-air.  As  the  numbers  of  the  determina- 
tions increase,  and  the  laws  of  the  variation  are  better  understood,  it  is 
possible,  that,  like  the  height  of  the  ground-water,  it  may  be  found  to 
connect  itself  with  causes  and  effects  of  sanitary  importance."  This 
point  seems  to  be  as  yet  undecided;  nevertheless,  the  suggestion  of  Pet- 
tenkofer  should  not  be  discarded  until  proved  of  no  value  by  the  results 
of  more  extended  researches. 

The  porosity  of  soils,  or,  in  other  words,  the  measure  of  capacity  for 
air,  is  estimated  in  different  ways.  A  rough  estimate  may  be  obtained 
"  in  the  case  of  rather  loose  rocks,  by  seeing  how  much  water  a  given 
bulk  will  absorb,  which  can  be  done  by  measuring  the  water,  before  and 
after  the  weighed  or  unmeasured  rock  is  inserted  in  it,  or  by  weighing 
the  rock  after  immersion."  *  A  more  accurate  plan  is  that  adopted  by 
Hunt.^  Small  broken  fragments  of  rock  are  carefully  dried  at  about  200° 
F.,  till  they  cease  to  lose  weight.  The  weight  having  been  determined, 
they  are  then  placed  with  their  lower  portions  in  water,  and  allowed  to 
remain  for  some  hours,  after  which  they  are  covered  with  water  and 
placed  under  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  by  which  process  a 
large  portion  of  the  air  is  removed.  The  exhaustion  of  the  receiver  is 
several  times  repeated,  at  intervals,  until  the  portions  of  the  rock  are  as 
nearly  as  possible  saturated,  and  bubbles  cease  to  escape  on  further  ex- 
haustion. They  are  then  removed,  carefully  wiped  with  blotting-paper, 
and  again  weighed — first  in  air,  and  then  in  water. 

"  The  loss  in  weight  of  the  saturated  rock  when  weighed  in  water  be- 
ing'equal  to  that  of  the  volume  of  water  displaced  by  the  mass,  enables 
us  to  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  the  latter;  while  this  loss  in 
weight,  less  the  weight  of  the  water  absorbed  by  the  mass,  gives  the 
true  volume  of  water  displaced  by  its  particles,  and  hence  the  means  of 
determining  their  specific  gravity.     The  division,  by  the  volume  of  water 

'  Sixth  Eeport  of  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  p.  330. 
-  Parkes  :  Practical  Hygiene,  .'ith  edition,  p.  328. 
"  Chemical  and  Geological  Essays,  1875,  p.  164-166. 


404  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

displaced,  of  the  amount  of  water  absorbed,  gives  the  absorption  bj 
volume;  and  the  division  of  the  Aveight  of  the  water  absorbed  by  that  of 
the  dry  mass,  the  absorption  by  weight," 

The  following  formuht,  furnished  by  Hunt,  are  of  value  in  estimating 
the  relative  amount  of  air,  as  well  as  the  relative  amount  of  water,  ab- 
sorbed by  the  different  rocks: 

a  =  the  weight  of  the  dry  rock. 

b  =  the  weight  of  water  which  the  rock  can  absorb. 

c  =  the  loss  of  weight,  in  water,  of  the  saturated  rock. 

We  have  then  the  following  equations: 

1.  C  :  «  I  I  1,000  :  x  =  siDecific  gravity  of  the  mass,  or  apparent  speci- 

fic gravity,  Avater  being  1,000. 

2.  c  —  b  :  a  '.  ',  1,000  :  x  =  specific    gravity  of    the   particles,  or   real 

specific  gravity,  Avater  being  1,000. 

3.  c  :  b  ]  ',  100  :  x  =  volume   of   Avater   absorbed   by  100  volumes  of 

the  rock. 

4.  a  :  b  ',  ',  100  :  x  =  Aveight  of  water  absorbed  by  100  parts,  by  weight, 

of  the  rock. 

Parkes  furnishes  the  following  convenient  formula: ' 

Weight  of  water  taken  up  x  100 

t-TT  •   1  ^    r~i  '■!  ^  • —  —  percentage  of  air. 

W  eight  or  dry  rock  -^  specific  gravity 

The  same  author  gives  the  following  plan  adopted  by  Pettenkofer 
when  the  soil  is  loose  :  Dry  the  loose  soil  at  212°  F.  and  poAvder  it,  but 
Avithout  crushing  it  very  much ;  put  it  into  a  burette,  and  tap  it  so  as  to 
expel  the  air  from  the  interstices  as  far  as  possible  ;  connect  another 
burette  by  means  of  an  elastic  tube  with  the  bottom  of  the  first  burette, 
and  clamp  it  on;  pour  water  into  No.  2  burette,  and  then,  by  jDressing  the 
clamp,  allow  the  Avater  to  rise  through  the  soil  until  a  thin  layer  of  water 
is  seen  above  it;  then  read  off  the  amount  of  Avater  thus  gone  out  of  the 
second  burette.     The  calulation  is: 

Amount  of  Avater  used  x  100 

; ; =  percentage  of  air. 

Cubic  centimetres  of  dry  soil 

Except,  perhaps,  in  the  more  dense  rocks  and  compact  clays,  the  air 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil  circulates  more  or  less  freely,  according  to 
a  combination  of  external  influences,  aided  by  the  condition  of  porosity' 
of  the  soil.  The  facility  Avith  Avhich  Avater  permeates  the  soil  is  a  matter 
of  common  obserA^ation;  air  being  so  much  lighter  (770  times  lighter  than 
water),  it  can.be  readily  seen  Avhy  it  should  have  still  greater  power  of 
diffusion,  and  be  even  more  movable   than  water.     The  causes  to  Avhicli 

'  Practical  Hygiene,  p.  338. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


405 


the  movement  of  the  gTouiid-air  is  attributable  are — tlie  difference  of 
temperature  between  the  surface  and  the  deeper  strata,  tlie  force  of  the 
Avind,  barometric  pressure,  displacement  by  rain-fall  and  movement  of 
ground-water,  and  the  inherent  power  of  diffusion  which  gaseous  bodies 
possess.  The  force  exerted  by  the  wind  is  apt  to  be  underestimated.  The 
l^ressure  exerted  upon  a  square  foot  of  surface  varies  from  1.107  pounds 
during*  a  "  brisk  Avind  "  blowing  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  miles  23er  hour,  to 
oO  jDOunds  during  a  "hurricane"  with  a  velocity  of  100  miles  an  hour.' 
The  effect  of  the  unequal  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  ground-air 
is  well  illustrated  by  Fig.  2. 

The  following  experiment,  devised  by  Prof.  Pettenkofer,  illustrates  in 
a  striking  manner  the  motion  of  the  air  through  the  ground. 

In  Fig.  2,  A  represents  a  tall  glass  tube  filled  with  gravel,  E,  in  the  axis  of 
which  stands  a  smaller 
glass  tube,  B,  one 
open  end  of  it  reach-  ~ 
ing  to  the  bottom. 
The  other  open  end  of 
the  small  glass  tube  is 
attached  by  means  of 

a  jDiece  of  india-rubber  tubing,  6',  to  a  U-shaped 
tube,  D,  containing  water.  "  If  a  2:)erson  blow, 
as  represented  in  the  figure,  on  the  surface  of  the 
gravel,  the  liquid  in  the  U-shaped  tube  will  be 
seen  to  alter  its  position,  the  level  of  the  side 
next  the  person  who  is  blowing  becoming  lowered, 
and  the  other  projDortionally  elevated.  The  de- 
pression of  the  fluid  is  caused  by  the  force  of  the 
air  blown  through  the  gravel,  because  it  ascends 
from  the  bottom  of  the  gravel  through  the  small 
glass  tube,  passes  through  the  india-rubber  tube, 
and  thus  reaches  the  water."  If  the  water  in  the 
curved  tube,  D,  be  removed,  by  blowing  in  the 
same  manner  upon  the  surface  of  the  gravel,  the 
air  passing  through  the  gravel  and  through  the 
tubes  will  escape  at  the  outlet  beyond  D,  with 
sufficient  force  to  blow  aside  the  flame  of  a  candle. 
In  the  light  of  this  experiment,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
see  how  the  air  in  the  ground  can  be  set  in  motion 
by  the  pressure  of  air  or  wind  against  its  surface. 

The  fact  of  the  continual  movement  of  the  ground-atmosphere  has  an 
important  bearing  upon  some  causes  of  disease,  especially  those  associated 
with  impurities  of  the  air  of  our  houses  derived  from  the  subsoil.  It  in- 
dicates an  inquiry  upon  a  subject  which  has  hitherto  received  but  limited 
attention,  and  suggests  the  iinportance  of  the  investigation  of  influences 


Fig.  2. 


The  American  Cyclopeedia,  Vol.  XVI.,  Article — Wind. 


406 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


hidden  from  sight,  yet  potent  in  undermining  health,  if  not  directly 
causative  of  disease.  The  cellai-s  of  houses,  as  usually  constructed,  form 
no  barrier  to  the  escape  of  air  from  the  subsoil.  When  artificially  heated, 
the  force  of  suction  is  added  to  the  other  forces  at  work  in  causing  an  up- 
ward current  of  air.  In  this  way  air  may  be  drawn  from  a  great  depth, 
as  well  as  from  a  distance  laterally,  and  will  convey  with  it  imjDurities  (it 
may  be  disease-germs)  derived  from  the  various  sources  of  contamination 
so  frequently  jDresent  about  and  under  our  habitations.  In  this  manner, 
coal-gas,  effluvia  from  privy-wells  and  cesspools,  sewer-gas  from  defective 
drain-pipes  and  imperfectly  constructed  sewers,  and  the  exhalations  from 
a  filth-sodden  soil,  which  too  frequently  forms  the  foundation  and  local 
surroundings  of  dwelling-houses,  pollute  and  poison  the  atmosphere  we 
breathe. 

To  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  ground-air,  is  of  primary  importance. 
This  may  be  accomj^lished  by  removing  the  sources  of  contamination,  and 
by  facilitating  the  natural  processes  of  purification  and  relieving  the  over- 
taxed powers  of  the  soil  by  drainage  and  aeration.  Then,  in  the  second 
place,  protective  measures  may  be  resorted  to  for  additional  security.  As 
has  been  shown,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  ground-air, 
but,  by  suitable  devices,  it  may  be  diverted  into  other  and  less  hurtful 
channels,  and  its  pernicious  influence  reduced  to  a  minimum.  This 
can  be  accomplished  by  laying  the  basement-floors  of  the  entire  dwell- 
ing, as  well  as  the  foundation-walls,  on  a  bed  of  concrete,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  A,  and  by  using  damp  courses,  B,  made  of  impervious  materials, 


Fig.  3. — Basement  Floor.     Arrangements  to  exclude  Rronnd-air  and  dampness.     A, 
concrete  bed ;  B,  damp-proof  course  ;  C,  asphalt  floor. 


such  as  cement  and  slate,  or  asphalt,  or  vitrified  stoneware  tiles,  between 
the  layers  of  stone  in  the  walls  just  above  the  ground-level.  By  these 
means  both  the  dampness  and  air  of  the  underlying  soil  will  be  prevented 
from  entering  the  building.  A  layer  of  good  asphalt,  C,  placed  over  the 
concreted  basement  floors  will  make  an  excellent  finish,  and  will, more  com- 
pletely secure  the  object  desired.  An  additional  protection  will  be  secured 
by  having  a  dry  area  between  the  surrounding  ground  and  the  external 
walls,  as  represented  in  Fig.  3.  The  area  should  be  well  drained  and  ven- 
tilated.    When  the  subsoil  is  very  impure,  as  is  often  the  case  when  the  site 


SOIL    AND    WAJ'ER.  407 

selected  is  upon  "  made-ground,"  a  good  layer  of  charcoal  may  be  inter- 
])osed  with  advantage,  as  suggested  by  Rawlinson.  It  may  even  be  advis- 
able, in  some  cases,  to  raise  the  house  above  the  ground-surface,  that  a  free 
ventilation  may  be  secured  between  the  lower  floors  and  the  ground.  In 
many  of  the  summer  resorts  along  the  coast,  this  practice  has  become  a 
sanitary  necessity,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  soil. 

The  paving  of  towns  undoubtedly  lessens  the  ascent  of  effluvia  and 
diminishes  the  chances  of  soil-pollution  from  surface-impurities,  but  by 
impeding  the  upward  circulation  of  the  confined  air,  it  may  tend  to  in- 
crease the  liability  of  the  house-air  to  defilement  by  diverting  the  ground- 
air,  frequently  charged  with  coal-gas  and  sewer-gas,  toward  the  least 
resistihg  and  unprotected  channels  of  exit  offered  by  carelessly  constructed 
cellar  floors.  Cases  are  on  record  which  seem  to  prove  the  correctness 
of  the  statement.  The  means  of  protection  above  suggested  will  guard 
against  this  casual  source  of  danger. 

A  suggestion  has  been  made  ^  with  the  twofold  object  of  preventing 
the  ingress  of  ground-air  into  our  dwellings  and  of  affording  a  means  of 
ventilation  of  the  soil.  It  is  to  have  a  ventilating  chamber  constructed 
under  the  entire  surface  of  the  cellar  floor,  separated  from  the  basement 
by  an  intervening  pavement  of  some  impervious  material,  such  as  asphalt. 
This  chamber  is  to  be  one  foot  in  depth,  and  connected  with  a  chimney- 
flue,  so  as  to  carry  off  the  ground-air  which  rises  into  it  in  autumn,  winter, 
and  spring.  During  the  summer,  when  the  ground-air  beneath  the  house 
sinks,  a  current  of  fresh  air  passes  downward  and  rises  to  the  heated  sur- 
face outside  the  house. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  facilitating  the  ventilation  of  the  soil  in 
cities  where  the  surface  is  covered  by  pavements,  which  more  or  less  im- 
pede the  free  passage  of  air.  The  free  admission  of  the  atmospheric  air 
into  the  ground  is  beneficial  by  diluting  the  ground-air,  and  by  preventing 
its  stagnation,  and  by  promoting  the  oxidation  of  organic  matters.  This 
may  be  secured,  to  a  great  extent,  by  reserving  numerous  places  for  pub- 
lic squares,  and  spaces  adjoining  houses  for  garden  plots,  which  should  be 
covered  with  vegetation.  Care  should  be  taken  that  these  places  are  not 
suffered  to  become  polluted  by  surface-defilement,  in  which  case  the  last 
evil  would  be  worse  than  the  first. 

Porous  soils  being,  as  a  rule,  considered  healthy,  on  this  account  the 
precaution  to  intercept  and  cut  off,  by  suitable  means,  the  ascent  of 
ground-air  into  houses  should  not  be  omitted,  since  such  soils  are  some- 
times malarious,  and  they  may,  on  account  of  their  porosity  and  the  suction 
power  of  the  heated  air  of  houses,  allow  impurities  to  be  conducted  from 
a  long  distance. 

The  nature  of  the  impurities  of  the  air  derived  from  the  soil  under 
various  conditions  has  been  fully  discussed  elsewhere.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, in  this  place,  simply  allude  to  some  of  the  more  prominent  sources 

'  Staebe  and  Niemeyer :  Boden-Ventilation,  als  Schutzmittel  wider  Cholera  und 
Typhus,  1873. 


408  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

of  pollution  of  the  ground-air,  and,  through  this  channel,  of  the  atmos- 
phere we  breathe.  The  mephitic  gases  from  cesspools  and  privy-wells, 
and  even  the  fluid  contents,  may  pass  into  the  surrounding  soil,  and 
charge  the  ground-air  with  morbific  elements.  Sewage  emanations, 
and  likewise  the  sewage  itself,  escape  into  the  ground,  saturate  it  with 
impurities,  and  supply  the  more  important  conditions  favorable  to  the  fur- 
ther contamination  of  the  ground-air.  The  omission  to  remove  solid  and 
liquid  offensive  matters  from  inhabited  places  is  another  and  very  common 
cause  of  "ground-air  "  jjollution.  These  matters,  by  soakage,  fill  up  the  in- 
terstices of  the  soil,  and,  under  favorable  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture, 
usually  present,  undergo  changes  that  give  rise  to  the  development  of  nox- 
ious effluvia,  which  are  important  factors  in  the  causation  of  disease.  From 
all  these  sources  may  be  jDroduced  not  only  gaseous  products  of  organic 
decomposition,  which  are  dangerous  to  health  in  proportion  to  the  degree 
of  concentration,  but  other  and  more  important  agents  in  the  production 
of  disease,  those  morbific  ferments,  or  "septic  ferments,"  as  they  have 
been  called,  which  seem  to  be  inseparably  connected  with  certain  palj^a- 
ble  elements  or  organisms,  of  microscopic  minuteness,  and  which  find  favor- 
able conditions  for  development  in  soils  loaded  with  oozings  from  sewers 
and  cesspools,  and  from  refuse  heaps  and  middens. 

The  emanations  from  the  soil  of  graveyards  and  cemeteries  generally 
contain  putrid  organic  matters,  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  the  low 
forms  of  cell-life.  Independent  of  human  agency,  there  are  emana- 
tions that  take  place  from  the  soil,  particularly  of  low,  marshy  lands, 
which  give  rise  to  certain  forms  of  fever,  to  which  the  term  malaria 
has  been  commonly  applied.  "  It  has  been  frequently  affirmed  as  a  gen- 
eral truth  that  the  great  difference  of  one  country  from  another,  in  point 
of  salubrity,  consists  in  the  greater  or  less  proportion  of  soil  which  pro- 
duces noxious  effluvia."  The  nature  of  malaria  has  been  a  subject  of  the 
widest  speculation.  Of  the  numerous  hypotheses  promulgated  from  time 
to  time,  not  one  has  been  accejDted  as  explaining  fully  what  the  poison  is, 
and  the  true  and  essential  causes  concerned  in  its  production.  Certain 
conditions  of  the  soil  and  states  of  the  atmosphere  have  been  described 
as  being  generally  associated  in  regions  where  malaria  prevails;  but  in- 
stances occur  in  which,  with  all  the  conditions  present  that  appear  to  be 
favorable  for  the  development  of  the  poison,  there  is  complete  immunity 
from  the  diseases  it  is  said  to  produce;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  well 
authenticated  examples  are  not  lacking  of  regions  notoriously  malarious, 
where  the  conditions  (mainly  of  the  soil)  which  appear  to  be  most  essential 
for  the  development  of  the  malaria  are  entirely  absent.  The  instances 
of  malaria  in  elevated  regions,  where  the  soil  is  dry  and  is  clothed  with 
scanty  vegetation — as,  for  examjole,  in  the  Tuscan  Apennines,  on  the 
Pyrenees,  and  on  the  lofty  mountains  of  Peru,  at  an  elevation  of  10,000 
feet — are  cases  in  point.  These  apjDarent  contradictions  only  go  to  show 
how  imperfect  is  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  causes  of  malaria.  The 
theory  that  malarial  fevers  are  caused  by  exhalations  from  the  soil  charged 
with  the  products  of  decomposition  of  vegetable  organisms,  by  virtue  of 


SOIL    AND    AVATER.  409 

some  subtle  poison  tliey  contain,  or  bj-  a  combination  of  several  factors, 
is  a  very  common  one.  Some  observers  maintain  that  the  poison  is  elab- 
orated in  the  soil,  and  is  communicated  by  the  agency  of  drinking-water. 
Others  attribute  the  poison  to  exhalations  from  living  plants,  and  to  sub- 
terraneous gases  of  volcanic  origin.  Heat,  electricit}'",  and  chill  have  all 
been  assigned  as  causes  of  malarial  fevers.  The  theory  that  the  active 
principle  causing  these  diseases  resides  in  the  low  forms  of  vegetable  or- 
ganisms, spores  of  alga^,  has  also  been  revived  of  late  years.  Sufficient  is 
known  of  the  conditions  under  which  malarial  fevers  do  occur,  without 
determining  the  active  principle  of  causation,  to  warrant  the  conclusion 
that  the  agent  is  associated  with  "  some  kind  of  decomposition  or  fermen- 
tation going  on  in  the  soil,  especially  when  conditions  come  together  of 
organic  matter  in  the  soil,  of  moisture,  heat,  and  limited  access  of  air." 
(Parkes.) 

The  diseases  which  have  been  attributed  to  emanations  from  the  soil 
are  (as  stated  by  Dr.  Parkes)  paroxysmal  fevers^  enteric  fever,  yellow 
fever,  bilious  remittent  fever,  cholera,  and  dysentery. 

This  formidable  array  of  maladies,  all  belonging  to  the  class  of  pre- 
ventable diseases,  suggests  a  wide  and  fruitful  field  for  accurate  sanitary 
investigations. 

2.    Water  in  the  Soil. 

The  water  in  the  soil  may  be  conveniently  studied  under  the  two 
divisions  of  moisture  or  dampness,  and  of  ground-ioater.  The  term  mois- 
ture is  used  to  designate  water  in  the  pores  of  the  soil  in  contact  with  air, 
the  amount  ever  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  influences  of 
heat,  and  conditions  of  supply,  etc.  Ground-water,  a  term  derived  from 
the  German  "  Grundwasser,"  is  the  continuous  stratum  or  body  of  water 
formed  by  filling  to  repletion  all  the  pores  and  spaces  in  the  soil  to  a  cer- 
tain level,  found  at  different  depths  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  surface  of  this  sheet  of  water  is  called  the  water-level,  water-table,  or 
line  of  saturation  in  the  soil,  and  forms  a  distinct  boundary  between  the 
underlying  saturated  soil  and  the  ground  above  it  which  is  merely  moist, 
that  is,  contains  water  and  air  in  variable  quantities. 

There  is  the  greatest  difference  in  soils  with  respect  to  their  power  to 
absorb  and  retain  moisture;  scarcely  any  are  without  it,  and  some  possess 
the  property  to  a  very  remarkable  extent.  Nor  is  this  property  confined 
to  the  disintegrated  materials  combined  in  the  formation  of  soils;  the  rocks 
from  which  they  originate,  even  those  of  the  denser  structure,  are  capable 
of  taking  up  a  certain  amount  of  water.  Ordinary  uncrystalline  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  and  even  granite  and  trap-rock,  absorb  moisture.  Some 
of  these  formations  when  taken  from  the  quarries  are  more  or  less  satu- 
rated with  water.  The  more  compact  gravels  contain  pores  or  sjDaces  to 
the  extent  of  one-third  of  their  bulk,  which  may  be  filled  with  water  as 
well  as  air.  This  may  be  clearly  demonstrated  by  filling  a  vessel  with 
gravel  and  pressing  it  down  so  compactly  that  the  bulk  of  the  gravel  can 


410  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

no  longer  be  diminished,  and  then  by  noting  the  amount  of  water  that  can 
be  poured  into  the  vessel  which  was,  apparently,  entirely  filled  with  gravel. 
The  quantity  of  water  taken  up  by  the  dry  gravel  will  amount  to  about  one- 
third  of  its  volume.  Such  a  soil  as  this  constitutes  the  foundation  of  the 
city  of  Munich,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  careful  and  noteworthy  in- 
vestigations at  the  hands  of  Pettenkofer, 

A  strong  clay  soil  may  retain  27  per  cent,  of  water;  a  moderately 
heavy  soil,  30  to  31  per  cent.;  a  sandy  loam,  33  to  36;  and  a  black  loam 
rich  in  hicnius,  41  per  cent.  (Wolff.)  Ilmnxis  is  exceedingly  tenacious  of 
water,  and,  according  to  some  experimenters,  may  contain  as  much  as  60 
per  cent,  of  its  volume.  Dried  quartz  can  take  up  a  large  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  even  sands  have  the  power  to  contain  moisture  to  a  consider- 
able degree.  A  new  well-made  brick  will  hold  as  much  as  a  half-pint  of 
water.  Chalk  takes  up  from  13  to  17  per  cent.,  some  sandstones  as  much 
as  20  per  cent.,  and  granite  from  0.4  to  4  per  cent. 

An  examination  made  with  reference  to  the  choice  of  building-stone 
for  the  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1839,  developed  some  interesting  facts 
pertinent  to  the  present  subject.  Some  of  the  results  may  be  cited.  It 
was  found  that  the  absorption  of  water  for  100  volumes  of  rock  was  as 
follows  : 

For  three  silicious  limestones,  5.3,  8.5,  and  10.9;  for  four  nearly  pure 
limestones  from  oolite,  18.00,  20.6,  24.4,  and  31.0;  for  four  magnesian 
limestones,  18.3,  23.9,  24.9,  26.7;  and  for  six  sandstones,  10.7,  11.2,  14.3, 
15.6,  17.4,  and  22.1. 

In  all  the  experiments,  the  air  was  removed  by  placing  the  rock  in 
water  under  the  vacuum  of  the  air-pump;  the  amount  of  water  absorbed 
by  simple  immersion  would,  in  all  cases,  be  much  less. 

Rain  is  the  principal  source  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  The  amount  ab- 
sorbed depends  upon  the  nature,  condition,  and  situation  of  the  soil.  The 
inclination  of  the  ground,  and  the  facility  for  superficial  drainage;  the 
previous  state  of  the  soil  as  to  moisture;  the  character  of  the  rainfall — 
which  may  be  so  rapid  as  to  partially  prevent  absorption,  much  of  the 
water  passing  off  by  the  natural  channels  of  drainage;  agencies  promot- 
ing evaporation,  such  as  heat,  wind,  etc. — all  influence  the  amount  of  rain 
passing  into  the  ground. 

Another  source  from  which  the  soil  derives  moisture  is  through  its 
power  of  attracting  the  vapors  of  water  in  the  air.  In  rainless,  tropical 
regions  this  property  of  the  soil  is  of  the  greatest  value.  But  a  more  im- 
portant source,  in  the  present  connection,  is  presented  by  the  ground- 
water itself.  From  the  surface  of  this  underground  lake  a  constant  dis- 
tillation of  water  is  taking  place  toward  the  surface  of  the  ground.  By 
capillary  attraction  a  quantity  of  moisture  from  the  deeper-lj-ing,  satu- 
rated strata  is  constantly  being  imparted  to  the  superincumbent  layers. 
The  humidity  of  the  soil  is  further  dependent,  and  to  a  very  considerable 
degree,  upon  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  ground-water. 

The  amount  of  moisture  in  a  given  soil  may  be  determined  roughly  by 
drying  a  weighed  quantity  in  a  drying-chamber,  and   noting  the  loss  of 


SOIL    AliD    WATER.  411 

weight;  then  by  heating  it  in  a  steam-  or  air-bath  until  it  ceases  to  lose 
weight.  The  entire  loss  of  weight  will  give  approximately  the  amount  of 
moisture  contained  in  the  soil.  To  determine  the  power  of  absorption  in 
any  soil,  dry  a  sample  of  it  by  exposure  to  heat  sufficient  to  drive  olf  all 
the  moisture;  then  weigh  it,  and  expose  in  a  shallow  tray  to  the  atmos- 
phere, and  note  the  increase  of  weight  under  different  conditions  of  tem- 
perature and  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  at  night  as  well  as  in  daytime, 
to  determine  the  amount  of  water  it  will  condense  from  the  air.  The 
dried  soil  may  also  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  saturated  with  moisture 
by  placing  it  under  a  bell-jar  in  a  shallow  tray,  together  with  a  shallow 
vessel  of  water.  The  weight  of  the  dried  soil  being  known,  any  changes 
will  be  dbserved  by  weighing  it,  from  time  to  time,  during  twenty-four  or 
forty-eight  hours.  A  more  exact  mode  of  determining  the  amount  of 
water  absorbed  by  soils  and  rocks  has  been  presented  on  a  previous  page. 

The  subterranean  water-bed  is  formed  by  the  arrangement  and  struc- 
tural character  of  the  subjacent  strata.  The  dip  of  the  underlying  imper- 
meable strata,  and  their  relative  position  to  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
determine  the  depth  of  the  soil-water.  Its  level,  instead  of  being  at  or 
near  the  surface,  as  in  a  marsh,  may  be  at  a  very  great  depth. 

The  ground-water  is  in  continual  movement,  generally  toward  the  sea 
or  nearest  watercourse.  The  movement  is  influenced  by  the  amount  of 
rain-fall,  the  resistance  encountered  at  the  outfall,  and  by  the  topogra- 
phical relations  and  physical  properties  of  the  soil.  The  roots  of  trees 
are  said  to  retard  the  flow  of  the  ground-water. 

The  velocity  of  the  flow  is  never  great,  it  may  be  hardly  perceptible. 
In  Berlin,  according  to  Virchow,  the  movement  of  the  ground-water  to- 
wards the  Spree  is  very  slight;  in  some  places  it  is  almost  null  ;  while  in 
Munich,  where  extended  observations  have  been  made  by  Pettenkofer, 
the  rate  of  movement  toward  the  Isar  is  fifteen  feet  daily.  The  water- 
table  is  subject  to  constant  changes;  the  variations  and  rapidity  in  its 
rise  and  fall  differ  very  much  in  different  places  and  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year.  In  some  places  there  is  but  slight  variation  in  the  level  of 
the  soil-water,  in  other  places  the  difference  between  the  highest  and 
lowest  water-level  in  the  year  may  be  many  feet.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  those  regions  where  the  rain-fall  is  confined  to  particular  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  is  excessive,  -as  in  certain  parts  of  India,  for  example, 
where  the  difference  between  the  maximum  and  minimum  depression  of 
the  water-level  has  amounted  to  seventeen  feet.' 

As  has  been  intimated,  the  variations  in  the  water-level  are  caused  by 
the  amount  of  rain-fall  and  evaporation,  changes  in  the  character  of  the 
passages  of  escape,  and  the  resistance  of  the  water  at  the  outlet.  High 
tides  and  freshets  may  cause  a  very  perceptible  rise  in  the  level  of  the 
soil-water.     The  amount  of  rain-fall  cannot  be  taken  as  a  reliable  measure 


1  The  limits  between  the  highest  and  lowest  water-level  in  the  year  are  10  feet  in 
Munich,  nearly  17  feet  at  Saugor,  India,  and.  13  feet  at  Jubbulpore.  At  Calcutta 
and  Bombay  the  changes  are  also  very  marked. 


412  SOIL    AXD    WATER. 

of  the  state  of  the  ground-water,  since  the  effects  of  rain  are  frequently 
only  aj^preciable  after  the  lapse  of  considerable  time,  and  are  often  more 
marked  at  a  distance  from  the  area  of  rain.  The  same  amount  of  rain 
does  not  affect  all  soils  alike,  and  the  same  soil  in  different  years,  with 
the  same  quantity  of  rain,  shows  a  marked  variation  in  the  level  of  the 
ground-water.  The  height  of  the  water-level  may  be  easily  determined 
by  taking  the  measurement  of  the  surface  of  the  water  in  a  number  of 
wells  in  the  locality  for  which  the  inquiry  is  to  be  made.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  mention  the  devices  used  for  the  purpose;  it  may  be  proper,  how- 
ever, to  suggest  caution  in  the  use  of  material  that  will  not  give  false 
results.  Care  should  also  be  taken  lest  peculiar  changes  in  the  water- 
level  of  some  wells,  due  entirely  to  some  local  condition,  be  used  to  inter- 
pret the  general  water-level  of  the  district. 

The  role  played  by  soil-moisture  in  connection  with  the  etiology  of 
disease,  has  assumed  fresh  importance  since  the  results  of  Bowditch, 
Buchanan,  Pettenkofer  and  others  have  been  given  to  the  world.  A 
humid  soil,  simply  as  such,  is  proverbially  unhealthy,  and  marshy  and 
water-logged  lands  have  long  been  recognized,  the  world  over,  as  a  cause 
of  paroxysmal  fevers.  It  is  known  that  the  exhalations  from  moist  soils 
impregnated  with  organic  matter  (in  a  state  of  decomposition),  exert  a 
deleterious  influence  upon  the  health.  Contaminated  soil-water  flo\ving 
into  wells  from  which  the  supply  for  drinking  purposes  is  obtained,  is  also 
accepted  as  an  agency  by  which  disease  is  frequently  produced.  ^  But  it 
is  only  recently  that  investigations  have  been  made,  which  conclusively 
prove  that  humidit}''  of  the  soil  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production 
of  diseases,  immensely  destructive  of  life,  which  have  hitherto  been  sup- 
posed to  be  only  slightly,  or  not  at  all,  affected  by  this  cause.  Dr.  Bow- 
ditch  '  has  .shown  that  this  characteristic  of  the  soil  is  one  of  the  primal 
causes  of  consumption  in  Massachusetts,  and  perhaps  in  New  England  ; 
and  Dr.  Buchanan,  by  a  series  of  independent  observations,  has  arrived  at 
a  similar  conclusion,  namely,  "  that  wetness  of  the  soil  is  a  cause  of 
phthisis  to  the  population  living  upon  it,"  and  he  adds  that  this  proposi- 
tion "may  now  be  affirmed  generally,  and  not  only  of  particular  districts." 

Enteric  fever  is  another  disease  that  may  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection. The  hypothesis  that  its  causation  is  connected  with  certain  ob- 
scure changes  in  the  soil  which  bear  a  fixed  relation  to  the  fluctuations  in 
the  level  of  the  ground- water  has  the  support  of  many  competent  observ- 
ers, especially  in  Germany.  Foremost  among  these  is  Dr.  Pettenkofer, 
whose  investigations  of  the  subject  in  connection  with  the  soil  of  Munich 
have  become  celebrated.  While  the  facts  brought  forward  to  show  the 
relationshij)  between  the  state  of  the  water-level  and  the  prevalence  of 
enteric  fever  seem  to  clearly  indicate  that  it  is  more  than  casual  in  some 
districts  where  long-continued  observations  have  been  made — in  that  of 
Munich,  for  example;  in  other  districts,  where  similar  inquiries  have  been 
made,  the  relationship  has  been  found  to  be  wanting. 

'  Med.  Communications  of  the  Mass.  Med.  Soc,  Vol.  X.,  Xo.  2.  Boston,  1862, 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  413 

A  similai"  theory  has  been  advanced  with  respect  to  the  causation  of 
cholera,  and  striking-  examples  have  been  furnished  to  prove  the  correct- 
ness of  the  view.  Neither  of  these  particular  theories  has  been  gen- 
erally accepted  by  the  medical  profession.  Nevertheless,  it  must  be 
admitted,  that,  if  not  in  the  particular  mode  which  the  advocates  of  the 
"  ground-water  theory  "  would  have  us  accept  as  the  exclusive  one,  a  wet 
soil  is  a  significant  element  in  the  causation  of  these  diseases,  inasmuch 
as  it  favors  the  decomposition  of  excremental  and  other  filth,  so  readily 
absorbed  by  moist,  porous  soils,  the  products  of  which  infect  the  air  and 
mingle  with  and  pollute  the  ground-water,  which  in  turn  contaminates  the 
water  of  wells  and  springs. 

Water  in  the  soil  is  injurious  to  health, — by  the  effects  of  dampness, 
simply  as  such;  by  favoring  the  decomposition  of  organic  matters  in  the 
soil,  and  the  evolution  of  unhealthy  effluvia;  and  by  the  effect  of  the 
ground-water  itself  through  its  liability  to  become  polluted,  in  which  case 
it  is  dangerous  to  health,  especially  when  it  is  the  source  of  supply  of 
water  in  wells  and  springs  used  for  drinking  purposes.  The  effects  of  a 
damp  soil  are  presented  in  the  following  conclusions  laid  down  in  the- 
English  Sanitary  Report  for  1852:  "1.  Excess  of  moisture,  even  on 
lands  not  evidently  wet,  is  a  cause  of  fogs  and  damps.  2.  Dampness- 
serves  as  a  medium  of  conveyance  for  any  decomposing  matter  that  may 
be  evolved,  and  adds  to  the  injurious  effect  of  such  matter  in  the  air;  in 
other  words,  the  excess  of  moisture  may  be  said  to  increase  or  aggravate 
excess  of  impurities  in  the  atmosphere.  3.  The  evaporation  of  the  sur- 
plus moisture,  lowers  temperature,  produces  chills,  and  creates  or  aggra- 
vates the  sudden  and  injurious  changes  of  temperature,  by  which  health 
is  injured," 

Moisture  is  an  essential  element  in  the  process  of  organic  decomposi- 
tion in  the  soil,  by  which  those  mysterious  products  are  evolved,  which 
are  known  by  their  effects  to  be  injurious  to  health.  Heat  and  a  moder- 
ate supply  of  air  are  also  necessary  factors  in  the  establishment  of  the 
process.  "The  ground-water  is  presumed  to  affect  health  by  rendering- 
the  soil  above  it  moist,  either  by  evaporation  or, capillary  attraction,  or 
by  alternate  wettings  and  dryings."  (Parkes.)  The  changes  in  its  level 
furnish  the  best  means  we  have  for  determining  the  variations  in  the 
moisture  of  the  soil.  "  It  is  generally  admitted,"  says  Dr.  De  Chaumont,^ 
"  that  a  persistently  low  ground-water,  say  fifteen  feet  down  or  more,  is 
healthy;  that  a  persistently  high  ground- water,  less  than  five  feet  from 
the  surface,  is  unhealthy;  and  that  a  fluctuating  level,  especially  if  the 
changes  are  sudden  and  violent,  is  very  unhealthy."  The  constitution  of 
the  ground-water  is  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  sub- 
stances found  in  and  upon  it.  And  this  is  an  important  fact,  since  the 
ground-water  is  the  source  of  supply  of  wells  and  springs. 

The  indications  presented  by  the  foregoing  considerations  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:     1.  In  the  construction  of  dwellings,  to  provide 

'  Lectures  on  State  Medicine,  London,  1875,  p.  100. 


414 


SOIL    AND    WATER 


the  most  efficient  means  for  excluding   dampness  from  the  foundation 
walls  and  basement  floors. 

2.  To  keep  the  soil  free  from  impurities  of  whatsoever  nature. 

3.  To  render  the  soil  drier  by  underground  drainage  and  by  opening 
the  outflow. 

Whatever  may  be  the  character  of  the  soil,  it  is  always  safe  and  advis- 
able to  underlay  the  entire  foundation  of  a  house  with  a  layer  of  con- 
crete, as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  A  damp-proof  course  should  be  constructed 
in  the  walls  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to  prevent  moisture 
from  striking  upward  by  capillary  attraction.     Various  kinds  of  material 


Pig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  4. — Wall  with  damp-proof  course  of  vitrified  stoneware  tiles  (Eassie). 
Fig.  5. — Vitrified  stoneware  tiles. 


have  been  used  to  form  damp-courses.  They  have  been  made  of  slate 
embedded  in  cement,  of  layers  of  sheet  lead,  and  of  layers  of  asphalt. 
Enamelled  bricks  have  also  been  used  with  advantage.  But  the  best 
article  thus  far  devised  is  the  vitrified  stoneware  tile,  which  is  made 
in  different  patterns  and  thicknesses,  and  perforated  in  order  to  per- 
mit free  access  of  air  between  the  floor  and  the  ground.  A  number 
of  these  tiles  are  shown  at  Fig.  5.  These  damp-courses  should  be  laid 
through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  at  a  few  inches  above  the 
ground,  or  sufficiently  high  to  avoid  the  effects  of  splashing  from  rains. 
Figs.  4  and  8  represent  damp-proof  courses  in  position.  The  condition  of 
the  walls  of  old  houses  may  be  greatly  improved,  and  the  houses  rendered 
more  habitable,  by  cutting  out  the  wall  and  inserting  damp-courses. 

Additional  protection  against  dampness  may  be  secured  by  interposing 
well-drained  areas  between  the  ground  and  the  basement  walls,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  3.  This  is  decidedly  the  best  plan,  but  where  it  cannot  be  adopted 
hollow  walls,  or  the  so-called  "  dry  areas,"  are  recommended.  These  are 
constructed  by  leaving  an  air-space  between  the  basement-wall  and  a 
second  or  area  wall,  which  joins  the  main  wall  just  above  the  ground-level, 
as  seen  at  Fig.  6.  Another  plan,  highly  recommended  by  Mr.  Eassie, 
consists  in  the  use  of  vitrified  stoneware  tiles,  such  as  are  designed  for 
flat  damp-courses,  placed  perpendicularly  so  as  to  form  a  wall-casing  up  to 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


415 


the  ground-floor.  As  represented  by  Fig.  7,  the  casing,  which  forms  a 
sort  of  supplementary  wall,  is  bonded  to  the  brickwork  of  the  house  by 
the  same  kind  of  stoneware  tiles.  The  requisite  support  may  be  given  to 
the  outside  wall  by  using  bonding  bricks,  or  wall-ties  made  of  impermeable 


fe&\,;^i| 


13 


Fig.  6  — Dry  area  wall  (Eassie). 


Fig.  7.  — Wall-casing  of  vitrified  tiles  (Eassie). 


material,  such  as  the  tiles  just  described.  Patent  stoneware  bonding- 
bricks  are  much  used  in  England,  and  answer  a  very  useful  purpose.  The 
spaces  between  the  walls  should  be  ventilated^  and  the  bottom  of  the  area 
well  concreted  and  drained.  Hollow  walls  furnish  the  best  proof  against 
dampness  from  the  water-saturated  earth,  and  the  splashings  of  heavy 
rains.  They  afford  the  very  best  means  of  preventing  the  moisture  from 
the  outside  walls  of  buildings  from  passing  to  the  inside,  and  may  be  used 
with  advantage  wherever  buildings  stand  in  an  exposed  situation.  The 
manner  of  constructing  such  a  wall  is  illustrated  at 
Fig.  8.  The  bonding  brick  for  connecting  the 
twin  walls  is  the  device  of  Mr.  Jennings,  who 
claims  for  it  this  advantage,  that  it  will  prevent 
the  passage  of  moisture. 

In  addition  to  these  measures  to  prevent  damp- 
ness it  will  often  be  necessary  to  drain  the  site  of  a 
building.  Deep  drainage  not  only  removes  the  bad 
effects  of  dampness,  but  it  is  also  of  advantage  by 
aerating  the  soil  so  as  to  enable  it  to  perform  its 
functions  of  oxidizing  the  injurious  products  of  de- 
composition. By  the  free  circulation  of  air  in  the 
soil  the  work  of  natural  purification  is  promoted. 
Drainage  aids  the  process  by  removing  the  water 
from  the  pores  of  the  soil,  and  by  facilitating  the 
entrance  of  air  which  is  required  for  oxidation. 

Clay  soils   possess  the  property  of   retaining      p,^,.  g. -Hollow  walls  and 
moisture,  which  it  is  difficult  to  overcome,  even  by   Jennings'    patent    bonding 
well-devised   plans  of   drainage.     The   flat,  sandy     ""^  ^" 
soils,  that  in  some  places  skirt  the  borders  of  the  sea,  are  always  moist  at 
a  little  distance  below  the  surface,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  locality, 


416  '  SOIL    AND    WATEIl. 

and  for  the  same  reason  underground  drainage  is  impracticable.  Sucii 
soils — in  fact,  all  damp  soils  which  cannot  be  properly  drained — should,  as 
a  rule,  be  avoided  altogether;  but  when  they  are  built  upon,  the  precau- 
tion should  always  be  observed  to  elevate  the  dwelling  sufficiently  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

The  means  of  preventing  the  entrance  of  impurities  into  the  soil  are 
pointed  out  in  another  place. 

Drainage  of  the  Soil. 

The  drainage  of  the  subsoil — that  is,  the  lowering  of  the  water-level  to 
a  proper  depth  beneath  the  surface,  and  the  removal  of  all  excess  of  mois- 
ture— may  be  considered  with  respect  to  individual  houses,  to  the  sites  of 
towns  and  cities,  and  in  relation  to  lands,  marshes,  and  malarious  districts. 

Whatever  responsibility  may  devolve  upon  the  local  or  state  authori- 
ties in  a  matter  of  such  vital  importance  to  the  public  health,  and  how- 
ever excellent  may  be  the  system  devised  and  executed  for  rendering  the 
soil  dry  and  wholesome,  it  is  judicious  and  advisable  that  the  individual 
householder  should  give  his  attention  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  under 
and  around  his  dwelling.  Unless  the  ground  be  comparatively  free  from 
moisture,  the  site  of  the  dwelling  and  the  surrounding  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  drained  by  means  of  ordinary  land-drainage  pipe.  The  drains- 
should  be  placed  some  distance  from  the  building,  if  the  soil  be  a  free  and 
porous  one.  The  more  retentive  the  soil  is  of  moisture,  the  greater  will 
be  the  number  of  drains  required  ;  but,  inordinary  soils,  a  single  well-laid 
drain  will  answer  the  purpose.  It  may  be  necessary,  in  extreme  cases,  to 
lay  the  drain  round  the  foundation  of  the  building,  especially  when  located 
on  springy  or  clay  soils.  The  precaution  should  be  observed  to  place  it  at 
a  considerable  distance  below  the  foundation,  and  to  construct  it  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  avoid  any  possible  risk  to  the  superstructure.  On  this- 
point  the  advice  of  a  sanitary  engineer  should  be  sought.  "  This  drain 
may  be  made  of  gravel  or  broken  stones,  but  ordinary  land-drainage  tile 
Avith  open  joints  is  usually  cheaper  and  always  better,  especially  as  pre- 
venting the  ingress  of  vermin. 

"  For  the  largest  private  house,  the  smallest  sized  land-drain  tile  will  be 
sufficient.  If  the  soil  is  unduly  wet,  at  any  season,  similar  drains  should 
cross  the  cellar  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  fifteen  feet.  All  of  these 
drains  should  have  a  slight  but  continuous  fall  toward  the  outlet,  and 
should  be  securely  covered  by  having  earth  well  rammed  over  them,  the 
whole  cellar  bottom  being  then  coated  with  concrete.  For  small  houses, 
where  cobble-stones  or  gravel  are  plenty,  if  the  foundation  rests  on  a  layer 
of  this  porous  material  a  foot  or  more  deep,  and  if  a  good  outlet  be  pro- 
vided at  the  lowest  point,  the  tile  is  not  needful."  (Waring.) 

The  sites  of  houses  in  the  country  should  always  be  selected  with 
reference  to  their  freedom  from  dampness.  If  the  soil  be  not  dry,  it  can 
be  rendered  so  by  the  laying  down  of  drain-tiles,  as  has  just  been  pointed 
out.     Dr.  Bowditch  has  shown  how  common  is  the  negflect  of  this  im- 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  •  417 

portant  feature  of  the  soil,  and  furnishes  numerous  examples  to  prove 
that  soil-moisture  has  been  the  prime  factor  in  determining  the  peculiar 
forms  of  disease  to  which  the  inmates  of  certain  houses  in  the  country 
have  always  been  more  or  less  subject,  "  that  some  houses  may  become 
the  foci  of  consumption,  when  others  but  slightly  removed  from  them,  but 
on  a  drier  soil,  almost  wholly  escape." 

The  deep  drainage  of  "  made-ground,"  especially  when  the  site  is  used 
for  habitations,  should  not  be  neglected.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose 
that  the  filling  up  of  sunken  lots,  often  containing  water,  and  of  low,  wet 
lands  in  the  environs  of  towns,  preparatory  to  the  extension  of  building 
operations,  removes  the  injurious  influences  of  the  wet  subsoil.  Small 
streams  are  often  covered  up  in  this  way  without  providing  facilities  for 
the  outflow  of  the  water.  Filling  in  these  depressions  in  the  ground  does 
not  alter  the  water-level,  nor  remove  the  effects  of  dampness;  on  the  con- 
trary, unless  ample  drainage  be  provided,  these  new-made  sites  are  almost 
invariably  dangerous  locations  for  habitations.  The  surface  may  be  cov- 
ered with  solid  material,  but  the  soil  beneath  still  remains  saturated  with 
water. 

The  channels  of  watercourses  should  be  kept  free  by  means  of  drain- 
pipes made  pervious  to  water.  Basins  of  water  may  be  drained  by  boring 
through  the  impervious  stratum  and  filling  in  the  wells  with  broken  stones; 
or  ordinary  drain-tiles  maybe  used  to  carry  off  the  water  by  a  free  outlet. 

An  investigation,  suggested  by  the  prevalence  of  diphtheria  in  New 
York  in  1873,  led  to  the  discovery  that  many  of  the  old  watercourses  and 
natural  springs  had  been  filled  in,  years  before,  without  making  provision 
for  free  drainage  of  the  soil.  And  as  the  disease  seemed  to  be  especially 
prevalent  along  the  line  of  these  old  watercourses,  it  was  inferred  that 
defective  drainage  of  the  subsoil  was  concerned  in  its  causation.  Be  this 
as  it  may,  it  was  generally  conceded  that  the  condition  of  the  soil  revealed 
by  this  inquiry  was  injurious  to  the  public  health. 

Two-thirds  of  the  deaths  that  occurred  in  Dublin  during  the  epidemic 
of  cholera  in  18GG  took  place,  according  to  Mapother,'  on  or  close  to  the 
sites  of  old  watercourses  that  had  been  converted  into  sewers,  or  filled  up 
with  mud. 

The  extensive  works  for  draining  the  subsoil,  undertaken  in  all  civil- 
ized countries  for  the  advancement  of  agricultural  projects,  have  inciden- 
tally exerted  a  very  beneficial  influence  upon  the  public  health.  The  con- 
struction of  sewers  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  surface-water,  and  the 
liquid  refuse  from  houses,  has  had  the  important  effect  of  diminishing  mor- 
tality, which  effect  is  largely  attributable  to  the  drying  of  the  subsoil,  by 
lowering  the  ground-water.  The  investigations  of  Dr.  Buchanan,  with  the 
object  of  determining  the  influence  of  the  sewerage  works  of  England  on 
the  public  health,  have  demonstrated  this  fact  beyond  a  doubt.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  general  improvement  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
health  of  twelve  towns,  principally  in  consequence  of  drainage  operations: 

'  Lectures  on  Health,  p.  487- 
Vol.  L— 27 


418 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


TABLE   SHOWING    THE   IMPROVEMENT    IN   THE   PUBLIC    HEALTH    BY 

SANITARY  WORKS.  1 


Average  mor- 
tality per  1,000 

Average  mor- 

Saving Reduction  Reduction 

Name  of 

Population 

tality  per  1,000  of  life,!  of  typhoid 

in  rate  of 

place. 

in  1861. 

since  comple- 

per    fever,  rate 

phthisis. 

works. 

tion  of  works. 

cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

Banbury. .  . 

10.238 

23.4 

20.5 

12* 

48 

41 

Cardiff  .... 

32.954 

33.2 

22.6 

32 

40 

17 

Croydon .  .  . 

30.229 

23.7 

18.6 

32 

63 

17 

Dover 

23.108 

22.6 

20.9 

7 

36 

30 

Ely 

7.847 

23.9 

20.5 

14 

56 

47 

Leicester  . . 

G8.056 

26.4 

25.2 

U 

48 

33 

Macclesfield 

27.475 

29.8 

23.7 

30 

48 

31 

Merthyr  . .  . 

52.778 

33.2 

26.2 

18 

60 

11 

Newport. . . 

24.756 

31.8 

31.6 

33 

36 

32 

Ru^by  .... 

7.818 

19.1 

18.6 

2* 

10 

43 

Salisbury  . . 

9.030 

27.5 

21.9 

30 

75 

49 

Warwick  . , 

10.570 

22.7 

21.0 

n 

52 

19 

The  advantages  resulting  from  deep  drainage  of  the  subsoil  of  towns 
are  so  manifest  that  there  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  duty  of 
the  local  authorities  to  construct  works  in  all  urban  districts  with  special 
reference  to  drying  and  aerating  the  subsoil.  How  best  to  construct  such 
works  so  as  to  secure  every  sanitary  advantage,  without  incurring  too 
great  an  expense,  has  been  a  difficult  problem  to  solve.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  construct  sewers  of  porous  material,  such  as  brick,  with  their 
inverts  laid  dry,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  allow  the  moisture  in  the  sur- 
rounding soil  to  readily  pass  off  by  the  channel  of  the  sewer  with  the 
sewage.  But  this  result  is  not  constant;  for  if  the  water  in  the  surround- 
ing soil  is  lowered,  from  whatever  cause,  the  sewage,  which  should  be  con- 
fined within  the  sewer,  will  escape  into  the  subsoil,  with  its  attendant  evil 
consequences.  In  some  localities,  with  peculiar  physical  conditions,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  admit  the  soil-water  into  the  sewer;  but  only  where 
it  can  be  demonstrated  that  the  flow  into  the  sewer  is  a  constant  one.  In 
such  cases  there  is  but  little  risk  of  the  escape  of  sewage  into  the  adjacent 
soil.  Nevertheless,  as  a  rule,  sewers  should  be  made  as  nearly  water-tight 
as  possible;  and  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  drain  the  subsoil,  independent 
works  should  be  constructed  for  the  purpose — independent  in  so  far  as 
a  separate  and  distinct  channel  is  provided  for  the  soil- water;  but,  in 
most  instances,  they  may  be  laid  in  the  same  trench  with  the  sewer  and 
constructed  at  the  same  time. 

Systematic  drainage  and  systematic  sewerage  should  be  complemen- 


'  Latham  :  Sanitary  Engineering,  p.  2. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


419 


tary  operations.     Tlie  one  caTinot  properly  include,  nor  supply  the  place  of, 
the  other. 

Various  plans  have  been  suggested  to  accomjDlish  this  object.  One  of 
these,  as  represented  by  Fig.  9,  consists  in  making  the  sewer  in  two  parts, 
the  upper  one  as  nearly  water-tight  as  possible  for  sewage,  and  the  lower 
one  of  porous  material  with  open  joints,  for  the  removal  of  the  soil-water. 
The  objection  to  this  plan  is,  that  the  sewage  will  escape  through  the 


Fig.  9. — Combined  sewer  and  drain. 


Fig.  10. 


-Sewer-pipe  and  subsoil-pipe 
of  Huddersfield. 


joints,  which  it  is  difficult,  in  practice,  to  keep  thoroughly  tight,  and  thus 
pollute  the  water  in  the  drain.  This  objection  is  not  a  serious  one,  unless 
the  soil-water  is  collected  and  removed  for  other  objects  than  that  of  sim- 
ply drying  the  subsoil. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  is  the  combined  sewer-pipe  and  subsoil- 
pipe  of  Huddersfield,  illustrated  by  Fig.  10.  The  subsoil-pipes  (A)  are 
laid  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and,  by  their  peculiar  shape,  afford  a 
good  foundation  for  the  sewer  (B)  which  lies  above  them,  supported  on 
rests  (R).  The  subsoil  water  enters  at  the  loose  joints  of  the  drain-pipe 
(A),  and  is  carried  off  by  a  separate  conduit,  while  the  sewage  is  removed 
by  the  water-tight  sewer  above  it.  Should  the  sewer  leak,  the  escaping 
liquid  will  be  taken  up  by  the  subsoil  pipe,  which  mode  of  disposal  will 
be  objectionable  if  the  soil-water  collected  in  this  way  is  to  be  brought 
into  special  use.  It  is  claimed  for  this  system  that  the  joints  of  the  sewer- 
pipe  can  be  laid  in  cement  and  made  water-tight,  and  that  it  is  "  the  only 
one  which  permits  a  dry  foundation  for  drainage-pipes  in  swampy  ground." 

The  objections  urged  against  these  methods  may  be  overcome  by  con- 
structing independent  conduits  in  the  same  trench,  but  detached  from  one 
another,  so  that  the  one  can  in  no  manner  detract  from  the  utilit}'"  of  the 
other.  Of  this  description  is  the  plan '  of  subsoil  drainage  introduced  by 
"Wiebe  and  Latham  in  constructing  the  sewage-works  of  Dantzic,  and 
which  they  assert  secures  all  the  advantages  required  in  carrying  out 
works  of  this  character.  The  method  adopted  is  shown  at  Figs.  11  and 
1:>. 

"  The  sewer  proper,  S,  whether  constructed  of  brickwork  or  earthen- 
ware pipes,  was  first  laid  in  the  trench  and  covered  over  with  a  layer  of 
clay  puddle,  C,  which  was  well  and   carefully  rammed  into  position.     In 


'  Latham  :  Sanitary  Engineering,  Chicago,  1877,  p.  51. 


420 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


some  cases,  over  the  clay,  several  feet  in  deptli  of  the  trench  were  fillecT 
in  with  selected  gravel,  shown  by  G,  Fig.  11,  which  is  perfectly  pervious,, 
and  upon  this  gravel  the  ordinary  materials  excavated,  E,  were  placed  ; 
the  arrangements  for  the  discharge  of  the  subsoil  water  were  so  managed 
that  every  lateral  line  of  sewer  is  provided  with  a  free  discharge  into  the 
river.     In  other  cases  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  13  was  adopted  after  the 


liMTaiircixi 


iiiiiiiniiia:^ 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


insertion  of  the  sewer  and  its  covering  of  clay;  two  lines  of  ordinary  agri- 
cultural land-drains  were  laid  on  each  side  of  the  trench,  so  as  to  com- 
municate directly  with  the  surface-water  streams  of  the  district.  Subsoil 
drainage  may  be  carried  out  in  most  places  in  the  way  delineated  in  Fig. 
13,  care  being  taken  that  the  sewers  are  rendered  impervious,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  sewage,  porous  drains  being  laid  immediately  above 
them;  the  subsoil  water  may  be  conveyed  to  any  convenient  point,  and 
air  may  be  admitted  freely  into  the  subsoil,  while  the  expense  of  the  work 
is  trifling  compared  with  the  advantages  to  be  gained." 

In  some  cases,  it  may  be  advisable  to  lay  the  subsoil  drains  in  connec- 
tion with  the  sewer;  in  others,  it  may  be  better  practice  to  have  them 
constructed  without  any  reference  whatever  to  the  situation  of  the  sewer. 
The  selection  of  the  plan  must  be  determined  by  circumstances  which  are 
connected  with  the  locality. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  in  building  sewers  to  place  temporary  drains 
under  their  beds,  in  order  to  allow  the  brickwork  to  set  before  being  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  water.  By  a  very  trifling  increase  in  the  cost  such 
temporary  works  may  be  made  permanent,  and  this  expense  will  be  amply 
repaid  by  an  improvement  in  the  public  health. 

In  towns  having  a  scanty  water-supply,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  towns,  use 
may  be  made  of  the  water  collected  in  subsoil  drains  as  a  means  of  flush- 
ing, for  which  purpose  reservoirs  can  be  made,  and  connections  with  the 
sewers  arranged,  so  as  to  thoroughly  flush  them  at  stated  intervals. 

Practically,  sewers  are  not  water-tight,  as  at  the  junctions  with  private 
communicating  sewers,  and  even  through  the  walls  of  sewers  as  comnionlv 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  421 

constructed,  there  must  be  more  or  less  influx  of  water  from  the  soil. 
The  disadvantages  of  a  j^ervious  sewer  have  already  been  alluded  to;  in 
the  absence  of  a  separate  system  of  subsoil  drainage,  the  advantages  are : 
the  lowering  of  the  ground-water  and  the  drying  of  the  soil,  which  results 
have  had  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  public  health,  as  has  been  shown  in 
the  case  of  a  number  of  English  towns  in  which  such  sewers  have  been 
introduced. 

The  influence  of  humidity  of  the  soil  on  diseases  usually  affected  by 
this  condition,  seems  to  be  very  much  modified  in  localities  with  a  stratum 
through  which  salt  water  freely  percolates,  such  as  the  flat,  sandy  sites  of 
^ome  seaside  towns.  Investigations  have  determined  this  point,  at  least  so 
far  as  phthisical  complaints  are  concerned.  The  principal  reason  assigned 
is  the  free  circulation  of  the  water  through  the  pores  of  the  soil,  caused 
by  the  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide,  whereby  stagnation  of  water  and 
changes  in  the  soil,  which  would  otherwise  occur,  are  prevented.  The 
peculiar  character  of  the  water  and  the  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  may 
have  some  modifying  influence.  In  such  places  deep  subsoil  drainage  is 
impracticable,  even  by  the  aid  of  pumping.  The  alternative  suggested  is 
to  raise  the  lower  floor  of  the  house  a  considerable  distance  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  that  air  and  sunlight  may  do  their  beneficent 
work. 

The  drainage  of  lands  purely  for  sanitary  reasons  has  been  a  lamentably 
infrequent  occurrence,  but  operations  undertaken  strictly  in  the  interests 
•of  agriculture  have  been  carried  out  in  all  civilized  countries  from  the  re- 
motest period.'  Incidentally,  such  works  have  been  of  the  greatest  value 
in  improving  the  public  health.  The  evidence  that  could  be  adduced  to 
■corroborate  this  statement  is  complete  and  conclusive,  A  reference  to 
the  voluminous  reports  on  this  subject,  published  within  recent  years  by 
•authority  of  the  government  of  England,  will  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
most  sceptical  on  this  point.  Districts,  in  which,  formerly,  malarial  dis- 
■eases  seriously  affected  the  health  of  the  inhabitants,  have  become  com- 
paratively salubrious,  these  diseases  having  steadil}'  decreased  in  fre- 
quency, and  become  of  milder  type,  since  the  introduction  of  improved 
•drainage  works. 

We  need  only  refer  to  the  vast  fen  lands  in  Norfolk,  Lincolnshire, 
.and  Cambridgeshire,  counties  in  which  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers 
■of  severe  type  were,  at  one  time,  very  prevalent.  Since  the  improved 
•drainage  of  these  districts,  malarial  fevers  have  become  comparatively  rare 
and  mild  of  form.  In  other  counties  the  same  decline  in  malarial  diseases 
has  been  noticed  to  have  been  simultaneous  with,  and  subsequent  to,  the 


■  One  of  the  most  memorable  examples  of  insalubrity  depending  on  conditions  of 
the  soil  is  that  of  the  celebrated  Pontine  Marshes  in  the  Campagna  of  Rome.  Fabu- 
lous sums  of  money  have  been  expended  in  endeavors  to  reclaim  these  lands  and  ren- 
der them  healthful,  an  effort  being  made  in  this  direction  as  early  as  812  B.C.,  but 
permanent  results  have  never  been  obtained.  At  the  present  day  the  subject  has  been 
levived,  and  projects  have  been  suggested  whereby  this  area  of  waste  land  may  be 
rendered  cultivable  and  salubrious. 


422  SOIL    AND    WATEK. 

carrying  out  of  extensive  drainage  operations.  And  so  as  regards  Eng- 
land generally,  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  these  diseases  "have  beea 
steadily  decreasing,  both  in  frequency  and  severity,  for  several  years,  and 
this  decrease  is  attributed,  in  nearly  every  case,  mainly  to  one  cause — 
improved  land  drainage."  ' 

The  same  results  have  followed  similar  operations  in  other  countries. 
In  this  country  evidence  is  not  wanting  to  prove  that  increasing  salubrity" 
has  almost  universally  followed  skilful  and  efficient  drainage  of  the  land^ 
The  instances  on  record  are  less  conspicuous  than  those  above  alluded  to, 
and  less  numerous,  but  they  would  be  greatly  multiplied  were  the  same  eiTort 
made  as  in  England  to  collect  this  important  testimony.  A  recent  sani- 
tary inquiry,  conducted  by  Dr.  Bowditch,  has  elicited  valuable  information 
in  regard  to  this  country,  some  of  it  bearing  directly  upon  the  present 
subject.  An  instance  is  reported  by  Dr.  Breed, ^  of  the  satisfactory  sani- 
tary results  of  drainage  of  swamp-lands  in  Bureau  County,  Illinois  (com- 
pleted within  a  few  years),  which  had  always  been  unproductive  and  a 
cause  of  the  unhealthy  condition  of  the  neighborhood.  "The  result  is- 
that  about  thirty-six  thousand  acres  of  these  inundated  or  swamp-lands 
have  been  either  greatly  improved  or  quite  redeemed.  Twenty  thousand 
acres,  hitherto  of  little  or  no  value,  have  been  converted  into  excellent 
pasture  and  meadow  lands,  while  no  inconsiderable  portion  has  been 
rendered  good  tillage  land.  Thus,  by  these  means,  thousands  of  acres,. 
once  nearly  covered  with  water,  swampy,  and  grown  up  and  covered  with 
reeds,  brakes,  and  coarse  grass,  interspersed  with  knolls  covered  with 
small  trees  and  tangle  wood,  the  favorite  haunts  of  water-fowls,  reptiles,. 
and  musk-rats,  sending  forth  over  the  adjacent  country  a  noisome  and 
pestilential  miasm,  have  become  converted  into  dry  land,  rich  pastures, 
and  meadows,  where  vast  herds  of  cattle  may  be  seen  cropping  the  rich, 
luxuriant  grasses.  As  a  natural  sequence,  although  it  does  not  appear  to- 
have  had  any  influence  in  inducing  '  the  powers  that  be  '  to  do  the  work,^. 
the  health  of  the  people  in  these  townships  has  been  incidentally  im- 
proved." This  same  observer  says,  that  "  as  the  county  becomes  improved, 
settled,  and  generally  cultivated,  the  diseases  prevalent  have  undergone  a 
change,  and  some  of  them,  that  were  a  terror  to  the  early  settlers,  are 
now  but  seldom  heard  of,  or  seen."  Similar  results  are  reported '  from 
Michigan,  New  York,  and  other  States.  The  Transactions  of  the  State 
Medical  Societies  contain  much  information  on  this  subject  from  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

In  furthering  projects  for  land  drainage  health  has  seldom  been  the 
object  aimed  at,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  towns,  where  the  interests  of  a 
large  number  of  persons  are  directly  concerned,  and  the  capital  is  availa- 
ble for  the  purpose. 

Private  enterprise,  although  it  has  accomplished  valuable  results,  has- 

'  Dr.  Whitley's  Report  to  the  Board  of  Health,  England,  1864. 
^  Bowditch  :  Hygiene  in  America,  1877,  p.  159. 
2  Ibid.,  1877,  pp.  177,  178,  205,  etc. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  423 

often  failed  for  want  of  co-operation,  and  on  account  of  the  impracticable- 
ness  and  uselessness  of  any  attempt  to  reclaim  and  render  salubrious  a  por- 
tion of  a  district  while  the  remainder  of  it  still  possesses  all  the  undesir- 
able features  of  insalubrity.  Nothing  short  of  systematic  improvement  of 
the  whole  district  will  secure  the  results  desired,  and  this  can  only  be  ac- 
complished by  united  effort.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  drainage  opera- 
tions (as  affecting  the  general  health  of  the  people)  should  be  under- 
taken by  State  authority.  It  is  needless  to  refer,  except  very  briefly,  to 
methods  adopted  for  draining  the  soil  to  promote  health,  since  they  are 
essentially  the  same  as  those  in  use  for  the  agricultural  improvement  of 
the  lan(|. 

Open  irains  are  not  suitable  for  drying  the  body  of  the  soil,  and  are 
not  advisable  except  in  very  special  cases.  They  may  be  resorted  to  as  a 
temporary  expedient,  and  are  sometimes  used  as  auxiliaries  to  a  well-de- 
vised plan  of  drainage.  Of  the  various  kinds  of  closed  drains  in  use 
none  is  comparable  to  the  tile-drain,  and,  of  this  variety,  the  "pipe  or 
round  tile  and  collar  "  is  the  very  best  tile  thus  far  devised.  •  The  object 
of  drainage  is  the  removal  of  all  surplus  water  from  the  soil,  from  what- 
ever source,  and  the  rendering  of  the  soil,  to  a  considerable  depth,  dry, 
more  porous,  and  well  aerated. 

Deep  drainage  is  now  advocated  as  the  best  for  agricultural  purposes 
— a  depth  of  four  feet  not  being  considered  too  much.  It  is  certainly  the 
most  suitable  when  the  object  is  the  improvement  of  health.  The  lower 
the  water-table,  cmteris  paribus.,  the  more  salubrious  will  be  the  soil. 

Large  tracts  of  land  are  sometimes  water-soaked  and  unhealthy  on  ac- 
count of  the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  underlying  impervious  strata,' 
By  breaking  through  these  formations  so  as  to  afford  an  outlet,  a  settling 

'  Says  a  recent  letter  from  Rome,  the  monks  of  La  Trappe  have  lately  discovered 
"  the  means  of  making  the  vast  Roman  Campagna  healthj'',  a  work  that  has  baffled  all 
the  governments  from  Romulus  to  Victor  Emanuel  or  King  Umberto.  The  malaria 
(evil  or  bad  air)  is  well  known  to  geologists.  The  soil  of  the  Campagna  has  but  little 
depth.  Under  it  lies  a  stratum  of  tufa  ;  in  some  places  this  tufa  is  two  metres  deep. 
Under  this  tufa  is  other  volcanic  material,  equally  hurtful  to  vegetation.  Thus  there 
is  no  subsoil,  and  no  chance  for  circulatioa  of  water  and  air.  When  the  heavy  rains 
fall,  the  water  rests  on  the  tufa,  and  generates  unhealthy  mists.  When  the  droughts 
come,  the  soil  is  baked  to  ashes.  The  wise,  good,  industrious  Trappists  began  on  that 
very  unhealthy  land  of  the  Three  Fountains,  first  with  the  Eucalyptus  raising,  and 
made  the  place  comparatively  healthy.  Lately  they  have  tried,  with  success,  a  most 
remarkable  experiment.  They  have  bored  the  tufa,  at  different  distances,  a  metre 
and  a  half  deep  ;  in  these  holes  they  have  placed  dynamite,  and  by  electric  conductors, 
exploded  the  volcanic  strata.  A  dumb  rumbling  is  heard,  a  little  elevation  of  the 
ground  is  seen,  in  some  places  the  earth  is  thrown  out  a  short  distance.  In  eight  days' 
time  they  found  a  subsoil  for  a  large  space  of  ground,  and  made  it  both  susceptible  of 
culture  and  healthy.  The  expense  is  about  GOO  lire  for  every  hectare  (2  acres,  1  r.  2>~> 
p.).  Thus  these  simple,  busy  Fathers  of  La  Trappe,  have  done  the  useful  work  that 
lay  before  them,  and  by  that  have  solved  a  probleni  as  old  as  Euclid,  and  hitherto  as 
fatal  as  the  Sphynx.  Their  silent  labors  will  give  health  to  future  generations,  and 
cover  with  luxuriant  fields  of  grain  the  vast  Agro  Romano." — Med.  and  Surg.  Reporter., 
Nov.  9,  1878,  p.  415. 


424  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

of  the  imprisoned  water  into  the  looser  soil  below  gradually  takes  place, 
and  the  causes  which  render  the  soil  uncultivable  and  deleterious  to 
health  are  removed.' 

Lands  that  are  subject  to  occasional  overflow,  whether  by  tides  or  by 
freshets,  require  drainage,  which,  to  be  complete,  involves  the  construction 
of  embankments,  or  works  to  restrain  the  water  and  prevent  inundations. 

Swamps  and  bogs,  so  frequently  the  source  of  miasmatic  effluvia, 
should  be  made  dry  by  some  one  of  the  methods  for  drainage,  and  where 
this  is  impracticable,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  health  to  permanently  cover 
them  with  a  moderate  sheet  of  water.* 

Salt  marshes,  such  as  are  found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  this  coun- 
try, are  frequently  the  breeding  places  of  malarial  poison.  Such  lands, 
when  reclaimed,  are  exceedingly  valuable  for  the  uses  of  agriculture,  and 
when  near  towns,  or  inhabited  districts,  should  be  drained  and  improved 
for  sanitary  reasons  alone,  though  it  is  demonstrable  that  the  work  would 
be  otherwise  advantageous  and  remunerative.  A  conspicuous  example 
of  such  lands  is  furnished  by  the  Hackensack  meadows  close  to  the  city  of 
New  York.  Thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  of  land,  containing  all 
the  elements  of  fertility,  that  could  be  made  productive  and  salubrious, 
are  here  abandoned  to  the  inroads  of  the  sea,  and  suffered  to  lie  in  dreary 
waste,  unproductive,  and  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the  surrounding  in- 
habitants. 

To  reclaim  these  marshes,  the  sea  must  be  excluded  by  dykes  or  em- 
bankments, the  surface-water  from  the  uplands  diverted  into  a  proper 
channel  of  outlet,  and  the  rainfall  and  soil-water  removed  by  the  use  of 
automatic  valve-gates,  or  by  pumping.  Formerly  the  wind  was  the  mo- 
tive power;  but,  except  for  small  tracts,  steam-power  is  the  best,  most 
practicable,  and  the  most  certain  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  water. 

In  Holland  and  in  the  English  Fens,  steam-pumps  are  fast  superseding 
pumps  driven  by  the  action  of  the  wind. 

The  soil  may  be  rendered  drier  and  its  sanitary  condition  greath'^  im- 
proved by  opening  the  outflow  of  the  water. 

Obstructions  in  streams  and  rivers  should  be  removed,  so  as  to  afford 
the  water  a  free  passage  to  the  ocean,  and  thus  prevent  the  overflow  of 
lands,  which  produces  a  condition  of  the  soil  favorable  to  the  j^roduction 
of  miasm.      The  outfalls  of  rivers  become  blocked  up  by  deposits  of  silt. 


'  Bishoff  states  that  this  mode  of  draining  the  subsoil,  by  means  of  boring,  was  suc- 
cessfully practised  as  early  as  the  time  of  King  Rene,  in  the  first  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  on  the  plain  of  Faluns,  near  Marseilles.     Physikalische  Geographic,  p.  288. 

It  is  on  this  same  principle  that  wells  are  often  constructed  through  tenacious 
layers  of  the  soil  until  a  stratum  of  gravel  is  reached,  through  which  water  will  readily 
pass  off.  Privy-wells  excavated  to  a  porous  soil,  though  constantly  used  for  many 
years,  will  remain  dry  ;   the  practice,  however,  is  a  bad  one. 

^  ''  Beecher  has  related  several  cases  in  which  this  plan  was  successfully  adopted, 
and  Empedocles  is  said  to  have  delivered  the  Salentini  from  dangerous  exhalations,  to 
which  they  were  subject,  by  conducting  into  their  marshes  two  neighboring  streams." 
Dunglison's  Hygiene,  p.  103. 


SOIL    AJS'I)    WATER.  425 

both  from  the  river  and  from  the  sea,  whicli  retard  their  flow,  and  cause 
their  waters  to  spread  over  the  low-lying  lands  by  which  they  are  bounded. 
The  regulation  of  rivers  by  altering  and  deepening  their  channels,  re- 
moving obstructions,  constructing  embankments,  etc.,  with  the  object  of 
providing  a  free  and  unobstructed  flow  of  water,  is  exceedingly  important 
in  its  influence  upon  the  outflow  of  water  from  lands  included  in  their 
areas  of  drainage.  As  illustrative  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  regula- 
tion of  watercourses,  the  river  Theiss,  in  Hungary,  may  be  mentioned, 
aloncr  the  lower  course  of  which  stream  not  less  than  250,000  acres  of  pes- 
tilential and  wholly  unproductive  marsh  have  been  converted  into  a  health- 
ful region  of  the  most  exuberant  fertility.' 

3.  Solid  ConsfAtuents  of  tlie  Soil. 

The  solid  constituents  of  the  soil  may  be  studied  with  respect  to  their 
chemical  composition,  and  to  their  geological  and  topographical  conditions 
as  influencing  the  configuration  of  the  surface  and  the  conformation  of  the 
underlying  structures,  and  the  constitution  of  the  soil  and  of  its  rocky  sub- 
strata. The  latter  bear  directly  upon  the  movement  of  water  and  air  in  and 
over  the  ground,  and  determine  and  control  both  artificial  and  natural 
drainage.  A  knowledge  of  these  natural  features  of  the  earth's  crust  is 
essential  to  a  successful  sanitary  survey  of  a  district. 

The  solid  constituents  of  the  soil  consist  of  mineral,  vegetable,  and, 
to  some  extent,  of  animal  substances,  found  in  various  states  of  combina- 
tion, and,  as  such,  classified  according  to  some  predominant  characteristic 
or  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  parts.  They  appear  in  the  form  of  rocks 
of  various  structure,  texture,  composition,  and  conformation,  or  in  the 
form  of  purely  mineral  accumulations,  such  as  clays,  sands,  gravels,  and 
other  rocky  debris,  the  result  of  decay  and  disintegration  of  rocks  by  the 
influence  of  air,  water,  heat,  and  other  forces;  or,  in  the  form  of  mineral 
accumulations  with  an  admixture  of  organic  matter,  both  vegetable  and 
animal. 

"  But  whatever  may  be  their  composition  or  texture,  soils,  geologically 
speaking,  are  mainly  of  two  sorts,  soils  of  disintegrafAon,  arising  from 
the  waste  and  decay  of  the  immediately  underlying  rocks,  together  with 
a  certain  admixture  of  vegetable  and  animal  debris;  and  soils  of  transport, 
whose  ingredients  have  been  brought  from  a  distance,  and  have  no  geo- 
logical connection  with  the  rocks  on  which  they  rest.  Under  the  former 
are  comprehended  such  as  arise  from  the  disintegration  of  limestones, 
chalks,  traps,  granites,  and  the  like,  and  which  are  directly  influenced  in 
their  composition,  texture,  and  drainage,  by  the  nature  of  the  subjacent 
rocks  from  which  they  are  derived.  Under  the  latter  are  embraced  all 
drift  and  alluvial  materials,  such  as  sand,  shingly  debris,  miscellaneous  silt 
and  clay  which  have  been  worn  from  other  rocks  by  meteoric  agencies, 
and  transported  to  their  existing  positions  by  winds,  waters,  or  ancient 


'  JIarsh  :  The  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action,  1874,  p.  4:^6. 


426  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

glacial  agencies.  Besides  these  there  are  also  soils  of  organic  origin,  such 
as  peat-earths,  and  vegetable  mould  or  humus,  which  is,  to  a  great  extent, 
also  of  animal  origin  or  elaboration.  Indeed  in  all  superficial  soils,  there 
is  a  certain  amount  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter — the  decay  of  plants, 
the  droppings  of  animals,  the  exuviee  of  insects,  the  casts  of  earth-worms, 
and  the  like.  " ' 

Mineral  Matters. 

The  mineral  constituents  of  the  earth's  crust  are  very  numerous;  some 
of  them  are  very  abundant,'^  but  they  are  not  all  of  equal  importance. 
They  are  found  in  distinct  masses  having  well-defined  characteristics,  and 
present  a  certain  order  of  arrangement.  They  determine  the  contour  of 
the  ground,  and  by  their  physical  characteristics  radically  affect  the  salu- 
brity of  a  locality.  The  relation  to  health  of  some  of  the  more  common 
rocky  formations  and  soils  has  been  very  concisely  presented  by  Dr. 
Parkes,  from  whose  work  the  following  extract  is  taken:  * 

"  The  Granitic,  MetamoT'phic,  and.  Trail  Rocks. — Sites  on  these  formations  are  usu- 
ally healthy  ;  the  slope  is  great,  water  runs  off  readily  ;  the  air  is  comparatively  dry  ; 
vegetation  is  not  excessive  ;  marshes  and  malaria  are  comparatively  infrequent  and 
few  impurities  pass  into  the  drinking-water.  When  these  rocks  have  been  weathered 
and  disintegrated,  they  are  supposed  to  be  unhealthj'.  Such  soil  is  absorbent  of  water  \ 
and  the  disintegrated  granite  of  Hong-Kong  is  said  to  be  rapidly  permeated  by  a  fun- 
gus ;  but  evidence  as  to  the  effect  of  disintegrated  granite  or  trap  is  really  wanting. 

' '  In  Brazil  the  syenite  becomes  coated  with  a  dark  substance,  and  looks  like 
phimbago,  and  the  Indians  believe  this  gives  rise  to  '  calentura,'  or  fevers.  The 
dark  granitoid  or  metamorphic  trap,  or  hornblendic  rocks  of  Mysore,  are  also  said  to 
cause  periodic  fevers  ;  and  iron  hornblende  especially  was  affirmed  by  Dr.  Heyne  of 
Madras  to  be  dangerous  in  this  respect.  But  the  observations  of  Richter  on  similar 
rocks  in  Saxony,  and  the  fact  that  stations  on  the  lower  spurs  of  the  Himalayas  on 
such  rocks  are  quite  healthy,  negative  Heyne's  opinion. 

"  The  Clay  Slates. — These  rocks  precisely  resemble  the  granite  and  granitoid  forma- 
tions in  their  effect  on  health.  They  have  usually  much  slope  ;  are  very  impermeable ; 
vegetation  is  scanty  ;  and  nothing  is  added  to  air  or  to  drinking-water.  They  are  con- 
sequently healthy.  Water,  however,  is  often  scarce  ;  and,  as  in  the  granite  districts, 
there  are  swollen  brooks  during  rain,  and  dry  watercourses  at  other  times  swelling- 
rapidly  after  rains. 

"  Tlie  Limestone  and  Magnesian  Limestone  Backs. — These  so  far  resemble  the  for- 
mer, that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  slope,  and  rapid  passing  off  of  water.  Marshes,  however, 
are  more  common,  and  may  exist  at  great  heights.  In  that  case  the  marsh  is  probably 
fed  with  water  from  some  of  the  large  cavities,  which,  in  the  course  of  ages,  become 
hollowed  out  in  the  limestone  rocks  by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  rain,  and  form  reservoirs 
of  water.  The  drinking-water  is  hard,  sparkling,  and  clear.  Of  the  various  kinds  of 
limestone,  the  hard  oolite  is  the  best,  and  magnesian  is  the  worst ;  and  it  is  desirable- 
not  to  put  stations  on  magnesian  limestone  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

"  The  Civalk. — The  chalk,  when  unmixed  with  clay  and  permeable,  forms  a  very 

'  Page:  Economic  Geology,  Edinburgh  and  London,  1874. 

,  '■*  The  minerals  constituting  the  great  bulk  of  the  earth  are — quartz,  felspar,  mica, 
limestone,  hornblende,  serpentine,  gypsum,  talc,  and  oxide  of  iron.  Tenney's  Geo- 
logy, p.  26. 

^  Practical  Hygiene,  pp.  339-341. 


SOIL    AND    WATEK.  42 T 

healthy  soil.  The  nir  is  pure,  and  the  water,  though  charged  with  carbonate  of  lime,. 
is  clear,  sparkling,  and  pleasant.  Goitre  is  not  nearly  so  common,  nor  apparently 
calculus,  as  in  the  limestone  districts.  If  the  chalk  be  marly,  it  becomes  impermeable, 
and  is  then  often  damp  and  cold.  The  lower  parts  of  the  chalk,  which  are  underlaid 
by  gault  clay,  and  which  also  receive  the  drainage  of  the  parts  above,  are  often  very 
malarious ;  and  in  America,  some  of  the  most  marshy  districts  are  on  chalk. 

"  The  Sandstones. — The  permeable  sandstones  are  very  healthy  ;  both  soil  and  air 
are  dry ;  the  drinking-water  is,  however,  sometimes  impure.  If  the  sand  be  mixed 
with  much  clay,  or  if  clay  underlies  a  shallow  sand-rock,  the  site  is  sometimes  damp. 
The  hard  millstone  grit  formations  are  very  healthy,  and  their  conditions  resemble 
those  of  granite. 

''  Gravels  of  any  depth  are  always  healthy,  except  when  they  are  much  below  the 
general  surface,  and  water  rises  through  them.  Gravel  hillocks  are  the  healthiest  of  all 
sites ;  and  the  water,  which  often  flows  out  in  springs  near  the  base,  being  held  up  by 
the  underlying  clay,  is  very  pure. 

"  Sands. — There  are  both  healthy  and  unhealthy  sands.  The  healthy  are  the  pure 
sands,  which  contain  no  organic  matter,  and  are  of  considerable  depth.  The  air  is- 
pure,  and  so  is  often  the  drinking-water.  Sometimes  the  drinking-water  contains 
enough  iron  to  become  hard,  and  even  chalybeate.  The  unhealthy  sands  are  those 
which,  like  the  subsoil  of  the  Landes,  in  Southwest  France,  are  composed  of  siliceous 
particles  (and  some  iron),  held  together  by  a  vegetable  sediment. 

"In  other  cases  sand  is  unhealthy,  from  underlying  clay  or  laterite  near  the  sur- 
face, or  from  being  so  placed  that  water  rises  through  its  permeable  soil  from  higher 
levels.  Water  may  then  be  found  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  surface  ;  and  in  thi-s 
case  the  sand  is  \mhealthy,  and  often  malarious.  Impurities  are  retained  in  it,  and 
effluvia  traverse  it.  In  a  third  class  of  cases  the  sands  are  unhealthy,  because  they 
contain  soluble  mineral  matter.  Many  sands  (as,  for  example,  in  the  Punjab)  contain 
much  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  lime-salts,  as  well  as  salts  of  the  alkalies.  The  drink- 
ing water  may  thus  contain  large  quantities  of  sodium  chloride,  sodium  carbonate, 
and  even  lime  and  magnesian  salts,  and  iron.  Without  examination  of  the  water  it  i& 
impossible  to  detect  these  points. 

"  Glay.,  dense  Marls.,  and  Alluvial  Soils  generally. — These  are  always  to  be  regarded 
with  suspicion.  Water  neither  runs  off  nor  runs  through  ;  the  air  is  moist ;  marshes 
are  common  ;  the  composition  of  the  water  varies,  but  it  is  often  impure  with  lime  and 
soda  salts.  In  alluvial  .soils  there  are  often  alternations  of  thin  strata  of  sand,  and 
sandy  impermeable  clay  ;  much  vegetable  matter  is  often  mixed  with  this,  and  air 
and  water  are  both  impure.  Vast  tracts  of  ground  in  Bengal,  and  in  other  parts- 
of  India,  along  the  course  of  the  great  rivers  (the  Ganges,  Brahiuapootra,  Indus, 
Nerbudda,  Krishna,  etc. ),  are  made  up  of  soils  of  this  description  ;  and  some  of  the 
most  important  stations  even  up  country,  such  as  Cawupore,  are  placed  on  such  sites. 
The  deltas  of  great  rivers  present  these  alluvial  characters  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
should  not  be  chosen  for  sites.  If  they  must  be  taken,  only  the  most  thorough  drain- 
age can  make  them  healthy.  It  is  astonishing,  however,  what  good  can  be  effected  by 
drainage  of  even  a  small  area,  quite  insufficient  to  affect  the  general  atmosphere  of 
the  place ;  this  shows  that  it  is  the  local  dampness  and  the  effluvia  which  are  the  most 
hurtful. 

"  Cultivated  Soils. — Well-cultivated  soils  are  often  healthy  ;  nor  at  present  has  it 
been  proven  that  the  use  of  manure  is  hurtful.  Irrigated  lands,  and  especially  rice- 
fields,  which  not  only  give  a  great  surface  for  evaporation,  but  also  send  up  organio 
matter  into  the  air,  are  hurtful." 

Organic  Hatters. 

Tlie  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  both  vegetable  and  animal,  the  former 
being  found  in  much  larger  proportion.     Many  of  the  strata  which  form 


428  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

the  rocky  crust  of  the  earth  are  largely  composed  of  the  remains  of  plants 
and  animals,  the  work  of  past  ages.  Vegetable  and  animal  life  still  exerts 
a  great  influence  upon  the  jjhysical  condition  of  the  soil,  though  there 
may  be  no  jjerceptible  alteration  in  the  terrestrial  surface, 

TJie  vegetable  matter  found  in  the  soil  is  partly  derived  from  the  decay 
of  plants  in  and  upon  the  soil — a  process  which  is  continually  in  opera- 
tion, and  which  is  an  important  agency  in  the  formation  of  soils.  Vege- 
table debris  are  borne  by  the  Avind  over  the  surface,  mingled  with  the  earth, 
and  deposited  in  hollows  and  depressions;  they  are  carried  beneath  the  sur- 
face by  rains,  and  spread  over  the  low  regions  bordering  on  large  water- 
courses as  a  constituent  of  alluvium,  and  are  deposited  by  the  action  of 
water  in  the  silt  formations  upon  the  banks  and  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 
Near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  sand,  gravel,  and  vegetable  matter 
have  accumulated  in  alternate  layers  to  a  great  depth.* 

It  may  be  deposited  in  and  upon  the  soil,  and  be  so  disposed  with  re- 
gard to  the  soil  and  other  surroundings  as  to  give  rise  to  conditions  act- 
ing injuriously  upon  Jiealth. 

Peat  is  a  deposit  o£  vegetable  origin  produced  in  cool  countries  in 
swamps  and  moist  situations.  Mosses,  rushes,  grasses,  heaths,  and  other 
marsh  plants,  principally  contribute  to  its  formation.  Millions  of  acres  of 
jDcat  occur  in  the  British  Islands,  varying  in  thickness  from  five  to  thirty 
feet.  North  America  j^ossesses  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  the  same 
material,  from  five  to  twenty  feet  in  thickness.^  It  is  found  elsewhere  in 
temperate  climates. 

"  Submerged  forests  "  and  beds  of  peat  are  found  along  the  shores  of 
Great  Britain,  embedded  to  a  considerable  depth  in  marine  clay.^  The  beds 
■of  rivers  in  wooded  regions  conceal  trunks  of  trees  which  once  floated  upon 
their  surface.  Drift-wood  collects  in  rafts  and  becomes  water-soaked, 
.and  sinks,  and  the  river  deposits  cover  them  up.  A  raft  of  this  kind  on 
the  Washita,  a  river  of  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  covers  the  surface  of  the 
jiver  for  fifty  miles.  The  immense  quantity  of  wood  annually  drifted 
■down  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  illustrates  the  manner  in  which 
^n  abundance  of  vegetable  matter  becomes  embedded  in  the  river  bottom 
and  in  submarine  and  estuary  deposits.*  The  soil  at  New  Orleans  con- 
tains innumerable  trunks  of  trees,  in  various  positions,  which  had  grown 
in  marshes  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  same  discovery  has  been 
made  hundreds  of  miles  uj)  the  river  Mississippi.^ 

Animal  matter,  or  at  least  the  evidence  of  its  past  existence,  is  found 
.as  fossils  in  nearly  all  rock  formations,  and  in  the  form  of  extensive  de- 
posits in  various  jDarts  of  the  world.  Accumulations  of  bones  and  tusks 
■of  elej^hants,  mastodons,  and  other  huge  pachyderms  occur  in  profusion  in 

'  Tenney's  Geology,  p.  260. 

-Page  :  Economic  Geology,  Edinburgh  and  London,  1874,  p.  158. 
^  Quart.  Journal  of  Science,  etc.,  No.  XIII.,  N.  S.,  March,  1830,  and  Geolog.  Trans., 
1st  Series,  Vol.  3,  p.  383. 

*  Lyell :  Principles  of  Geology,  1858,  p.  368. 
^  Ibid. ,  p.  269. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  421> 

Siberia,  particularly  near  the  shores  of  the  frozen  ocean,'  and  the  skele- 
tons of  quadrupeds  fill  extensive  caves  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and 
form  calcareous  deposits  of  considerable  magnitude.  Animal  organisms, 
teeming  in  the  water  and  in  the  earth,  and  existing  upon  its  surface  and 
in  the  air,  during  their  growth  and  by  their  decay,  are  still  contributing 
important  elements  to  the  soil. 

The  remains  of  domestic  animals  -  and  those  of  man  add  to  the  earthy 
matter  coating  the  globe's  surface.  The  constant  admixture  of  animal' 
matter  with  the  soil,  though  inconsiderable  compared  with  the  bulk  of  the- 
earth's  crust,  has  an  important  modifying  influence  upon  the  character  of 
the  superficial  strata. 

But  it  is  only  under  special  conditions  that  the  admixture  of  these  sub- 
stances Avith  the  soil  is  hurtful  to  man.  Nature  has  provided  in  the- 
laboratory  of  the  earth,  and  in  the  forces  of  vegetation,  a  means  of  reso- 
lution of  these  matters  into  new  products,  wisely  adapted  for  absorption 
and  assimilation  by  plants.  Where  her  laws  are  disregarded  and  her  pro- 
cesses interfered  with,  evil  results  will  inevitably  follow,  unless  the  loss- 
or  hindrance  of  natural  agencies  is  compensated  for  by  the  use  of  artificial 
means. 

In  cities  the  natural  contour  and  character  of  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  entirely  changed;  vegetation  is  destroyed;  the  surface  is  sealed  with 
stone  and  cement;  the  natural  streams  of  drainage  are  ignored,  and  the- 
subsoil  is  often  converted  into  a  receptacle  for  rejected  matters.  The 
soil  is  paralyzed  and  crippled,  and  utterly  unable  to  perform  its  natural 
functions.  It  is  through  man's  agency  that  these  abnormal  conditions- 
exist,  and  it  is  through  his  agency  that  the  remedies  must  be  supplied, 
and  these  consist  in  the  introduction  of  complete  systems  of  sewerage- 
and  drainage,  and  the  adoption  of  every  arrangement  to  secure  the  utmost- 
cleanliness,  and  to  preserve  the  soil  as  pure  as  possible. 

Wherever  there  is  an  aggregation  of  human  beings,  as  in  towns,  the- 
soil,  especially  when  porous,  is  apt  to  be  charged  with  animal  matter, 
particularly  human  excrement,  the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  forms  of  re- 
fuse substances.  In  long  inhabited  districts  this  material  accumulates 
and  renders  the  ground  highly  impure,  and  is  a  principal  cause  of  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  locality. 

The  character  of  the  soil  is  an  important  feature  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Some  soils,  such  as  those  formed  of  gravel  or  sand,  are  struc- 
turally adapted  for  the  imbibition  and  transudation  of  liquid  substances. 
They  act  more  like  filters,  as  they  allow  the  liquid  portions  to  pass  through 
them,  while  they  retain  all  the  obnoxious,  organic  matters  in  their  pores. 


'  Lyell :  Principles  of  Geolog-y,  1858,  p.  78. 

^  It  is  estimated  that  there  were  in  North  America,  in  1870,  about  160,000,000  of 
domestic  animals,  which,  if  only  half  a  solid  foob  be  allowed  to  the  skeleton  and 
other  slowly  destructible  parts  of  each  animal,  would  form  a  pyramid  equal  in  dimen- 
sion to  that  of  Cheops. — Marsh  :  The  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action.  New 
York,  1874,  p.  81. 


430  SOIL    AND    ^VATER. 

Other  soils,  such  as  those  composed  of  clay,  possess  this  property  in  a 
very  slig^ht  deo-ree. 

There  are  two  principles  suggested  by  what  has  preceded  which  should 
be  stringently  observed.  1st.  To  keep  the  soil  about  and  under  our 
dwellings  pure  by  removing  all  waste,  organic  matters  as  promptly  as 
possible,  ^d.  To  utilize  this  material  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  where- 
by it  not  only  ceases  to  be  injurious  to  health,  but  actually  becomes  bene- 
ficial to  man  by  furnishing  a  source  of  revenue. 

Vegetation  exerts  an  important  influence  upon  conditions  of  the  soil 
SuS  well  as  states  of  the  atmosphere.  One  of  its  effects  is  to  modify  the 
-extremes  of  temperature  and  humidity.  Forests  shelter  the  ground  to 
the  leeward,  and  temper  the  influence  of  cold  or  parching  winds  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  beyond  their  limits.  By  their  mechanical  action  they 
impede  the  currents  of  wind  and  lessen  the  evaporation  and  refrigeration 
which  such  currents  produce,  and  thus  tend  to  equalize  temperature. 
They  screen  the  soil  they  cover  from  the  effects  of  solar  irradiation,  and, 
in  winter,  by  accumulating  large  surfaces  of  snow,  and  protecting  it  from 
melting,  exert  an  important  influence  upon  the  temperature  and  humidity 
of  the  ground. 

By  the  shedding  of  the  foliage  of  trees,  and  the  decay  of  vegetation, 
a  protective  covering  is  given  to  the  earth,  which  guards  it  against  ex- 
tremes of  cold  and  heat.  This  layer  of  vegetable  detritus  has  a  capacity 
to  absorb  and  retain  the  moisture  it  receives  from  the  atmosphere,  which 
it,  in  turn,  gradually  furnishes  to  the  air  by  evaporation.  It  also  retains 
and  slowly  imparts  to  the  earth  beneath  it,  the  rain  water,  which  might 
otherwise  rapidly  pass  over  the  surface,  or  sink  into  the  lower  strata. 

Trees  screen  the  earth  from  the  sun's  rays,  and  thereby  hinder  the 
evaporation  from  its  surface.  To  some  extent  they  intercept  the  rainfall, 
which  would  otherwise  come  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  be  absorbed  by 
it.  The  roots  of  trees,  by  their  power  of  absorption,  draw  up  a  large 
amount  of  water  from  the  soil.  The  amount  is  vastly  greater  than  that 
derived  from  the  air  through  the  leaves  and  bark.  Most  of  this  moisture 
is  again  parted  with,  principally  to  the  atmosphere,  the  amount  discharged 
by  the  roots  and  consumed  in  the  process  of  growth  being  probably  in- 
considerable. The  amount  of  water  evaporated  from  the  surface  of  leaves 
during  the  season  of  growth  is  very  great.  Schleiden  '  estimates  the 
quantity  of  water  evaporated  by  a  tract  of  woodland  to  be  ten  times  the 
amount  precipitated  on  the  same  area.  Pettenkofer,*  by  experiments 
made  upon  the  living  oak,  has  calculated  the  amount  of  evaporation  of  the 
oak-tree  during  the  summer  months  to  be  eight  and  one-third  times  the 
rainfall  upon  an  area  equal  to  that  shaded  hj  the  tree.  The  Eucalyptus 
Globulus  is  asserted  by  Gimbert,  from  recent  observations  made  in  Alge- 
ria, to  absorb  and  evaporate  twelve  times  the  rainfall.  Such  being  the 
case,  the  absorption  of  moisture  by  the  roots  of  trees,  and  its  subsequent 

'  Baum  und  Wald,  1870,  pp.  46,  47. 
"  Parkes'  Hygiene,  1878,  p.  336. 


SOIL    AND    WATEIJ.  431 

evaporation,  must  perceptibly  affect  tlie  amount  of  water  contained  in  the 
soil,  and  moisten  the  air  and  lower  its  temperature. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  atmos- 
phere are  more  uniform  in  woods  than  in  the  open  fields;  it  has  also 
been  observed  that  while  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  ground 
in  wooded  districts  is  less  than  from  the  surface  of  the  open  ground,  this 
deficiency  is  compensated  by  increased  evaporation  of  moisture  from  leaves, 
w'hich  is  mainly  derived  from  the  soil  by  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Wood- 
lands are  said  to  cause  increase  of  rainfall.  This,  to  some  extent,  may  be 
true,  at  least  within  their  own  limits.  They  certainly  do  increase  the  fre- 
quency of  showers,  and,  in  this  way,  equalize  the  distribution  of  the 
amount  ,of  precipitation. 

Trees  affect  the  drainage  of  the  soil  by  their  mechanical  action.  To 
some  extent  they  impede  the  flow  of  water  over  the  surface.  There  is 
Tery  considerable  resistance  to  the  transmission  of  water  beneath  the  sur- 
face in  the  superficial  strata.  This  resistance  is  caused  by  the  roots,  which 
conduct  the  Avater  along  their  surface,  through  the  deeper  and  less  perme- 
able layers,  and  oppose  a  closeh'^-wattled  barrier  to  its  movement  along 
the  slope  of  the  superficial  and  more  permeable  strata  which  have  absorbed 
it.'  By  retarding  the  passage  of  water  through  the  soil,  the  roots  of 
trees  tend  to  prevent  the  sudden  rise  of  streams  and  destructive  floods. 
The  roots  of  trees  enter  fissures  of  rock,  and,  by  their  growth,  tend  to  en- 
large them,  and  greatly  increase  the  drainage  capacity  of  the  soil.  They  are 
known  to  penetrate  through  layers  of  the  subsoil  which  resist  the  passage 
of  water,  and  by  perforating  these  strata  like  a  sieve,  furnish  an  outlet  to 
the  moisture  which  would  otherwise  accumulate  in  the  superficial  soil." 
The  most  disastrous  results  have  followed  the  destruction  of  forests,  by 
obliterating  these  channels  of  drainage.  "  Thus  in  La  Brenne,  a  tract  of 
200,000  acres  resting  on  an  impermeable  subsoil  of  argillaceous  earth, 
which  ten  centuries  ago  was  covered  with  forests  interspersed  with  fertile 
and  salubrious  meadows  and  pastures,  has  been  converted,  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  woods,  into  a  vast  expanse  of  pestilential  pools  ^nd  marshes.  In 
Sologne  the  same  cause  has  withdrawn  from  cultivation  and  human  in- 
habitation not  less  than  1,100,000  acres  of  ground  once  well-wooded,  well- 
drained,  and  productive."  ' 

Collections  of  trees  oppose  a  mechanical  impediment  to  the  movement 
of  winds.  In  a  dense  forest  the  air  may  be  calm  when  it  is  fierce  without. 
A  belt  of  woodland  acts  as  a  screen  against  the  diffusion  of  malarial  ex- 
halations.    The  rows  of  trees  planted  in  the  Tuscan  Maremma  on  a  large 


^  Marsh  :  The  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action,  1874,  p.  235. 

-  "  The  roots  of  vegetables  perform  the  office  of  draining  in  a  manner  analogous  to 
that  artificially  practised  in  parts  of  Holland  and  the  British  Islands.  This  method 
consists  in  driving  deeply  down  into  the  soil  several  hundred  stakes  to  the  acre ;  the 
water  filters  dovvn  along  the  stakes,  and  in  some  cases  as  favorable  results  have  been 
obtained  by  this  means  as  by  horizontal  drains." — d'Htiricourt,  Annales  Forestiers, 
1857,  p.  313. 

2  Marsh:  Op.  cit.,  p.  205. 


432  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

scale,  by  the  advice  of  a  commission  appointed  to  devise  measures  for  the- 
sanitary  improvement  of  this  district,  were  planted  with  the  distinct  ob- 
ject of  intercepting  the  pernicious  exhalations  from  malarious  localities. 
Whether  the  agency  is  simply  mechanical,  or  whether  trees  possess  the 
power  of  neutralizing  the  poison  by  the  action  of  ozone,*  or  some  other 
chemical  agency,^  has  not  yet  been  determined.  Vegetation  may  do 
harm  by  excluding  the  air  and  preventing  proper  ventilation.  It  may 
be  injurious,  especially  where  the  drainage  is  defective,  and  where  decay- 
ing organic  matter  is  present. 

"  So  far  as  we  are  able  to  sum  up  the  results,  it  would  appear,"  says 
Marsh,^  "  that,  in  countries  in  the  temperate  zone  still  chiefly  covered 
with  wood,  the  summers  would  be  cooler,  moister,  shorter,  the  winters 
milder,  drier,  longer,  than  in  the  same  regions  after  the  removal  of  the 
forest,  and  that  the  condensation  and  precipitation  of  atmospheric  mois- 
ture would  be,  if  not  greater  in  total  quantity,  more  frequent  and  less 
violent  in  discharge." 

Covering  the  surface  with  grass,  plants,  and  the  more  diminutive  forms 
of  vegetation,  has  a  healthful  influence.  The  beneficial  effects  of  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil  are  well  understood.  The  existence  of  brushwood  is- 
indicative  of  neglect  of  the  soil,  and  is  frequently  associated  with  an  un- 
healthy locality.  The  judicious  planting  and  removal  of  trees  about  a 
habitation  may  add  materially  to  the  healthfulness  of  the  place.  In  hot 
countries  trees  protect  against  the  ardent  rays  of  the  sun,  and  produce  a 
cooling  effect  upon  the  air.  In  cool  countries  they  ward  off  chilling  blasts; 
in  both  they  may  be  used  as  a  barrier  to  malarious  currents  of  air.  The 
Eucalyjytus  tree  is  just  now  much  in  favor  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth, 
its  great  power  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  soil  and  exhaling  it  into 
the  atmosphere,  and  also  on  account  of  a  supposed  special  counteracting 
influence  upon  the  malarial  poison  itself.  Unfortunately,  it  thrives  only 
in  a  warm  climate,  and  its  use  will  necessarily  be  restricted  to  a  compara- 
tively limited  area. 

Soils  considered  in  relation  to  heat,  light,  malaria,  etc. — Soils  differ- 
in  their  power  of  absorbing  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  differences  depend 
mainly  upon  the  color,  com^Dosition,  and  texture  of  the  soil.  The  inclina- 
tion and  form  of  its  surface,  the  form  and  character  of  the  substances- 
upon  it,  and  its  humidity,  are  all  modifying  influences.  A  difference  of 
32°  Fahr.  has  been  observed  between  the  temperatures  of  a  naked  rock 
and  one  covered  with  vegetation,  the  observations  being  taken  at  the 
same  time  and  in  the  same  locality  (Parkes). 

Absorption  of  heat  takes  place  upon  the  surface,  or  at  least  within  a 
very  superficial  stratum.  The  heat  is  disseminated  slowly  downward  by 
conduction,  and  is  also  imparted  to  the  atmosphere  by  surface  communi- 
cation and  by  radiation.     As  different   soils    have  different  powers   of 

'  Ebermeyer :  Die  Physikalischen  Einwirkungen  des  Waldes,  1873,  pp.  237  et  seq^. 
^  Selmi :  II  Miasma  Palustre,  1870,  pp.  109  et  seq. 
3  Op.  citat.,  p.  199. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  433 

absorption,  they  have  also  different  powers  of  radiation,  and  the  power  to 
absorb  heat  is  proportional  to  the  power  of  radiation. 

The  intensity  of  radiation  increases  rapidly  with  the  temperature  of 
the  radiant  surface.  In  hot  climates  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  tempera- 
ture of  120°  to  140°  Fahr.,  and  even  more,  on  the  surface  of  dry  and 
light  soils.' 

HerscheP  observed  it  at  159°  Fahr.  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
Parkes  cites  Buist  as  authority  for  the  statement  that  in  India  the  ther- 
mometer, placed  on  the  ground  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  will  mark  160° 
Fahr.,  while  two  feet  from  the  ground  it  will  only  mark  120°. 

The  following  table  furnishes  the  results  of  experiments  made  by 
Shiibler  for  determining  the  degrees  in  which  various  soils  possess  the 
property  of  absorbing  and  retaining  heat : 

Soils    as  regards  povier  of  retaining  heat ;  100  being  assumed 
as  the  standard. 

Sand,  with  some  lime 100 . 0 

Pure  sand 95 . 6 

Light  clay 76.9 

Gypsum 73 . 2 

Heavy  clay. ' 71.1 

Clayey  earth 68 .4 

Pure  clay 66.7 

Fine  chalk 61 .8 

Humus 49.0 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  experiments  that  sandy  soils  are  the  hot- 
test and  clayey  soils  and  humus  the  coldest. 

Becquerel  ^  says  :  "  Other  things  being  equal,  siliceous  and  calcareous 
sands,  compared  in  equal  volumes  with  different  argillaceous  earths,  with 
calcareous  powder  or  dust,  with  humus,  with  arable,  and  with  garden 
earth,  are  soils  which  least  conduct  heat.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  sandy 
ground,  in  summer,  maintains  a  high  temperature,  even  during  the  night. 
....  After  the  sands  follow,  successively,  argillaceous,  arable,  and  garden 
ground;  then  humus,  which  occupies  the  lowest  rank. 

"  The  retentive  power  of  humus  is  but  half  as  great  as  that  of  calcare- 
ous sand.  We  will  add  that  the  power  of  retaining  heat  is  proportional 
to  the  density.  It  has  also  a  relation  to  the  magnitude  of  the  particles. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  ground  covered  with  siliceous  pebbles  cools  more 
slowly  than  siliceous  sand." 

With  respect  to  the  property  of  absorbing  heat,  in  temperate  cli- 
mates sandy  soils  are  generally  considered  to  be  healthier  than  argillace- 
ous soils,  the  latter  being  cold  and  damp,  and,  therefore,  favorable  to 

'  MuUer  :  Principles  of  Physics  and  Meteorology,  1848,  p.  575. 
-  Meteorology,  1861,  p.  41. 
^  Des  Climats,  etc. ,  p.  137. 
Vol.  I.— 28 


434  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

the  production  of  catarrhal  and  rheumatic  affections.  It  is  otherwise  in 
hot  climates,  where  a  sandy  soil,  by  having-  a  high  degree  of  heat  by  night 
as  well  as  in  the  daytime,  tends  to  maintain  a  high  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere.  Clayey  soils  part  with  their  heat  more  rapidly,  and  have  the 
effect  of  cooling  the  atmosphere. 

A  stony,  sandy,  barren  soil,  with  scanty  verdure,  or  deprived  of  it  al- 
together, absorbs  heat  more  rapidly,  and  is  hotter  than  one  that  is 
covered  with  vegetation.  When  the  ground  is  shielded  with  vegetation, 
the  rays  of  the  sun  do  not  fall  upon  it  directly,  but  mostly  through  the 
medium  of  heated  air;  it  therefore  remains  cooler.  Moreover,  the  vege- 
tation is  constantly  evaporating  moisture,  and  cools  considerably  by  noc- 
turnal radiation,  so  that  the  temperature  of  the  grass  often  falls  10°  to  15° 
Fahr.  below  that  of  the  air.  For  this  reason  the  interior  of  woods  and 
forests  is  cool,  their  foliage  acting  in  the  same  cooling  manner  as  the 
covering  of  grass.' 

The  earth  receives  the  solar  heat  upon  its  superficial  surface,  and 
slowly  imparts  it  to  the  ground  beneath  by  the  power  of  conduction. 
Toward  night  this  ceases,  and  the  "  wave  of  heat "  recedes  toward  the 
surface.  The  diurnal  variation  of  temperature  becomes  less  as  the  depth 
increases,  and  the  point  at  which  it  disappears  varies  with  the  capacity  of 
the  soil  for  conducting  heat,  and  with  the  season.  "  In  ordinary  soils  the 
difference  between  the  diurnal  and  nocturnal  extremes  becomes  imper- 
ceptible at  four  feet  below  the  surface.  (Quetelet:  Mem.  Acad.  Brux., 
1836.)  In  like  manner,  the  general  increase  of  heat  due  to  the  summer 
season,  and  of  cold  during  winter,  are  propagated  in  similar  but  larger 
and  feebler  annual  waves,  which  in  their  turn  neutralize  each  other  at 
more  considerable  depths,  and  become  imperceptible  at  forty  or  fifty  feet. 
Professor  Forbes  has  shown,  in  an  elaborate  memoir  on  the  subject  (Trans. 
R.  S.  Edin.,  XVI.),  that  at  depths  varying  from  57  to  99  feet,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  annual  variation  does  not  exceed  0.01°  C.°" 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  one  of  the  advantages  derived  from  deep 
drainage  of  the  soil  results  from  the  improvement  of  its  temperature. 
Josiah  Parkes  showed  by  his  experiments  an  increase  of  10°  Fahr.  in  the 
temperature  of  drained  land  over  undrained  bog-land,  at  31  inches  below 
the  surface;  and  Shiibler  cites  an  instance  where,  on  land  that  had  been 
well  aerated  (drained),  the  mean  annual  temperature  was  raised  6°  Fahr. 
at  a  depth  of  four  feet.  Drainage  contributes  to  the  dryness  of  the  soil, 
and  improves  its  temperature,  not  only  by  diminishing  evaporation  and 
increasing  the  hygroscopic  powers  of  the  soil,  but  by  increasing  the 
power  to  absorb  the  rays  of  heat. 

The  influence  of  the  temperature  of  the  soil  upon  the  causation  of 
disease  is  undoubted.  Heat  is  one  of  the  factors  concerned  in  the  pro- 
duction of  malaria,  and  it  also  probably  aids  in  the  elaboration  of  the 
poison  of  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  and  other  diseases. 

'  Mtlller  :  Principles  of  Physics  and  Meteorology,  1848,  p.  575. 
^  Herschel:  Meteorology,  1861,  p.  43. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  435 

The  reflection  of  light  by  the  surface  of  different  soils  varies  with  the 
color.  Light-colored  soils  reflect  light  with  great  intensity;  and  they  are 
also  hot,  as  the  reflecting  power  of  a  surface  for  heat  and  for  light  is  the 
same.  Light  reflected  from  a  white,  glaring  surface,  and  continued  for 
any  length  of  time,  tends  to  impair  vision.  The  glare  from  the  white 
sands  of  the  seashore  have  this  effect.  The  night-blindness  of  the 
tropics,  due  to  a  blunted  sensibility  of  the  retina,  is  caused  by  constant 
exposure  to  the  strong  glare  of  the  sun.  The  soldiers  in  the  Crimean 
war,  and  in  the  late  American  war,  frequently  suffered  from  this  defect 
of  vision.  The  reflection  of  light  from  a  field  of  snow  sometimes  pro- 
duces temporary  blindness.  The  use  of  the  means  to  absorb  the  light  to 
the  extent  of  rendering  it  less  hurtful  need  not  be  suggested. 

Marshy  districts  are  the  haunts  of  malaria  in  almost  all  countries. 
There  are  many  exceptions,  which  it  is  difficult  to  explain.  For  example, 
the  swampy  lands  in  many  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  on  the  coast 
of  Australia,  and  many  of  the  marshes  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States,  though  apparently  possessing  all  the  conditions  for  the 
development  of  malaria,  are  comparatively  free  from  the  poison.  Jour- 
danet '  mentions,  as  a  notable  case,  the  lake  of  Tescudo,  situated  close  by 
the  city  of  Mexico,  and  covering,  at  ordinary  times,  an  area  of  twenty-five 
square  miles,  whose  clayey  bottom  is,  at  certain  seasons,  frequently  exposed 
to  a  considerable  extent  as  the  result  of  extremely  active  evaporation 
under  a  high  degree  of  temperature,  without  giving  rise  to  malarial  fevers. 
Marshes  that  are  subject  to  a  regular  tidal  overflow  by  the  sea  are,  as  a 
rule,  free  from  malaria,  though  this  point  has  been  contested.  Many  of 
the  watering-places  situated  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  this  country  close 
to  salt  marshes  are  comparatively  free  from  malarial  diseases.  Whenever 
there  is  an  occasional  overflow,  or  when  there  is  a  mixing  of  salt  and  fresh 
water  in  coast-marshes,  the  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  highly  noxious  effluvia.  It  is  believed  that  the  salt-water  has  the 
effect  of  killing  many  fresh-water  plants  and  animals,  and  that  the  fresh 
water  in  a  like  manner  is  destructive  of  marine  organisms,  thus  producing 
organic  decomposition  and  the  exhalation  of  poisonous  miasms."  The 
sanitary  condition  of  the  territory  known  as  the  Tuscan  Maremma,  a 
marshy  district  lying  upon  the  western  coast  of  Italy,  which  has  been 
proverbially  unhealthy  for  centuries,  has  been  vastly  improved  by  filling 
up  the  marshes  and  lagoons  with  the  sedimentary  deposits  from  the  sur- 
face-waters, and  by  the  separation  of  the  waters  of  the  sea  and  of  the 
land.  In  speaking  of  the  effect  of  these  operations  in  the  Val  di  Chiana, 
Marsh  says  that  "  the  fevers,  which  not  only  decimated  the  population 
of  the  low  grounds,  but  infested  the  adjacent  hills,  have  ceased  their 
ravages,  and  are  now  not  more  frequent  than  in  other  parts  of  Tuscany." 
Marsh  lands  are  particularly  unhealthy  when  their  surface,  previously 
saturated  with  water,  is  exposed  to  the  heating  influence  of  the  sun,  and 

1  L'Union  medicale,  1863,  No.  129,  p.  212. 

'^  Salvagnoli  ;  Rapporto  sul  Bonificamento  della  Maremme  Toscano,  1860. 


436  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

becomes,  to  a  certain  extent,  desiccated.  By  the  sinking  of  the  ground- 
water, not  only  the  surface,  but  the  superficial  soil  is  directly  subjected 
to  the  action  of  heat  and  air,  conditions  most  essential  to  the  evolution  of 
malaria.  Ferguson  says  that  paucity  of  water,  where  it  has  previously 
and  recently  abounded,  is  an  indispensable  condition  to  the  production 
of  marsh  poison,  and  "to  this  there  is  no  exception  in  climates  of  high 
temperature." 

A  mode  of  irrigation,  practised  at  one  time  in  certain  departments  of 
France,  particularly  in  Brenne,  Sologne,  and  Dombes,  which  consists  in 
submerging  tracts  of  land  for  a  year  or  more,  and  subsequently  draining 
and  cultivating  them,  rendered  the  country  almost  uninhabitable.^  The 
irrigation  of  rice  fields,  which  consists  in  alternately  flooding  and  draining 
the  grounds,  is  productive  of  malarious  fevers.  Rice  cultivation  has 
proved  so  much  more  2:)estilential  in  Southern  than  in  Northern  Italy  that 
it  has  long  been  discouraged  by  the  government." 

Organic  matter  is  present  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  air  of 
marshes,  and  so  far  as  investigations  have  been  pursued,  this  matter  is 
found  to  possess  the  same  general  character.  Carbonic  acid  is  in  excess. 
Sulphuretted,  carburetted,  and  phosphuretted  hydrogen  gases  are  often 
evolved  from  marsh  land.  Free  hydrogen  and  ammonia  may  also  be 
present.  Living  organisms,  vegetable  debris,  and  spores^  of  plants  have 
been  found  in  considerable  quantities. 

Malarious  marshes  are  flat,  poorly  drained,  and  hold  a  large  amount  of 
water  without  flooding;  they  contain  large  quantities  of  organic  matter — 
10  to  45  per  cent.  (Parkes) — and  mineral  compounds,  such  as  silicates  of 
alumina,  sulphates  of  lime,  magnesia,  etc.  Vegetable  organic  matter  is 
in  excess.  Vegetation  is  usually  abundant,  but  this  latter  feature  is  no 
longer  considered  of  very  great  importance  in  relation  to  the  propagation 
of  malaria. 

Alluvial  soils,  generally  speaking,  are  productive  of  malaria.  For  this 
reason  bottom  lands,  low  lands  bordering  on  rivers  which  are  occasionally 
flooded,  and  the  deltas  of  large  streams,  are  very  unhealthy.  Soils  occa- 
sionally receiving  the  washings  of  rivers  composed  of  loose  sand,  gravel, 
and  mud,  with  a  certain  admixture  of  organic  matter,  are  to  be  regarded 
with  suspicion.  The  draining  of  ponds,  lakes,  and  watercourses  has  fre- 
quently been  followed  by  malarial  fevers.  The  deltas  of  rivers  formed  by  the 
deposit  of  detritus  carried  down  by  the  current  are  proverbially  unhealthy. 
Those  of  the  Nile  and  the  Po,  and  the  islands  of  the  Walcheren,  are 
prominent  examples.  Recently  formed  alluvial  soil  may  give  rise  to  the 
poison,  as  pointed  out  by  Wenzel.''  During  the  construction  of  the  har- 
bor  of  Wilhelmshaven,  on  the  bay  of  Jade,  it  appears,  from  his  report, 

'  Dunglison:  Elements  of  Hygiene,  p.  115. 
■■^  Marsh,  op.  cit. ,  p.  468. 

^Salisbury:  Ainer.  Jour.  Med.  Sciences,  1866,  p.  51;  and  Balestra;  Comptes  ren- 
dus,  1870. 

^  Prager  Vierteljahrschr.,  1870,  IV.,  p.  1. 


SOIL    AND    WATEK.  437 

that  malarial  diseases  became  epidemic,  and  then  gradually  subsided  with 
the  more  advanced  condition  of  the  banks  and  the  betterment  of  the  sur- 
rounding territory. 

Digging  up  the  soil,  excavating  for  canals,  building  dykes,  the  clear- 
ing and  preparation  of  lands  for  their  first  cultivation,  by  exposing  earth 
containing  matters  which  have  long  remained  in  a  quiescent  state  to  the 
energetic  action  of  the  sun,  may  subject  people  living  in  the  neighbor- 
hood to  an  attack  of  malarial  disease. 

Sojidy  soils,  though  usually  regarded  as  healthy,  are  sometimes  mala- 
rious. Such  soils,  when  superficial,  are  sensibly  affected  by  the  character 
of  the  substratum.  If  covering  an  argillaceous  or  clayey  bed,  impervious 
to  water,  or  if  so  situated  as  to  maintain  a  high  level  of  the  ground-water, 
they  are  kept  constantly  humid  by  the  evaporation  from  below;  and 
though  the  surface  may  be  dry,  and  even  parched,  the  conditions  beneath 
it,  especially  when  organic  matter  is  present  in  the  sand,  are  those  which 
materially  aid  in  the  development  of  the  malarial  poison.  Dr.  Ferguson 
records  an  epidemic  of  intermittent  fever  that  prevailed  in  August,  1794, 
among  the  British  troops  encamped  at  Rosendaal  and  Oosterhout,  in 
South  Holland.  The  soil  in  both  places  was  a  level  plane  of  sand,  with  a 
perfectly  dry  surface,  where  scarcely  any  vegetation  existed  ;  but  beneath 
the  surface,  and  close  to  it,  the  soil  was  infiltrated  with  water.  The 
summer  had  been  very  hot  and  dry.  Sandy  jjlains,  that  receive  from 
neighboring  hills  the  surface-waters  mixed  with  animal  and  vegetable  im- 
purities, or  that  lie  upon  an  impermeable  stratum  which  collects  the 
organic  matters  carried  down  into  the  soil  by  the  percolation  of  rain- 
water, such  as  the  Landes  of  Gascony,  have  been  known  to  cause  malarial 
fevers  at  certain  periods  of  the  year. 

Shallow  rock-basins,  having  no  outlet,  hold  the  surface-waters  and 
whatever  ingredients  they  may  contain-  Such  a  formation  may  be  the 
governing  cause  of  the  prevalence  of  fevers. 

Some  rocky  soils  have  been  classed  among  the  number  of  those  having 
a  malarious  character.  It  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  the  disintegrated 
rock  itself  is  the  active  agent,  but  simply  that  in  a  rocky  district  the  essen- 
tial elements  may  all  be  present.  The  fissures  and  chasms  in  the  rocks 
containing  moist  and  decaying  detritus,  and  the  half-dried  ra\T,nes  and 
beds  of  streams  may  furnish  the  very  conditions  essential  to  the  emission 
of  miasmata. 

Many  malarious  soils  contain  ferruginous  matter  (^.  e.,  oxides  of  iron), 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  ingredient  may  in  some  way  be  con- 
nected with  the  production  of  the  poison;  but  the  evidence  on  this  point 
is  not  conclusive. 

ExAMIXATIO>r    OF    THE    SoiL. 

An  examination  of  the  soil  in  its  sanitary  bearings  should  embrace,  in 
its  scope,  not  only  the  superficial  layers,  but  also  the  subsoil  to  a  depth  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet  or  more.    The  oro-anic  and  inoraranic  constituents  of  the 


438  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

soil  should  be  determined  by  a  simple  method  of  analysis,  such  as  the  one 
to  be  indicated.  The  physical  properties,  especially  in  their  relation  to 
heat,  moisture,  and  air,  are  not  less  important.  The  state  of  the  ground- 
water, particularly  the  variations  in  its  level,  should  be  carefully  noted. 
Analyses  of  the  ground-air  and  ground- water  are  not  usually  recommended 
in  ordinary  examinations,  but  they  are  essential  to  the  completeness  of 
the  investigation.  It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  character  and 
arrangement  of  the  underlying  rocky  strata  ex-ert  a  marked  influence 
upon  the  superimposed  soil,  especially  in  regard  to  the  movement  of 
water,  and  therefore  a  familiarity  with  the  general  geological  conditions 
of  the  locality  is  of  importance.  For  example:  a  comparatively  imper- 
vious rocky  basin,  having  no  outlet,  will  hold  water  as  in  a  dish,  and  will 
keep  the  soil  above  it  constantly  more  or  less  moist,  no  matter  what  may 
be  its  properties. 

Many  of  the  more  prominent  characteristics  of  the  soil,  such  as  color, 
temperature,  porosity,  density,  composition — that  is,  whether  sandy, 
gravelly,  clayey,  etc.,  can  be  readily  determined  by  an  ordinary  examina- 
tion. The  conformation  of  the  surface  and  the  meteorological  phenomena 
of  the  locality  should  also  be  regarded.  The  subsoil  may  in  like  manner 
be  examined  by  digging  holes  ten  or  twelve  feet  deep,  care  being  taken 
to  observe  any  variation  in  the  appearance  of  the  soil  as  removed.  Water 
should  be  poured  on  different  samples,  and  the  effect  noticed.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  level  of  the  ground- water  from  the  surface  should  be  carefully 
ascertained.  After  rain,  holes  should  be  dug,  in  order  to  determine  the 
depth  to  which  the  water  has  penetrated  the  ground. 

The  temperature  of  the  soil  should  be  taken  at  its  surface  and  at  dif- 
ferent depths  beneath  it.  The  depth  selected  by  Lewis  and  Cunningham, 
for  an  extended  series  of  observations  made  at  Calcutta,  was  six  feet  from 
the  surface.^  Thermometers  furnished  with  long  tubes  are  buried  in  the 
ground,  and  their  indications  recorded  daily.  Observations  should  be 
taken  at  least  twice  a  day,  ^.  e.,  early  in  the  morning  and  at  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day. 

Soil-temperature  is  known  to  have  an  important  influence  upon  soil- 
ventilation  and  soil  carbonic  acid,  and,  as  thus  associated,  has  been  studied 
in  connection  with  the  level  of  soil-water,  with  reference  to  its  influence 
upon  the  prevalence  of  certain  diseases,  as  cholera,  for  example.  The  in- 
vestigations are  as  yet  too  limited  to  be  of  much  value,  but  they  promise 
to  yield  important  results. 

The  mineral  constituents,  which  are  very  numerous,  rarely  occur  alone, 
two  or  more  of  these  elements  being  associated  together  in  a  homogeneous 
mass,  and  thus  constitute  rocks,  of  which  the  bulk  of  the  earth's  crust  is 
composed.  The  soil  is  formed  of  these  rocks,  in  a  more  or  less  disinte- 
grated state,  with  some  admixture  of  organic  matter.  The  principal  in- 
gredients to  be  searched  for  are  silica,  alumina,  lime,  iron,  magnesia, 
potash,    soda,    chlorine,    carbonic    acid,    and    phosphoric   acid.     The  un- 

'  Cholera  in  Relation  to  Certain  Physical  Phenomena,  Calcutta,  1878. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  439 

decomposed,  solid  parts  of  the  soil  may  be  examined  with  reference  to 
their  mineralogical  character.  The  ordinary  rocks,  such  as  granite,  trap- 
rocks,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  sandstone,  and  limestone,  can  be  dis- 
tinguished without  much  difficulty.  Limestones  may  be  designated  from 
rocks  having  a  similar  appearance  by  their  effervescence  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

A  simple  analysis  of  the  soil  may  be  made  in  the  following  naanner: 
Take  a  portion  of  the  soil,  free  from  any  large  stones,  dry  it,  and  weigh 
it;  then  having  carefully  removed  and  weighed  the  solid  mineral  ingredi- 
ents, separate  the  finer  particles  by  passing  them  through  a  sieve.  That 
portion  of  the  sample  remaining  in  the  sieve  may  then  be  thoroughly 
mixed  with  water,  and  the  suspended  particles  poured  off.  The  residue  is 
again  stirred  up  with  fresh  water,  and  this  poured  off  after  the  dense  par- 
ticles, including  sand,  have  settled.  The  difference  between  the  combined 
weight  of  the  solid  mineral  fragments  and  the  dried  coarser  particles  left 
after  treating  with  water,  and  the  weight  of  the  original  mass,  will  be  the 
amount  of  the  fine  earthy  substance,  probably,  for  the  most  part,  an  impure 
silicate  of  aluminum.' 

If  desired,  a  more  elaborate  examination  of  the  physical  and  chemical 
properties  of  the  soil  may  be  made  in  the  laboratory. 

For  this  purpose  take  a  fair  sample  of  the  soil  (about  ten  or  twelve 
pounds)  free  from  any  large  stones,  dry  it  by  exposure,  in  summer,  to  the 
ordinary  temperature  in  the  shade,  or,  in  winter,  in  a  warm  room,  or  in  a 
moderately  warm  drying-chamber  heated  to  a  temperature  of  85°  to  100° 
F.  Separate  the  larger  stones  and  pebbles  from  the  finer  parts,  by 
hand,  or  by  a  coarse  sieve,  and  determine  their  mineralogical  character. 
Pulverize  the  soil  in  a  mortar  with  a  wooden  pestle,  or  by  rubbing  it  be- 
tween the  hands,  and  then  pass  it  through  a  sieve.  The  following  points 
may  then  be  determined  :  ^ 

1.  Amou7it  of  hygroscopic  loater. — To  estimate  the  amount  of  hygro- 
scopic moisture,  heat  ten  grammes  of  the  soil,  previously  air-dried,  at  a 
temperature  of  212°  F.  till  it  ceases  to  lose  weight,  then  reweigh  it;  the 
difference  is  the  hygroscopic  water. 

2.  Amount  of  organic  tnatter,  or  other  volatile  matters  besides  water. 
— Take  a  weighed  quantity  of  the  same  soil,  and  incinerate  it  in  a  platinum 
tray  or  crucible,  heated  over  the  gas-lamp  ;  the  carbonic  acid  belonging 
to  the  inorganic  part  of  the  soil,  as,  for  example,  in  the  form  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  must  be  restored  by  moistening  the  ignited  residue  with  ammo- 
nium carbonate  ;  dry,  gently  ignite,  and  weigh.  From  the  loss  of  weight, 
subtract  the  amount  of  water  in  the  quantity  taken,  calculated  from  the 
results  of  an  estimation  of  hygroscopic  water  in  another  portion  of  the 
same  soil,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  organic  matter,  or  other  volatile 
matters  besides  water. 

^  Stockhardt :  Agricult.  Chemistry,  1855,  p.  283. 

-See  Agricult.  Chem.  Analysis;  Wolif,  Fresenius,  EZrocker,  and  others,  edited  by 
Caldwell,  1869. 


440  SOIL    AND    WATEK. 

3.  JPoiver  of  retaining  hygroscopic  toater. — This  is  approximately  de- 
termined by  the  process  given  above.  The  influence  of  temperature  upon 
this  property  of  the  soil  may  be  determined  by  spreading  a  thin  layer  of 
the  soil,  carefully  weighed,  on  a  shallow  dish,  and  noting  the  changes  in 
weight  from  time  to  time  when  it  is  exposed  to  sunlight  while  protected 
from  currents  of  air,  or  to  a  temperature  of  70°,  85°,  and  100°  F.  The 
amount  of  moisture  absorbed  from  a  saturated  atmosphere  may  be  deter- 
mined by  placing  the  soil  on  the  same  shallow  dish,  as  above  described, 
together  with  a  shallow  vessel  of  water,  under  a  bell-jar,  and  weighing 
several  times  in  the  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours.  The  increase  in 
weight  is  the  water  absorbed.     The  temperature  should  be  observed. 

4.  The  i^ovoer  of  the  soil  to  retain  liquid  loater. — To  determine  the 
power  of  the  soil  to  hold  water,  take  a  zinc  box,  17  ctm.  deep,  and  3  ctm. 
square,  whose  bottom  is  perforated  with  numerous  small  holes  ;  cover  the 
bottom  with  a  piece  of  moistened  fine  linen,  and  weigh  the  box  ;  then  fill 
the  box  with  the  air-dried  soil,  and  weigh  it  again.  Immerse  in  water  to 
the  depth  of  3  or  4  mm.,  noting  how  long  a  time  is  required  for  the  water 
to  reach  the  surface,  and  allow  the  box  to  remain  in  the  water  until  there 
is  no  further  change  in  weight.  The  amount  of  water  absorbed  by  100 
parts  of  the  soil  may  then  be  calculated.  It  may  be  observed  that  the 
determinations  made  in  the  laboratory  do  not  furnish  a  true  expression  of 
the  actual  amount  of  water  absorbed  by  soils  in  their  natural  position, 
but  simply  indicate  the  relative  absorbing  cajDacities  of  different  soils. 

5.  The  i^orosity  of  the  soil. — The  porosity  of  the  soil,  or  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  volume  of  the  solid  particles  and  that  of  the  spaces  filled  with 
air  or  water,  is  estimated  by  dividing  the  apparent  specific  gravity  of  the 
soil,  dried  at  212°  F,,  by  the  real  specific  gravity.  The  calculation  for 
100  volumes  of  soil  will  be  as  follows: 

Apparent  specific  gravity  x  100 the  volume  of  solid  particles  in  100 

Real  specific  gravity  parts  of  the  soil. 

Then  100— vols,  of  solid  particles  =  the  volume  of  the  pores.' 

6.  Substances  soluble  in  boater. — It  is  important  to  determine  the  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  matters  in  the  soil,  soluble  in  water,  with  reference 
to  the  possible  contamination  of  drinking-water  from  this  source.  Place 
in  a  flask  about  500  grms.  of  the  air-dried  soil  to  be  examined,  and  pour 
over  it  about  2,000  c.c.  of  pure  water,  carbonated.  Leave  the  water  in 
contact  with  the  soil  for  several  days  in  the  flask,  which  should  be  well 
stoppered,  occasionally  agitating  the  mixture  briskly.  Pour  off  1,000  c.c. 
of  the  clear  liquid,  representing  250  grms.  of  the  soil,  filter  it,  and  evapo- 
rate the  filtrate  to  dryness,  at  a  temperature  below  the  boiling  point;  dry 
the  residue  at  about  260°  F.,  weigh  and  ignite,  and,  after  treatment  with 
ammonium  carbonate  and  gentle  ignition,  weigh  again.  The  difference 
between  the  two  weights  will  be  the  amount  of  organic  matter  taken  up 
by  the  water.     A  similar  solution  may  be  prepared  in  larger  quantities, 

'  The  specific  gravity  may  be  estimated  by  the  method  in  use  for  determining  the 
epecific  weight  of  a  powder,  namely,  that  of  the  specific  gravity  bottle. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  441 

and  tested  for  other  substances  according'  to  tlie  plan  laid  down  in  the 
chapter  on  drinking-water. 

7.  Substance-:  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid. — Pure  hydrochloric  acid  is 
used  as  a  solvent  of  those  substances  not  taken  up  by  water.  Parkes ' 
furnishes  the  following  tests: 

"  {a).  To  40  grms.  of  the  soil  add  one  ounce  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  heat;  note  effervescence.  Add  about  100  c.c.  of  water.  Digest  for 
twelve  hours.     Dry  and  weigh  the  undissolved  portion. 

"  (5).  To  the  acid  solution  add  ammonia.  Alumina  and  oxide  of  iron 
are  thrown  down.     Dry  and  weigh  precipitate. 

"  (c).  To  the  solution  filtered  from  (i)  add  ammonium  oxalate.  Dry; 
wash  and  burn  the  calcium  oxalate.     Weigh  as  carbonate. 

"(f?).  To  the  solution  filtered  from  (c)  add  sodium  phosphate.  Collect; 
dry  and  weigh  (100  parts  of  the  precipitate  =  79  parts  of  magnesium 
carbonate),  or  determine  as  pyrophosphate. 

"The  portion  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  consists  of  quartz,  clay, 
silicates  of  alumina,  iron,  lime,  and  magnesia.  If  it  is  wished  to  examine 
it  further,  it  should  be  fused  with  three  times  its  weight  of  carbonate  of 
sodium,  then  heated  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  The  residue  is  silica. 
The  solution  may  contain  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  and  alumina.  Test  as 
above. 

"  Iron  can  be  determined  by  the  bichromate  of  potassium,  or  by  the 
permanganate.  As  the  latter  solution  is  used  for  other  purposes,  it  is 
convenient  to  employ  it  in  this  case. 

"  Dissolve  10  grms.  of  the  soil  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid  free  from 
iron,  by  aid  of  heat.  Add  a  little  pure  zinc,  and  heat  to  convert  ferric 
into  ferrous  salts.  Pour  off  the  solution  from  the  zinc  that  is  still  undis- 
solved, and  determine  iron  by  potassium  permanganate,  i.  e.,  heat  to  140° 
F.,  and  then  drop  in  the  solution  of  permanganate  till  a  permanent,  but 
slightly  pink  color  is  given. 

"The  solution  of  potassium  permanganate  is  made  by  dissolving  0.395 
grms.  of  the  crystallized  salt  in  one  litre  of  water." 

Selection  of  Site. 

The  question  of  the  selection  of  the  sites  of  cities  and  towns  is  seldom 
decided  by  hygienic  laws.  Facilities  for  commerce,  trade,  and  for  the  de- 
velopment of  industries  have  been  more  powerful  considerations.  Many 
a  town  owes  its  origin  to  the  cupidity  of  the  speculator.  Consequently 
it  often  happens  that  localities  are  selected  which  are  totally  unfitted  for 
human  habitations.  Towns  are  erected  without  sanitary  regulation,  and 
not  until  the  evils,  which  prudence  and  foresight  could  have  foretold  and 
prevented,  have  become  alarming  and  attract  public  attention,  are  meas- 
ures adopted  to  counteract  vices  of  location,  and  to  modify  the  effects  of 
errors  of  plan  and  construction. 


'  Practical  Hygiene,  1878,  p.  346. 


442  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

The  selection  of  the  site  of  isolated  homes  is  less  influenced  by  the  cir- 
cumstances which  govern  the  location  of  towns. 

The  principal  points  to  be  observed  in  selecting  a  site  may  be  alluded 
to  under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  3Ieteorological  2^henoniena.  —  A  knowledge  of  the  state  of  the 
weather  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  of  its  influence  upon  the  conditions 
of  the  soil,  should  be  obtained  before  making  a  choice  of  a  locality. 
The  prevailing  winds,  the  frequency  and  quantity  of  rainfall,  the  tempera- 
ture, and  the  prevalence  of  mists  or  fogs,  all  modify,  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  the  character  of  the  soil.  Mists  or  fogs  are  always  unhealthy. 
Therefore  a  locality  bordering  on  low  or  marshy  lands,  or  on  bodies  of 
water  over  which  fogs  are  generated,  should  be  avoided.  Lands  not  evi- 
dently wet  are  sometimes  the  cause  of  fogs.  Sudden  vicissitudes  of  tem- 
perature, often  caused  by  conditions  of  the  ground,  as,  for  example,  the 
evaporation  of  moisture,  are  injurious  to  health. 

2.  Conformation  and  elevation. — These  are  both  important  considera- 
tions. Inclosed  valleys  are  usually  unhealthy,  on  account  of  dampness 
and  stagnation  of  air.  Flat  surfaces  at  the  foot  of  hills,  even  though  the 
soil  be  of  a  favorable  composition,  may  be  unhealthy  by  being  impregnated 
with  organic  matters  carried  down  by  rains  from  the  neighboring  slopes, 
or  on  account  of  dampness  caused  by  the  pressure  of  water  from  higher 
levels.  A  break  in  the  surface  at  the  foot  of  hills,  such  as  a  deep  ravine, 
will  act  favorably  in  such  cases  by  intercepting  the  surface  and  soil- waters 
from  the  higher  districts. 

The  exposure  to  winds  should  be  noted.  Conformation  of  the  surface 
has  an  important  influence  in  determining  the  force  and  direction  of  winds. 
A  situation  near  the  top  of  a  slope  is  usually  more  desirable  than  one 
upon  the  summit  or  at  its  base.  A  valley  with  contracted  outlet  may  be 
unhealthy,  on  account  of  the  impediment  to  the  discharge  of  water  and 
the  overflow  from  rains.  Places  screened  from  the  proper  amount  of  sun- 
light, and  deprived  of  the  free  circulation  of  air,  are  apt  to  be  damp  and 
chilly,  and  therefore  undesirable. 

Elevated  lands  with  a  good  slope  are  generally  considered  salubrious, 
since  they  afford  better  facilities  for  drainage,  freer  evaporation,  compara- 
tive exemption  from  malaria,  and  purer  and  drier  air.  Malaria  sometimes 
occurs  in  elevated  and  mountainous  regions.  The  citizens  of  the  towns 
on  the  Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  are  in  the  habit  of  retreating  to 
the  higher  lands,  during  the  sickly  summer  season,  to  escape  diseases  prev- 
alent, during  this  period,  in  the  low  lands  along  the  coast.  Elevation  is 
said  "  to  possess  qualities  preventive  of  certain  diseases  and  curative  of 
others."  High  elevations  are  frequently  selected  as  sites  for  health 
resorts.    (See  Climate.) 

The  geological  features  should  be  observed,  particularly  as  influencing 
the  movement  of  water  through  and  over  the  ground,  and  the  character 
of  the  water  obtained  from  wells.  An  examination  of  the  character  and 
inclination  of  the  geological  strata  will  often  decide  a  question  of  drainage. 
A  gentle  slope,  or  an  undulating  surface,  has  great  advantages,  not  only 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  443 

for  natural  drainage,  but  in  the  construction  of  works  for  the  removal  of 
subsoil-water  and  sewage.  On  the  other  hand,  a  dead  level  impedes 
drainage,  and  is  especially  objectionable  if  the  ground  be  of  an  imperme- 
able character. 

3.  Composition  of  the  soil. — The  constitution  of  the  ground  under  and 
surrounding  a  dwelling  is  one  of  the  weightiest  considerations.  No  soil, 
however  favorable  its  external  appearances,  can  be  safely  selected  as  the 
site  for  habitations  without  a  careful  examination  of  the  substances  of 
which  it  is  composed,  organic  as  well  as  mineral.  And  such  an  examina- 
tion should  include  the  different  strata  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  feet. 
The  presence  of  organic  matter  is  a  suspicious  circumstance,  and  a  soil 
containing  it  in  large  quantity  should  be  avoided.  Vegetable  debris,  pro- 
duced by  the  decay  of  plants,  will  be  found  in  the  superficial  layer  of 
almost  all  soils. 

A  soil  composed  of  clean  gravel,  free  from  clay  and  effete  organic 
matter,  and  having  a  porous  substratum,  has  the  advantages  of  free  ven- 
tilation and  drainage,  and  a  low  level  of  the  ground-water — all  essential 
qualities  for  a  dry  and  salubrious  site.  The  permeable  sandstones  and 
chalk  formations  make  good  sites.  Rocky  and  stony  situations  are  usu- 
ally healthy.  Sandy  soils  furnish  both  healthy  and  unhealthy  sites.  They 
are  regarded  as  salubrious,  provided  they  are  clean  and  pure,  and  that 
they  are  not  water-bound  by  an  impermeable  foundation.  Clay,  and  allu- 
vial soils  generally,  are  regarded  as  unhealthy. 

4.  Physical  conditions,  etc. — The  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  air,  to  take  up  and  retain  liquid  water,  to  become  dry  by  evap- 
oration, and  to  absorb  and  retain  heat,  should  be  a  subject  of  inquiry. 
The  amount  and  quality  of  the  ground-air,  especially  its  percentage  of  car- 
bonic acid,  as  a  measure  of  its  impurity,  but  more  particularly  the  state 
of  the  ground-water,  are  to  be  carefully  determined.  The  height  of  the 
ground-water  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  character  of  the 
fluctuations  in  the  water-level,  should  be  observed.  A  persistently  low 
water-level  is  healthy;  but  a  high  water-level,  especially  if  the  changes 
are  sudden  and  violent,  is  very  unhealthy.  Dryness  of  the  soil  is  one  of 
the  most  essential  points  in  selecting  a  site.  Vegetation  modifies  the 
conditions  of  the  soil,  and  exerts  an  important  influence  upon  the  salu- 
brity of  a  locality.  The  water-supply,  whether  derived  from  wells  or 
from  rivers,  has  a  bearing  upon  the  subject.  A  healthy  site  is  dependent, 
in  some  measure,  upon  the  condition  of  the  neighboring  lands  and  bodies 
of  water.  Dampness  may  be  communicated  to  the  soil  from  meadows, 
marshes,  ponds,  and  rivers,  though  located  at  a  distance.  Places  subject 
to  inundations  may  have  a  sickly  season. 

Says  Dr.  Bowditch,^  in  speaking  of  the  prevalence  of  consumption 
in  New  England,  in  connection  with  influences  derived  from  the  soil  : 
"  In  choosing  a  site  for  a  dwelling-house,  the  great  desideratum  is  to  ob- 
tain, not  a  perfectly  arid  place,  for  no  such  spot  could  be  inhabited  by 

1  Op.  citat. ,  p.  123. 


444  SOIL    AND    AVATEK. 

man,  but  it  should  be  in  a  portion  of  the  township  which  is  neither  so 
high  as  to  be  exposed  to  violent  gusts  of  weather,  nor  so  low  that  mois- 
ture will  collect  around  it.  Let  it  be  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  or  jjlain,  open 
to  the  south,  and,  if  jDOSsible,  defended  from  the  north  and  east,  on  a  dry, 
porous  soil,  through  which  water  freely  percolates,  and  which,  even  after 
a  rain,  retains  little  moisture." 

Dr.  James  Clark '  is  equally  decided  in  the  opinion  that  dryness  is  the 
most  essential  physical  quality  of  the  soil  and  atmosphere  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  when  selecting  a  situation  for  a  dwelling--house.  He 
says  :  "  It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  houses  in  confined, 
shaded  situations,  with  damp  courts  or  gardens,  or  standing  water  close 
to  them,  are  unhealthy  in  every  climate  and  season;  but  especially  in  a 
country  subject  to  intermittent  fevers,  and  during  summer  and  autumn. 
In  our  own  country  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see  houses  built  in 
very  unhealthy  situations,  a  few  hundred  yards  distant  only  from  a  good 
one.  Again,  iiouses  in  places  otherwise  unexceptionable,  are  often  so 
closely  overhung  with  trees  as  to  be  rendered  far  less  health}-  residences 
than  they  otherwise  would  be.  Thick  and  lofty  trees  close  to  a  house 
tend  to  maintain  the  air  in  a  state  of  humidity,  by  preventing  its  free  cir- 
culation and  by  obstructing  free  admission  of  the  sun's  rays.  Trees 
growing  against  the  walls  of  houses,  and  shrubs  in  confined  jDlaces  near 
dwellings,  are  injurious  also,  as  favoring  humidity;  at  a  proper  distance, 
on  the  other  hand,  trees  are  favorable  to  health.  On  this  principle  it  may 
be  understood  how  the  inhabitants  of  one  house  suffer  from  rheumatism, 
headache,  dyspepsia,  nervous  affections,  and  other  consequences  of  living 
in  a  confined,  humid  atmosphere,  while  their  nearest  neighbors,  whose 
houses  are  more  openly  situated,  enjoy  good  health;  and  even  how  one 
side  of  a  large  building,  fully  exposed  to  the  sun  and  to  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air,  may  be  healthy,  while  the  other  side,  overlooking  damp,  shaded 
courts  or  gardens^  is  unhealthy.  The  exemption  of  the  central  parts  of 
a  large  town  from  these  fevers  is  jDartly  explained  by  the  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere  which  prevails  there  and  the  comparative  equality  of 
temperature.  Humid,  confined  situations,  subject  to  great  alternation  of 
temperature  between  day  and  night,  are  the  most  dangerous.  Of  all  the 
physical  qualities  of  the  air,  humidity  is  the  most  injurious  to  human  life; 
and,  therefore,  in  selecting  situations  for  building,  particular  regard  should 
be  had  to  the  circumstances  which  are  calculated  to  obviate  humidity, 
either  in  the  soil  or  atmosphere,  in  every  climate.  Dryness,  with  a  free 
circulation  of  air,  and  a  full  exjDosure  to  the  sun,  are  the  material  things 
to  be  attended  to  in  choosing  a  residence." 

The  healthiness  of  a  site  may  be  greatly  improved: 

1.  By  thorough  surface  and  subsoil  drainage. 

2.  By  free  access  of  air  and  sunlight. 

3.  By  the  use  of  the  well-known  means  to  insure  perfect  dryness  of 
the  walls  and  basement,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  ground-air. 

'  The  Influence  of  Climate,  etc.,  1830,  p.  loo. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  445 

4.  By  the  regulation  of  vegetation;  that  is,  by  removing  or  planting 
trees,  etc.,  according  to  circumstances  of  soil,  climate,  etc.,  etc. 

5.  By  preventing  the  pollution  of  the  soil,  by  the  use  of  the  best  means 
for  carrying  off  the  surface-water,  house-water,  and  all  house-offal  as 
rapidly  as  possible. 


SECTION  II. 

Pollution  of  thk  Soil. 


Pure  air,  pure  water,  and  pure  nutritious  food  are  essential  to 
health.  Hardly  less  important  is  it  that  the  ground  should  be  secured 
against  every  source  of  contamination.  Air  and  water  are  more  or  less 
directly  influenced  by  the  soil,  and  if  the  latter  becomes  defiled,  the  former 
are  exposed  to  the  danger  of  pollution  from  this  source.  A  soil  favored 
by  nature  with  all  the  advantages  required  for  a  healthy  site  may  become 
so  impregnated  with  impurities  as  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  prejudicial 
to  health.  It  is  the  province  of  the  sanitarian  to  guard  against  these 
dangers,  by  pointing  out  the  means  of  their  prevention,  and  by  suggesting 
the  remedies  when  the  evils  have  already  occurred. 

The  ways  in  which  a  soil  may  become  polluted  are  as  follows  ; 

1.  By  excreta. 

2.  By  interments. 

3.  By  coal-gas. 

4.  By  surface  defilement. 

I.  Pollution  of  the  Soil  by  Excreta. 

Of  all  the  forms  of  soil  contamination,  that  by  excremental  matter  is 
the  most  frequent,  the  most  dangerous,  and,  in  practice,  the  most  difficult 
to  prevent.  This  waste  matter,  discarded  by  the  human  economy  as  no 
longer  useful  for  its  purposes,  and  even  hurtful  to  its  vital  actions,  is  offen- 
sive and  repulsive  to  the  senses,  nature  intimating  thereby  that  its  removal 
and  transformation  should  be  prompt  and  effectual.  And  experience  has 
demonstrated  clearly,  by  most  ample  and  positive  proof,  the  evil  conse- 
quences of  the  neglect,  of  this  primitive  sanative  principle.  Nevertheless, 
this  deleterious  refuse-matter  is  frequently  suffered  to  remain  near  dwell- 
ings and  wells,  and  to  collect  in  cesspools  and  privies,  whence  it  passes  by 
leakage  or  soakage  into  the  surrounding  soil,  polluting  the  very  founda- 
tions of  habitations,  and  the  air  which  is  drawn  up  into  their  apartments 
through  the  basement  floors.  It  trickles  into  the  neighboring  wells  that 
furnish  the  water-supply,  and  is  exhaled  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  gase- 
ous vapors.  The  same  effects  are  produced  by  faulty  drain-pipes  and 
faulty  sewers. 


446  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

Dr.  Simon  '  has  described  this  common  and  deplorable  neglect  in  the 
following  terse  sentences  :  "  There  are  houses,  there  are  groups  of  houses, 
there  are  whole  villages,  there  are  considerable  sections  of  towns,  there 
are  even  entire  and  not  small  towns,  where  general  slovenliness  in  every- 
thing which  relates  to  the  removal  of  refuse-matter,  slovenliness  which  in 
very  many  cases  amounts  to  utter  bestiality  of  neglect,  is  the  local  habit: 
where,  within  or  just  outside  each  house,  or  in  spaces  common  to  many 
houses,  lies  for  an  indefinite  time,  undergoing  fetid  decomposition,  more 
or  less  of  the  putrefiable  refuse  which  house-life,  and  some  sorts  of  trade- 
life,  produce:  excrement  of  man  and  brute,  and  garbage  of  all  sorts,  and 
ponded  slop-waters  ;  sometimes  lying  bare  on  the  common  surface  ;  some- 
times unintentionally  stored  out  of  sight  and  re-collection  in  drains  or  sewers 
which  cannot  carry  them  away  ;  sometimes  held  in  receptacles  specially 
provided  to  favor  accumulation,  as  privy-pits  and  other  cesspools  for  ex- 
crement and  slop-water,  and  so-called  dust-bins  receiving  kitchen-refuse 
and  other  filth.  And  with  this  state  of  things,  be  it  on  large  or  on  small 
scale,  two  chief  sorts  of  danger  to  life  arise  :  one,  that  volatile  effluvia 
from  the  refuse  pollute  the  surrounding  air  and  everything  which  it  con- 
tains ;  the  other,  that  the  liquid  parts  of  the  refuse  pass  by  soakage  or 
leakage  into  the  surrounding  soil,  to  mingle  there  of  course  in  whatever 
water  the  soil  yields,  and  in  certain  cases  thus  to  occasion  the  deadliest 
pollution  of  wells  and  springs.  To  a  really  immense  extent,  to  an  extent 
indeed  which  persons  unpractised  in  sanitary  inspection  could  scarcely 
find  themselves  able  to  imagine,  dangers  of  these  two  sorts  are  prevailing 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  this  country,  not  only  in  their 
slighter  degrees,  but  in  degrees  which  are  gross,  and  scandalous,  and  very 
often,  I  repeat,  truly  bestial.  And  I  state  all  this  in  unequivocal  language, 
because  I  feel  that,  if  the  new  sanitary  organization  of  the  country  is  to 
fulfil  its  purpose,  the  administrators,  local  and  central,  must  begin  by 
fully  recognizing  the  real  state  of  the  case,  and  with  consciousness  that 
in  many  instances  they  will  have  to  introduce  for  the  first  time,  as  into 
savage  life,  the  rudiments  of  sanitary  civilization." 

One  of  the  channels  through  which  a  contaminated  soil  exerts  an  in- 
jurious influence  upon  health,  is  the  water  of  wells  used  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. Cesspools,  common  privies,  or  faulty  drain-pipes,  in  close  proximitv 
to  wells,  are,  in  this  way,  a  fruitful  source  of  mischief.  Precautions  may 
be  taken  to  lessen  the  risk  of  soakage  into  wells,  but  it  is  unsafe  to 
depend  upon  them,  and  in  crowded  localities,  where  the  soil  is  liable  to 
become  saturated,  privy-wells  and  cesspools,  and  other  receptacles  for 
filth  of  the  accumulative  sort,  had  better  be  abandoned  altogether. 

The  extent  to  which  the  soil  is  polluted  by  excreta  and  other  refuse- 
matter,  in  the  rural  and  small  urban  districts  in  England,  and  the  danger 
of  the  contamination  of  drinking-water  from  this  source,  may  be  learned 
from  the  report  -  of  the  Rivers'  Pollution  Commissioners,  in  which  they 
say  that,  estimating  the  town  population  of  Great  Britain  at  about  fifteen 


'  Filth-Diseases  and  their  Prevention,  Boston,  1876,  p.  33.  '^  Sixth  Keport. 


SOIL    AND    WATEK.  447 

millions,  "  the  remaining  twelve  millions  of  country  population  derive 
their  water  almost  exclusively  from  shallow  wells,  and  these  are,  so  far  as 
our  experience  extends,  almost  always  horribly  polluted  by  sewage  and  by 
animal  matters  of  the  most  disgusting  origin.  The  common  practice  in 
villages,  and  even  in  many  small  towns,  is  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  and 
to  provide  for  the  water-supply  of  each  cottage,  or  pair  of  cottages,  upon 
the  premises.  In  the  little  yard  or  garden  attached  to  each  tenement,  or 
pair  of  tenements,  two  holes  are  dug  in  the  porous  soil.  Into  one  of 
these,  usually  the  shallower  of  the  two,  all  the  filthy  liquids  of  the  house 
are  discharged;  from  the  other,  which  is  sunk  below  the  water-line  of 
the  porous  stratum,  the  water  for  drinking  and  other  domestic  uses  is 
pumped/  These  two  holes  are  not  unfrequently  within  twelve  feet  of 
each  other,  and  sometimes  even  closer.  The  contents  of  the  filth -hole  or 
cesspool  gradually  soak  away  through  the  surrounding  soil,  and  mingle 
with  the  water  below.  As  the  contents  of  the  water-hole  or  well  are 
pumped  out,  they  are  immediately  replenished  from  the  surrounding  dis- 
gusting mixture,  and  it  is  not  therefore  very  surprising  to  be  assured  that 
such  a  well  does  not  become  dry  even  in  summer.  Unfortunately,  excre- 
mentitious  liquids,  especially  after  they  have  soaked  through  a  few  feet 
of  porous  soil,  do  not  impair  the  palatability  of  the  water;  and  this  pol- 
luted liquid  is  consumed  from  year  to  year  without  a  suspicion  of  its 
character,  until  the  cesspool  and  well  receive  infected  sewage,  and  then  an 
outbreak  of  epidemic  disease  compels  attention  to  the  polluted  water. 
Indeed,  our  acquaintance  with  a  very  large  proportion  of  this  class  of 
potable  waters  has  been  made  in  consequence  of  the  occurrence  of  severe 
outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  among  the  persons  using  them." 

This  picture  of  sanitary  neglect  is  hardly  less  applicable  to  this  coun- 
try, for  although  here  it  would  be  considered  overdrawn,  and  properly  so, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  represents  a  condition  that  too  commonly 
prevails  in  many  rural  and  suburban  districts. 

A  filth-sodden  soil  exerts  a  pernicious  influence  upon  health  through  the 
medium  of  the  effluvia  which  it  emits.  The  soil,  in  crowded  localities,  is 
always  more  or  less  polluted  by  the  oozings  from  cesspools  and  cesspits, 
and  by  leakage  from  badly  constructed  sewers  and  drain-pipes.  And  as 
the  air,  which  is  universally  present  in  the  ground,  partakes  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  impurities,  such  a  soil  must  ot'  necessity  produce  a  foul  and 
pestiferous  air.  We  have  seen  that  the  ground-air  is  in  continual  inter- 
course with  our  houses,  and  that  this  communication  is  especially  active 
when  the  temperature  inside  is  higher  than  that  of  the  external  air. 
Hence,  the  impurities  in  the  soil,  from  whatever  source,  pollute  the 
ground-air,  and,  through  this  medium,  the  air  of  our  houses. 

The  pollution  of  the  soil  by  excremental  filth  is  of  special  importance 
in  its  relations  to  the  causation  of  certain  forms  of  disease  of  the  so-called 
zymotic  class,  such  as  enteric  fever,  cholera,  dysentery,  etc.,  by  reason  of 
the  liability  of  such  nuisances  to  convey  with  them  the  "  specific  "  germs 
of  disease,  which  other  equally  offensive  organic  decomposition  does  not 
seem  to  possess,  at  least  not  in  the  same  degree.     Dr.  Simon  says  :   "  The 


448  SOIL  Ajn^d  water. 

experience  is,  not  only  that  privies  and  priv^y-drainage,  with  their  respec- 
tive stinkings  and  soakings,  and  the  pollutions  of  air  and  water  which  are 
thus  produced,  have  in  innumerable  instances  been  the  apparent  causes  of 
outbreaks  of  enteric  (typhoid)  fever,  but,  further,  that  they  have  seemed 
capable  of  doing  this  mischief  in  a  doubly  distinctive  way  :  first,  as 
though  by  some  aptitude  which  other  nuisances  of  organic  decomposition, 
though  perhaps  equally  offensive,  have  not  seemed  equally,  or  nearly 
equally,  to  possess;  and,  secondly,  as  though  this  specific  property,  so 
often  attaching  to  them  in  addition  to  their  common  septic  unwholesome- 
ness,  were  not,  even  in  them,  a  fixed  property.  The  explanation  of  this 
experience,  the  explanation  of  the  frequent  but  not  invariable  tendency 
of  privy  nuisances  to  infect  with  enteric  fever,  has  seemed  to  consist  in 
the  liability  of  such  nuisances  to  carry  with  them,  not  invariably,  but  as 
frequent  accidental  adjuncts,  the  '  specific  '  contagium  of  any  prevailing 
bowel  infection;  for,  presumably,  the  privies  of  a  population  receive,  with 
various  other  things,  the  diarrhoeal  discharges  of  the  sick;  and  it  has 
long  been  matter  of  fair  pathological  presumption  that  in  any  specific 
diarrhoea  (such  as  eminently  is  enteric  fever),  every  discharge  from  the 
bowels  must  teem  with  the  contagium  of  the  disease."  After  referring  to 
the  similar  relation  of  other  diseases  to  excremental  infection,  he  remarks 
that  "  it  would  thus  seem  probable  that  air  and  water,  having  in  them  the 
taint  of  human  excrement,  must  often  carry  with  them,  whithersoever 
they  pass,  the  seeds  of  current  morbid  infections."  In  another  place  we 
shall  refer  more  fully  to  the  diseases  supposed  to  be  caused  by  excremen- 
tal pollution  of  the  soil. 

The  chief  sources  of  excremental  pollution  of  the  soil  are  referable,  as 
has  already  been  intimated,  to  defects  of  public  sewerage,  to  defects  of 
house-drainage,  and  to  defects  of  privies,  under  the  latter  term  being  in- 
cluded all  receptacles  used  for  the  accumulation  of  excrement.  In  the 
absence  of  a  system  of  underground  conduits  for  the  removal  of  excreta, 
some  one  of  the  many  plans  for  the  disposal  of  this  matter  upon  the 
premises  is  adopted,  according  to  the  caprice  or  convenience  of  the  prop- 
erty-owner. In  some  places  these  depositories  are  subject  to  municipal 
regulation,  but  even  then  the  chances  are  that  a  very  considerable  amount 
of  their  contents  finds  its  way  into  the  surrounding  soil.  Where  sewers 
exist,  on  account  of  faults  in  construction,  and  by  being  tampered  with  by 
unskilful  and  unscrupulous  plumbers  in  making  connections  with  private 
drains,  the  liquid  portions  of  their  contents  ooze  through  their  porous 
walls,  and  through  cracks  and  joints,  and  cause  a  dangerous  degree  of 
pollution  of  the  soil  and  air. 

House-drains,  as  a  source  of  ground  contamination,  are  even  more 
dangerous  than  the  common  sewers,  since  they  are  so  frequently  located 
immediately  under  the  house,  where  the  influence  of  any  deficiency  is 
more  directly  manifested.  By  unskilful  construction,  or  by  subsequent 
careless  usage  or  want  of  repair,  the  filth  is  effused  into  the  basement, 
and  infiltrates  the  soil  on  which  the  house  stands.  Sewer  effluvia  likewise 
escape  into  the  soil,  where  they  foul  the  air,  and,  from  the  situation  of  the 


SOIL    AXD    WATER-  449 

drain-pipes,  are  often  drawn  directly  into  the  basement,  and  thence  dis- 
tributed all  over  the  building  by  the  ascensional  force  of  the  heated  air. 

But  of  all  the  sources  of  excremental  pollution  of  the  soil,  none  pre- 
vails to  a  greater  extent,  is  more  dangerous  in  its  effects  upon  health, 
and  more  discreditable  to  sanitary  management,  than  privies  of  the  accu- 
mulative sort.  And  here,  again,  defective  construction  and  subsequent 
mismanagement  are  the  raison  d'etre  of  these  nuisances,  so  fraught  with 
danger  to  health  and  life. 

Every  out-of-door  receptacle,  of  whatever  description,  should  embrace 
all  the  essential  features  to  prevent  contamination  of  the  soil  and  air,  both 
in  the  place  itself,  and  during  the  process  of  removal  of  its  contents.  It 
should  be  constructed  of  unabsorbent,  impermeable  material,  so  that  no 
form  of  matter  shall  escape  through  its  enclosures  ;  it  should  be  so  limited 
in  size  as  to  prevent  undue  accumulation  of  offensive  matter;  its  use 
should  be  restricted  exclusively  to  fluid  and  solid  excreta,  and  substances 
applied  for  their  absorbent  and  disinfecting  qualities;  and  the  removal  of 
the  accumulations  should  be  conducted  with  regularity  and  system,  and 
with  the  least  conceivable  agitation  of  the  mass  and  exposure  to  the  air, 
so  that  the  possibility  of  causing  a  nuisance  in  this  part  of  the  manage- 
ment shall  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

In  practice  these  conditions  are  frequently  set  at  naught.  In  the 
country  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  no  receptacle  whatever,  the  faecal 
matter  and  urine  being  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
liquid  parts  are  thus  washed  over  the  surface  and  soak  into  the  ground, 
while  the  solid  filth  is  only  removed  when  its  mere  bulk  becomes  an  incon- 
venience, or  when  there  arises  an  agricultural  demand  for  the  materiaL  A 
simple  hole  in  the  ground,  with  perhaps  a  brace  to  keep  in  place  the  walls 
of  earth,  is  the  kind  of  receptacle  quite  often  used  in  villages  and  towns, 
and,  to  some  extent,  even  in  large  cities.  We  ourselves  have  seen,  in  a 
prominent  city,  cesspits  which  were  formed  by  excavating  the  earth  so  aCs 
to  receive  one  or  more  sugar  hogsheads,  which  served  as  the  walls  of  the 
pit.  The  bare  earth  at  the  bottom  received  the  fUth.  and  designedly  so, 
that  the  liquid  parts  might  the  more  freely  soak  away  into  the  soiL  On 
one  occasion  when  the  ground  was  being  excavated  for  building  improve- 
ments, several  of  these  filth  holes  were  exposed  to  view,  and  the  soil  in 
their  vicinity  and  close  to  dwellings  revealed  a  condition  of  the  most  dis- 
gusting character.  The  liquid  matter  oozing  from  these  pits  had  satu- 
rated and  discolored  the  surrounding  soil,  and  rendered  it  highly  offensive. 
To  what  extent  the  health  of  the  occupants  of  the  neighboiing  houses  had 
been  impaired  is  not  known,  but  the  presumption  is  that  it  must  have 
been  anything  but  satisfactory. 

In  cities,  wells  are  very  commonly  constructed  of  brickwork  or  masonry, 
with  no  other  floor  than  the  bare  ground.  They  are  sometimes  excavated 
to  a  great  depth,  in  order  to  reach  a  porous  bed,  such  as  gravel,  the 
object  being  to  secure  a  channel  of  escape  for  the  fluid  filth.  The  capa- 
city of  some  of  these  wells  is  simply  enormous.  We  have  good  authority 
for  the  statement  that  as  much  as  1,332  cubic  feet  of  matter  have  been 
Vol.  I.— 29 


450  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

removed  from  a  well  at  one  cleaning.'  It  is  not  intended  that  the  filth 
should  be  removed,  except  at  very  wide  intervals  and  then  only  on  ac- 
count of  some  inconvenience  or  threatened  overflow.  When  space  is 
limited,  privy-pits  are  often  constructed  close  to  foundation  walls;  they 
are  even  built  under  the  basement  floor,  and  in  vaults  under  pavements, 
which  are  in  open  connection  with  the  dwelling. 

In  all  cities  and  towns,  but  especially  in  places  where  no  sewers  exist, 
or  where  they  have  only  recently  been  constructed,  the  evil  effects  of  this 
system,  or  rather  want  of  system,  can  hardly  be  imagined,  except  by  those 
who  have  made  it  an  object  of  special  investigation;  and  the  contamina- 
tion of  soil,  air,  and  water  which  it  occasions,  if  it  could  be  clearly  traced 
in  its  influences  upon  the  human  organism,  would  be  found  to  be  the 
means  of  spreading  some  of  the  most  common  and  most  fatal  forms  of 
disease. 

Such  are  the  principal  ways  in  which  the  soil  becomes  polluted  from 
badly  devised  or  mismanaged  systems  for  the  disposal  of  excreta. 

Memoval  of  Excreta. 

To  secure  the  best  sanitary  results,  it  is  essential  that  the  solid  and 
liquid  excreta  from  the  bowels  and  the  kidneys  should  be  removed  as 
rapidly  and  completely  as  possible,  and,  when  the  arrangements  for  a 
continuous  and  rapid  outflow  are  unprovided,  safety  requires  that  the 
temporary  detention  of  the  material  shall  be  so  guarded  that  the  danger 
of  polluting  the  soil,  air,  and  water  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  be  prevented. 
In  rural  districts  and  in  villages  the  proper  disposal  of  excreta  need  not 
be  a  matter  of  serious  embarrassment ;  but  where  dwellings  are  aggregated 
and  the  population  is  massed  on  comparatively  small  areas,  the  local  man- 
agement and  ultimate  disposition  made  of  the  material  becomes  an  exceed- 
ingly difficult  question  to  determine.  The  removal  of  the  filth  out  of  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  human  habitations  with  completeness  and 
dispatch,  is,  undoubtedly,  a  primary  consideration,  but  it  is  also  important 
that  its  final  disposition  should  be  so  managed  as  not  to  cause  a  nuisance. 
This  latter  consideration  is  of  great  moment  wherever  a  system  of  sewerage 
exists.  Sewer-outfalls  should  be  prevented  from  becoming  a  nuisance, 
and  watercourses  must  be  carefully  protected  from  pollution.  This  may 
involve,  as  its  consequence,  the  adoption  of  some  one  of  the  methods  for 
the  purification  of  the  sewage,  either  by  irrigation  or  filtration,  or,  where 
land  cannot  be  obtained,  by  precipitation  with  chemical  agents. 

The  Amount  and  Products  of  Excreta. 

The  amounts  of  solid  and  liquid  excreta  vary  with  the  age,  sex,  habits 
of  life,  etc. ;  but,  according  to  Parkes,  the  average  amounts  (for  both  sexes 

'  The  capacities  of  some  of  the  privy-wells  in  Philadelphia,  by  actual  measurement, 
are  as  foUows:  1,785,  1,630,  1,243,  1,040,  cubic  feet.  (Thackray.)  The  cesspool  of  the 
Summit  House  U.  S.  Hospital,  near  Darby,  in  use  during  the  war,  had  a  capacity  of 
5,000  cubic  feet.  (Andress.) 


SOIL    AXD    WATER. 


451 


and  all  ages)  are  about  two  and  a  half  ounces  avoirdupois  of  solids  and 
forty  fluid  ounces  daily  for  each  person.  According  to  this  estimate,  a 
population  of  one  thousand  persons  would  pass  in  a  year  25  tons  of  solid 
fseces  and  91,250  gallons  of  urine.  Letheby  has  constructed  a  table,  based 
upon  the  investigations  of  Way,  Lawes,  and  Playfair,  of  England,  and  of 
Liebig,  Simon,  Wolf,  Lehmann,  Fleitmann,  and  others  on  the  continent, 
which  represents  not  only  the  average  proportion  of  solids  and  liquids 
discharged  from  the  body  daily,  but  also  the  proportions  of  the  principal 
constituents  of  the  faeces  and  urine  passed  by  children  and  adults  in  the 
twentv-four  hours. 


AVEEAGE  -ftTlIGHT,  IN  AVOIEDUPOIS  OTJXCES,  OF  THE  CHIEF  CONSTIT- 
UENTS OF  URINE  AND  F^CES  PASSED  BY  CHILDREN  Am)  ADULTS 
Df  TWENTY-FOUR  HOURS.' 


Males. 

Females. 

Chief  Constituents. 

Boys. 

Men. 

Girls. 

Women. 

aU  ages. 

Ueixe. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

Fresh  state 

19.875 
0.969 

48.490 
2.197 

16.881 
0.750 

42.157 
1.588 

31.851 

Dry  matters 

1.376 

Organic  matters .... 

0.677 

1.720 

0.574 

1.216 

1.072 

Nitrogen 

0.166 

0.481 

0.161 

0.326 

0.284 

Mineral  matters .... 

0.292 

0.477 

0.176 

0.372 

0.332 

Phosphoric  acid 

0.035 

0.069 

0.024 

0.049 

0.044 

Potash 

0.040 

0.078 

0.027 

0.055 

0.050 

F^CES. 

Fresh  state 

3.421 

0.879 

5.240 
1.112 

1.061 
0.282 

1.414 
0.376 

2.784 

Dry  matters 

0.662 

Organic  matters. . . . 

0.762 

0.939 

0.244 

0.325 

0.567 

Nitrogen 

0.049 

0.062 

0.016 

0.022 

0.037 

Mineral  matters .... 

0.117 

0.173 

0.038 

0.051 

0.095 

Phosphoric  acid 

0.039 

0.062 

0.013 

0.018 

0.033 

Potash 

0.014 

0.023 

0.004 

0.006 

0.012 

The  above  estimate  of  the  solid  and  liquid  matters  differs  somewhat 
from  those  made  by  Parkes  and  Frankland,  the  latter  placing  the  average 
daily  amount  of  faeces  per  person  at  three  ounces,  and  of  urine  at  nearly 
forty  fluid  ounces.  Letheby*  has  estimated  the  amounts  contributed 
daily  by  a  mixed  population  of  10,000  persons  to  be  22,659.6  lbs.  of  urine 
and  1,775.5  lbs.  of  faeces.  From  the  table  presented  above,  some  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  relative  agricultural  value  of  the  urine  and  fa3ces. 


1  Letheby  :  The  Sewage  Question,  1873,  p.  133. 
-  Op.  citat. ,  p.  133. 


452  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

Numerous  analyses  ^  have  determined  it  to  be  in  the  proportion  of  6 
to  1. 

Mixed  excrementitious  matter,  in  a  fresh  state,  has  an  acid  reaction; 
but  in  twenty-four  hours  it  generally  becomes  alkaline  by  the  formation 
of  ammonia.  Both  urine  and  faecal  matter,  when  kept  separate,  undergo 
decomposition  less  rapidly  and  retain  their  acidity  for  a  greater  length  of 
time  than  when  mixed.  By  the  decomposition  of  these  substances  in  the 
mixed  state,  ammonia  and  fetid  organic  matters  are  freely  evolved.  If 
water  be  present,  and  provided  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  not  too  low, 
not  only  organic  matters,  but  gases,  are  given  off,  consisting  of  light  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
usually  in  combination  with  ammonia,  is  almost  always  found  in  the  liquid, 
and  may  be  separated  by  the  application  of  heat.      (Parkes.) 

The  air  of  sewers,  house-drains,  cesspools,  and  privy-vaults  is  always 
more  or  less  impure  on  account  of  the  decomposition  of  the  waste  matters 
which  they  contain.  It  is  influenced  in  its  composition,  to  some  extent, 
by  the  degree  of  ventilation  and  the  amount  and  character  of  substances, 
besides  excrement,  present  in  the  sewer  or  receptacle  of  filth;  but,  in  gen- 
eral, it  contains  certain  well-known  gases,  and  also  fetid  organic  matters, 
the  nature  of  which,  however,  has  not  been  determined.  These  gases  are 
dangerous  to  health  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  concentration.  If  in- 
haled in  large  quantity  and  in  concentrated  form,  they  may  prove  quickly 
fatal.  A  number  of  cases  are  on  record  where  men  have  breathed  the  air 
of  unventilated  old  cesspools,  or  long-blocked  sewers,  with  serious  and 
sometimes  fatal  consequences.  But  in  a  diluted  state  these  gases  mani- 
fest their  effects  upon  the  system  by  a  condition  of  general  malaise  and 
a  depressed  state  of  the  health.  The  gaseous  products  of  organic  de- 
composition are  less  important  than  the  organic  matters  of  which  sewer- 
air  is  partly  composed,  since  these  latter  substances  are  supposed  to  be 
more  specially  concerned  in  the  propagation  of  disease. 

The  air  of  cesspools  and  privy-vaults  is  not  uniform  in  its  character, 
but  it  usually  contains,  in  variable  quantities,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
ammonium  sulphide,  nitrogen,  carbonic  acid,  carburetted  hydrogen,  and 
fetid  organic  matters.  There  may  also  be  present  those  unknown  agencies 
which  produce  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  dysentery,  and  diarrhoea,  and  per- 
haps other  diseases  of  the  so-called  zymotic  class.^ 

The  air  of  sewers  varies  in  composition  according  to  the  character  of 
the  sewage,  the  rapidity  of  flow,  temperature,  access  of  atmospheric  air, 
etc.  Sewage  is  a  complex  liquid  formed  of  solid  and  liquid  excreta, 
house-slops,  fluid  refuse  from  the  different  branches  of  industry,  and  the 
washings  and  debris  of  the  public  thoroughfares,  etc.  This  heterogeneous 
mixture  contains  ingredients  which  are  always  present  in  greater  or  less 
quantity,  and  these  determine  the  characteristic  properties  of  sewer-air. 
Sewer-air  may  be  so  diluted  by  atmospheric  air  as  to  make  it  impossible 

1  Wilson  :  Handbook  of  Hygiene,  1877,  p.  318. 
^  Parkes  :  Op.  citat.,  p.  109. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  453 

to  detect,  even  by  chemical  analysis,  any  but  the  slightest  variation  from 
the  normal  condition  of  the  atmosphere.  Even  in  ill-ventilated  and  badly 
constructed  sewers  the  amount  of  variation  from  normal  air  is  not  great, 
as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  table  presented  on  the  next  page. 

The  products  of  the  decomposition  of  sewage  do  not  differ  materially 
from  the  products  of  decomposition  of  the  matter  found  in  cesspools.  As 
compared  with  atmospheric  air,  there  is  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of 
oxygen  and  an  increase  of  carbonic  acid  in  sewer-air.  The  other  constitu- 
ents are  nitrogen,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  ammonium  sulphide,  marsh-gas 
(light  carburetted  hydrogen),  and  fetid  organic  matters.  All  of  these 
gases  are  not  invariably  present;  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen  are  the  most 
common;  the  other  gases,  when  present,  exist  in  very  limited  quantities. 

Dr.  Letheby '  found  that  sewer- water  (containing  128.8  grains  of  or- 
ganic matter  per  gallon),  excluded  from  air,  yielded  during  nine  weeks 
1.2  cubic  inches  of  gas  per  hour.  In  100  volumes  of  this  mixture  there 
were  73.83  volumes  of  marsh-gas,  15.90  of  carbonic  acid,  10.19  of  nitrogen, 
and  0.08  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Angus  Smith  ^  examined  the  gases 
evolved  from  putrid  sewage  at  the  bottom  of  the  Medlock,  England,  and 
found  them  to  contain  about  88.81  per  cent,  of  marsh-gas,  5.84  of  car- 
bonic acid,  and  5.35  of  nitrogen.  The  results  of  an  examination  of  gases 
evolved  by  decomposing  sewage-mud  in  the  Seine,  made  by  Durand- 
Claye,^  show  them  to  consist  of  72.88  per  cent,  of  marsh-gas,  13.30  of 
carbonic  acid,  6.70  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  2.54  of  carbonic  oxide,  and 
4.58  of  nitrogen  and  other  gases.  The  figures  represent  the  proportions 
of  each  gas  in  100  volumes  of  the  mixture  collected  without  exposure  to 
the  air.  Mixtures  similar  to  these  are  sometimes  found  in  long  closed 
cesspools  and  privy  vaults,  but  never  in  sewers  properly  so-called.* 

Prof.  Nichols  ^  has  recently  made  numerous  examinations  of  the  air  of 
the  Berkeley  Street  sewer,  Boston,  which  is  an  example  of  the  worst  type 
of  construction.  The  amount  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  other  for- 
eign gases,  was  too  small  to  be  practically  determined,  and  therefore  car- 
bonic acid  was  taken  as  the  measure  of  impurity.  In  twenty-five  analyses 
the  highest  amount  of  oxygen  in  any  one  sample  was  20.90  per  cent.,  and 
the  lowest  20.48  per  cent.;  the  highest  amount  of  nitrogen  was  79.26,  and 
the  lowest  78.89;  the  highest  amount  of  carbonic  acid  was  ,40  percent., 
and  the  lowest  .05  per  cent.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  was  greater  in 
the  warmer  than  in  the  cooler  months.^ 

The  results  of  a  number  of  analyses  of  sewer-air  made  by  different 
chemists,  which  have  been  tabulated  by  Prof,  Nichols,'  are  furnished  on 
the  next  page. 

'  Parkes:  Practical  Hygiene,  p.  108. 

^  Disinfectants  and  Disinfection,  Edinburgh,  1869,  p.  25. 
^jSTichols:  Sewer- Air,  Boston,  1879,  p.  9. 
*  Nichols  :  Op.  cit. ,  p.  6. 
5  Op.  cit.,  p.  11. 

fi  Normal  air  contains  about  20.96  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  79  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
and  .04  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid. 
1  Op.  cit.,  p.  10. 


454 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


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SOIL    AND    WATER.  455 

From  all  these  examinations  it  appears  that  the  air  *  of  sewers  is  a 
varying  mixture  of  the  gases  which  compose  the  atmosphere,  together 
with  certain  other  gases  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  sewage-matter, 
which  also  vary  in  quantity.  But  these  examinations  furnish  us  with  no 
data  respecting  the  organic  constituents — the  carbo-ammoniacal  vapors 
(Odling)  and  fetid  organic  matters — the  most  subtle  and  presumably  the 
most  dangerous  elements  of  sewer-air.  That  these  matters  are  present  is 
apparent  from  the  peculiar  fetid  smell,  and  sometimes  they  are  found  in 
large  quantity:  8,000  cubic  feet  of  the  air  of  a  house  into  which  sewer-air 
had  been  admitted  decolorized  more  than  twenty  times  as  much  potassium 
permanganate  as  the  same  quantity  of  pure  air.-     (Angus  Smith.) 

Frankland  ^  has  shown  by  experiments  that  liquid  or  solid  particles 
are  not  likely  to  be  dispersed  into  the  air  from  sewage-matter  by  the  or- 
dinary agitation  of  the  sewage.  This  does  not  take  place,  as  a  rule,  until 
after  the  setting  in  of  decomposition;  the  bursting  of  the  bubbles  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  scattering  the  minutely  divided  particles  into  the  air. 
These  minute  solid  particles  and  organic  vapors  are  but  slightly  diffus- 
able,  and  are  therefore  transported  to  no  great  distance,  but  soon  deposit 
on  solid  objects.  He  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  his  experi- 
ments: 

"  1.  The  moderate  agitation  of  a  liquid  does  not  cause  the  suspension  of 
liquid  particles  capable  of  transport  by  the  circumambient  air,  and  there- 
fore the  flow  of  fresh  sewage  through  a  properly  constructed  sewer  is  not 
likely  to  be  attended  by  the  suspension  of  zymotic  matters  in  the  air  of 
the  sewer. 

"  2.  The  breaking  of  minute  gas-bubbles  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid  con- 
sequent upon  the  generation  of  gas  within  the  body  of  the  liquid  is  a 
potent  cause  of  the  suspension  of  transportable  liquid  particles  in  the  sur- 
rounding air,  and  therefore  when,  through  the  stagnation  of  sewage  or 
constructive  defects  which  allow  of  the  retention  of  excrementitious  mat- 
ters for  several  days  in  the  sewer,  putrefaction  sets  in  and  causes  the 
generation  of  gases,  the  suspension  of  zymotic  matters  in  the  air  of  the 
sewer  is  extremely  likely  to  occur. 

"  3.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  health  of  towns, 
villages,  and  even  isolated  houses,  that  foul  liquids  should  pass  freely  and 
quickly  through  sewers  and  drain-pipes,  so  as  to  secure  their  discharge 
from  the  sewerage  system  before  putrefaction  sets  in." 

The  effluvia  of  sewers  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  fungi.  In  a  sewer 
which  had  been  closed  for  thirty  years  as  completely  as  such  places  can 
be,    Ellice-Clark  ^   found    the  walls    covered  with  a    fungoid   growth  of 

*  Sewer-air  and  ' '  sewer-gas  "  are  synonymous  terms,  though  by  the  use  of  the  lat- 
ter term  persons  are  often  misled  into  the  erroneous  belief  that  "sewer-gas"  is  a 
distinct  gaseous  body,  having  peculiar  and  marked  characteristics  of  its  own,  by  which 
it  can  always  be  distinguished  from  other  gaseous  bodies. 

■■Tarkes:  Op.  cit.,  p.  109. 

^  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  1877. 

4  The  Sanitary  Record,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  99. 


456  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

considerable  thickness.     Cunningham  found  bacteria  in  the  air  of  sewers 
at  Calcutta. 

There  is  good  reason  for  supposing  that  the  morbific  agencies  which 
produce  enteric  fever,  cholera,  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery,  may  exist  in  the 
air  of  sewers.  It  is  possible  that  other  diseases  of  the  zymotic  class  may 
also  be  caused  in  this  way.  The  nature  and  composition  of  these  sub- 
stances are  purely  a  matter  of  speculation.  Neither  chemical  nor  micro- 
scopical examination  has  as  yet  succeeded  in  isolating  and  determining 
the  noxious  matter  which  is  probably  the  real  cause  of  disease,  and  there- 
fore it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  a  particular  sample  of  air  is  dangerous 
or  not  from  this  cause.  Nevertheless  it  must  be  admitted  that,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  air  of  drains  and  sewers  varies  from  the  normal  standard  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  activity  of  the  processes  of  decay  of  matter  in  the 
sewers,  or  the  concentration  of  the  products  of  such  decay,  will  be  mani- 
fested, and  the  necessity  of  efficient  ventilation  indicated.  In  this  way 
chemistry  may  be  of  service  in  pointing  out  the  existence  of  evils  and 
in  testing  the  efficiency  of  ventilation. 

Methods  of  Hemoval  of  Excreta. 

That  all  excreta  ought  to  be  promptly  removed  from  the  neighborhood 
of  our  dwellings  is  admitted,  but  with  respect  to  the  methods  for  accom- 
plishing this  object  there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion.  It  is  evident  that  no 
one  system  can  be  suitable  for  all  places,  and  that  local  considerations 
will  -necessarily  influence  the  selection  of  the  plan.  The  various  plans  for 
the  removal  of  excreta  may  be  conveniently  discussed  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  : 

1.  The  water  system. 

2.  The  dry  systems. 

Moule's  earth-closet  system. 
The  Goux  system. 
The  ash-closet  system. 

3.  Other  systems. 

Privy-vaults  and  cesspits. 
The  simple  pail  system. 
The  simple  pneumatic  system. 
The  Liernur  pneumatic  system, 

1.   The  Water  System. 

The  system  of  removal  of  excreta  by  water-carriage  and  gravitation 
through  underground  conduits,  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  health  and  econ- 
omy, but  its  successful  application  depends  upon  certain  essential  condi- 
tions, to  which  we  shall  presently  allude.  It  recommends  itself  on  account 
of  its  cleanliness,  convenience,  economy,  and  the  quick  manner  in  which  the 
removal  of  the  waste  matters  is  effected.  When  the  essential  conditions 
on  which  the  success  of  this  plan  depends  can  be  commanded,  it  is  un- 


SOIL    AND    WATEE.  457 

doubtedly  the  most  reasonable  plan  to  adopt.  Local  circumstances  must 
always  decide  between  this  system  and  the  dry  plan.  In  towns  where 
proper  sewers  cannot  be  made,  or  where  water  for  flushing  is  deficient, 
or  land  cannot  be  obtained  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage,  some  one 
of  the  dry  systems  can  be  adopted  with  manifold  advantages. 

In  the  application  of  the  water  system,  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the 
water  supplied  for  ordinary  domestic  purposes,  so  that  but  slight  addi- 
tional expense  will  be  incurred  for  the  amount  needed  for  the  closets;  and, 
moreover,  since  channels  must  necessarily  be  provided  to  conduct  away 
all  surface-water  and  water  used  for  domestic  purposes,  it  is  evident 
that,  with  but  slight  additional  expenditure,  these  same  channels  may  be 
so  constructed  as  to  be  efficient  vehicles  for  the  removal  of  excreta  also. 
To  make  this  system  a  success,  certain  conditions  must  be  scrupulously 
observed.     They  are  summed  up  by  Mr.  Simon  ^  as  follows  : 

"  1st.  That  the  closets  will  universally  receive  an  unfailing  sufficiency 
of  water  properly  supplied  to  them. 

"  2d.  That  the  comparatively  large  volume  of  sewage  which  the  sys- 
tem produces  can  be  in  all  respects  satisfactorily  disposed  of. 

"  3d.  That  on  all  premises  which  the  system  brings  into  connection 
with  the  common  sewers,  the  construction  and  keeping  of  the  closets  and 
other  drainage  relations  will  be  subject  to  skilled  direction  and  control." 
And  we  may  add: 

4th.  That  the  sewers  will  be  properly  constructed  and  well  ventilated, 
and  kept  under  efficient  supervision  and  control. 

If  all  these  provisions  be  combined  and  properly  carried  out,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  of  the  success  of  the  system. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  discredit  is  cast  upon  this  system,  when  local 
outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases  have  been  clearly  traced  to 
sewers  as  their  source.  But  it  is  fallacious  to  condemn  a  system  because 
of  the  evil  effects  of  an  ill-devised,  badly  executed,  and  carelessly  man- 
aged plan,  supposed  to  exemplify  the  principles  of  such  a  system,  but 
which  fails  to  embody  some  of  the  most  essential  conditions  of  success. 
Such,  however,  is  often  the  case.  It  must  be  admitted  that  sewers,  as 
frequently  constructed,  are  a  source  of  danger  to  health.  When  built  of 
improper  materials,  put  together  in  an  unskilful  manner,  they  favor  the 
escape  of  their  fluid  contents,  and  thus  contaminate  the  ground  and  poi- 
son the  water-supply.  In  some  soils  the  pressure  of  the  ground-water 
may  be  so  great  as  to  cause  an  influx  into  the  sewers;  but  it  is  dangerous 
to  trust  to  this  fortuitous  circumstance.  It  is  more  commonly  the  case 
that  the  pressure  is  exerted  in  an  outward  direction,  since,  when  sewers 
are  faulty  in  construction,  they  are  liable  to  become  choked  up  by  de- 
posits, and  the  sewage,  being  dammed  up  behind  the  obstructions,  exerts 
this  effect.  When  improper  materials  are  used  and  the  workmanship  is 
bad,  and  the  proper  inclination  is  not  secured,  the  stream  of  sewage  is 
retarded,  and  the   sewers,  instead   of  acting   as   channels  for  the  rapid 

^  Op.  cit.,  p.  65. 


458  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

passage  of  the  liquid  filth,  are  converted  into  sewers  of  deposit,  or  "  elon- 
gated cesspools,"  as  they  have  been  aptly  called.  Sewage-matter  detained 
in  this  manner  gives  rise  to  the  most  dangerous  form  of  "sewer-gas;" 
and  if  to  these  deficiencies  be  added  the  want  of  ventilation,  and  open  or 
but  slightly  barred  channels  of  communication  with  houses,  all  the  condi- 
tions are  present  which  favor  general  ill-health  of  the  occupants  of  such 
houses,  and  which  may,  at  any  time,  occasion  an  outbreak  of  disease. 

Baldwin  Latham '  tells  us  that  the  early  sewer-works  of  England  were 
generally  put  into  the  hands  of  the  most  unskilful  workmen,  and  little  or 
no  attention  was  paid  to  their  proper  construction.  It  was  taken  for 
granted  that  the  sewers  must  sooner  or  later  choke  up  from  the  accumu- 
lation of  deposit,  and  therefore  they  were  made  of  a  size  convenient  for 
the  purpose  of  sending  men  into  them  to  cleanse  them  when  they  became 
obstructed.  The  principles  upon  which  sewers  are  now  made  to  be  self- 
cleansing  do  not  appear  to  have  been  well  understood,  at  least  they  were 
not  applied.  The  great  fault  of  these  structures  arose  from  the  fact  that 
the  size,  form,  mode  of  construction,  and  materials  used  were  not  suitable 
for  the  work  the  sewers  had  to  perform.  Bad  ventilation  and  defective 
house  arrangements  were  also  prominent  and  serious  faults  of  the  system 
as  then  applied.  The  serious  consequences  arising  from  this  disregard  of 
the  most  essential  measures  aroused  public  attention,  and  started  scientific 
inquiry  into  the  principles  which  should  regulate  the  construction  and 
management  of  sewers  and  drains. 

It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  this  country  to  have  had  the  same 
experience.  The  adoption  of  the  water-carriage  system  of  removal  of 
excreta  led  to  the  use  of  sewers  already  in  service  for  the  removal  of  sur- 
face-water and  house-water,  with  scarcely  any  or  no  modification  at  all, 
which  were  totally  unfit  to  perform  the  work.  But  new  works  have  been 
built  in  a  similarly  defective  manner.  So  far  as  inquiry  has  been  made, 
the  system  of  sewerage  provided  in  most  American  cities  must  be  regarded 
as  anything  but  satisfactory.  The  control  of  this  important  branch  of  pub- 
lic works  is  too  often  in  the  hands  of  officials  unqualified  by  professional 
knowledge  and  experience,  and  grossly  ignorant  of  the  sanitary  advan- 
tages to  be  secured.  The  management  of  the  construction  of  sewers  is 
frequently  entrusted  to  incompetent  and  unskilled  engineers  and  to  un- 
faithful and  careless  inspectors;  and  from  this  cause  even  well-designed 
works  will  prove  abortive. 

A  complete,  systematic,  and  comprehensive  plan  of  sewerage,  which 
shall  not  only  supply  the  immediate  wants  of  a  town,  but  also  provide 
for  all  probable  future  demands,  so  that  as  each  part  is  added  it  shall 
be  in  harmony  with  the  entire  system,  is  always  an  indispensable  pre- 
liminary measure  to  the  satisfactory  execution  and  successful  operation 
of  sewerage-works.  This  is  especially  important  in  this  country,  where 
towns  grow  with  great  rapidity.  But  it  is  a  principle  that  has  generally 
been  ignored.     It  is  a  very  common  custom  to  do  the  work  piecemeal — a 

'  Sanitary  Engineering,  1877,  p.  7. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  459 

section  here  and  a  section  there — according-  to  the  dictation  of  property- 
owners.  In  Philadelphia,  before  constructing  a  branch-sewer,  the  consent 
of  a  majority  of  the  owners  of  property  fronting  on  the  street  intended  to 
be  culverted  must  first  be  obtained,  and  the  cost  of  the  work  is  assessed 
on  all  the  property-holders  of  such  street.  The  evil  consequences  of  this 
patchwork  plan  may  well  be  imagined.  Most  of  our  large  cities  have  very 
bad  systems  of  sewerage.  "  It  is  probably  true,"  says  Waring,  "  that  no 
city  of  its  age  can  rival  New  York  in  the  defective  condition  of  its  brick 
sewers.  They  are  too  often  badly  planned,  badly  built,  and  badly  kept; 
and  they  unquestionably  produce  a  vast  amount  of  disease  and  death." 
Philadelphia '  has  nearly  two  hundred  miles  of  public  sewers,  built  almost 
exclusively  of  brick.  Most  of  them  are  constructed  in  a  faulty  manner, 
and  without  conformity  to  a  proper  system.  In  size  they  vary  from  three 
feet  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  the  enormous  capacity  of  the  sewer  with 
the  latter  diameter  providing  for  the  waters  of  Mill  Creek,  which  fre- 
quently become  greatly  swollen  by  rains.  No  system  of  ventilation  has 
ever  been  attempted.  Most  of  the  man-holes  are  sealed  with  iron  covers, 
and  the  sewer  inlets  are  all  intended  to  be  closed  by  water-seals.  If  we 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  pipes  connecting  houses  with  the  sewer, 
most  of  them  will  be  found  to  be  either  very  imperfectly  trapped,  or  not 
trapped  at  all.  This  part  of  the  system,  being  subject  entirely  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  private  householder,  is  often  defective  through  ignorance  of 
its  real  condition,  or  indifference  as  to  the  results  arising  from  its  neglect. 
It  is  therefore  correctly  designed,  well  executed,  and  well  managed,  or 
the  reverse,  according  to  the  election  of  the  individual.  So  unsatisfac- 
tory an  arrangement  of  the  sewerage  system  of  this  city  may  account  for 
much  sickness  otherwise  unexplained. 

In  1872  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  was  instructed,  by 
order  of  the  legislature,  to  collect  information  concerning  the  sewerage  of 
towns  in  that  commonwealth.  The  report,'^  made  in  conformity  to  this 
order,  states  that  "  the  only  cities  in  Massachusetts  now  provided  with  a 
system  of  sewerage  which  can  be  regarded  as  approaching  completeness 
are  Boston  and  Worcester."  In  all  the  other  towns  it  was  more  or  less 
unsatisfactory.  If  the  same  inquiry  were  instituted  in  regard  to  other 
States,  it  is  hardly  likely  that  any  more  favorable  reports  would  be  re- 
ceived. Happily  for  the  future  welfare  of  the  country,  the  people  are 
beginning  to  realize  the  importance  of  a  better  observance  of  sanitary 
regulations,  and  are  more  willing  to  give  intelligent  support  to  public 
health  measures.  A  new  impulse  has  been  given  to  sanitary  progress  by 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge  through  the  labors  of  the  American  Public 
Health  Association.  State  boards  and  local  boards  of  health  are  being 
rapidly  organized  throughout  the  country;  more  eminent  sanitary  talent 
is  being  consulted  in  the  construction  of  works;  blunders  of  the  past  are 

'  See  a  Paper  on  House  and  Street  Drainage  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  by  R.  Her- 
ring, 1878. 

-  Fourth  Report.     State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1873,  p.  32. 


460  SOIL    AlsB    WATEE. 

in  prospect  of  being  corrected;  and  the  promise  for  the  future  is  that 
considerations  of  public  health  will  be  more  potent  in  determining  the 
character,  and  in  controlling  the  management,  of  these  important  works, 
which,  although  projected  and  executed  mainly  for  sanitary  objects,  have 
hitherto  often  failed  to  embody  the  principles  most  necessary  to  success- 
fully attain  these  ends. 

Sewers. — In  inhabited  areas  the  provision  of  sewers,  i.  e.,  underground 
conduits  for  the  removal  of  surface-water,  and  the  waste  products  from 
houses  suspended  in  Avater,  sooner  or  later  becomes  a  matter  of  urgent 
necessity.  In  small  places  the  open  gutter  is  often  resorted  to  for  the 
disposal  of  house-slops  as  well  as  rain-water;  but  this  practice,  except 
when  exclusively  restricted  to  the  latter  use,  can  never  be  defended  upon 
any  reasonable  grounds.  It  is  usually  a  makeshift  until  proper  and  satis- 
factory channels  for  house-slops  can  be  provided.  When  this  material 
cannot  be  properly  disposed  of  upon  the  individual  premises,  as  is  always 
the  case  where  houses  are  collected  together  over  a  limited  area,  the  neces- 
sity exists  for  the  provision  of  public  channels  to  carry  off  such  waste 
matters.     Hence  most  towns  are  provided  with  these  public  conveniences. 

Sewers  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  removing  surface-water  and  house- 
slops,  and  the  liquid  refuse  of  trades  and  factories,  either  with  or  without 
the  admixture  of  human  excreta.  They  also  receive  a  considerable  amount 
of  subsoil  water.  In  places  where  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  distinct  chan- 
nels are  sometimes  provided  for  the  rain-water,  and  this  constitutes  what 
is  called  the  "separate  system."  When  solid  excreta  are  excluded,  more 
or  less  urine  is  still  discharged  into  the  sewers  with  other  waste  matters. 
These  substances,  when  mingled  with  the  washings  and  debris  of  the 
streets,  and  the  refuse  of  trades  and  factories,  form  a  highly  impure  mix- 
ture, susceptible  of  putrefaction,  which  should  be  disposed  of  with  the 
same  care  and  completeness  as  when  solid  excrement  forms  one  of  the  in- 
gredients. "  Investigations  made  in  towns  where  the  earth  and  ash  sys- 
tems prevail,  as  in  many  of  the  large  manufacturing  towns  of  the  North  of 
England,  show  that  the  ordinary  contents  of  the  public  sewers  are  in  all 
respects  not  less  foul  and  offensive,  and  probably  little  less  dangerous, 
than  are  the  contents  of  those  which  receive  all  of  the  ordure  of  the  town 
with  a  copious  flow  of  water  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  kitchen-wastes  and 
house-slops,  when  mixed  with  the  wash  of  the  streets,  constitute  so  pro- 
lific a  source  of  offensive  sewer-gases  that  the  night-soil  is  not  especially 
marked,  save  as  a  specific  vehicle  for  the  spreading  of  such  epidemics  as 
are  communicated  by  means  of  bowel  discharges."     (Waring.) 

AVhether  such  sewage  should  be  passed  into  streams  or  not  will  de- 
pend upon  circumstances  connected  with  the  locality.  It  is  certainly  the 
simplest  and  most  convenient  mode  of  getting  rid  of  it ;  but,  upon  general 
principles,  it  should  be  forbidden  until  after  efficient  purification.  When 
the  sewage  is  of  ordinary  composition  and  of  moderate  amount,  and  the 
body  of  water  is  large  and  has  an  active  current,  by  excessive  dilution  of 
the  matter,  no  injurious  consequences  may  arise.  In  this  country  it  is  the 
common  practice  to  discharge  all  sewage,  untreated,  into  the  ocean  or 


SOIL    AND    WATER, 


461 


nearest  watercourse,  and,  as  yet,  but  few  cases  where  serious  results  have 
been  produced  by  this  plan  of  disjDosal  have  been  brought  to  jDublic  notice. 
The  question,  however,  of  the  pollution  of  watercourses  by  sewage  is  be- 
ginning to  elicit  inquiry,  and  investigations  upon  the  subject  have  already 
been  started  by  some  State  governments.'  The  time  will  probably  arrive 
when  this  matter  will  become  a  very  serious  one,  and  will  have  to  be  dealt 
with  by  the  same  stringent  provisions  as  are  now  enforced  in  England 
under  the  Rivers'  Pollution  Act. 

The  composition  of  sewage. — Sewage-matter  is  made  up  from  a  great 
variety  of  substances,  derived  from  many  sources,  as  we  have  already 
seen.  Its  composition  is  described  in  the  first  report  of  the  Rivers'  Pollu- 
tion Commissioners  in  the  following  words:  "Sewage  is  a  very  complex 
liquid;  a  large  proportion  of  its  most  offensive  matters  is,  of  course, 
human  excrement  discharged  from  water-closets  and  privies,  and  also 
urine  thrown  down  gully-holes.  Mixed  with  this,  there  is  the  water 
from  kitchens,  containing  vegetable,  animal,  and  other  refuse,  and  that 
from  wash-houses,  containing  soap  and  the  animal  matters  from  soiled 
linen.  There  is  also  the  drainage  from  stables  and  cow-houses,  and  that 
from  slaughter-houses,  containing  animal  and  vegetable  offal.  In  cases 
where  privies  and  cesspools  are  used  instead  of  water-closets,  or  these  are 
not  connected  with  the  sewers,  there  is  still  a  large  proportion  of  human 
refuse  in  the  form  of  chamber  slops  and  urine.  In  fact,  sewage  cannot 
be  looked  upon  as  composed  solely  of  human  excrement  diluted  with 
water,  but  as  water  polluted  with  a  vast  variety  of  matters,  some  held  in 
suspension,  some  in  solution."  Sewage  varies  in  its  composition  Avith  the 
habits  of  the  people,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  even  the  time  of  day  or 
night,  and  hence  it  is  difficult  to  determine  a  standard  of  composition. 
Very  numerous  analyses  have  been  made,  and  from  these  the  average 
composition  may  be  obtained. 

CHIEF  CONSTITUENTS  OF  A  GALLON  OF  SEWAGE.  ^ 


Authorities. 

Organic 
matter. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
acid. 

Potash. 

Letheby 

31.19 
30.70 
29.00 
20.00 

6.22 
6.76 
6.18 
5.67 

1.74 
1.85 
1.68 
1.00 

1.29 

Hof  mann  and  Witt 

1.03 

Way 

2.81 

Voelcker 

3.00 

Mean 

27.72 

6.21 

1.57 

2.03 

The  average  amount  of  solid  matter  per  gallon  is  89.81  grains,  of  which 
27.72  are  organic,  and  62.09  mineral. 


^  See  Reports  of  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health. 
-  Letheby  :  The  Sewage  Question,  1873,  p.  138. 


462  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

In  addition  to  the  finely  divided  particles  of  organic  matter  in  various 
stages  of  decomposition,  there  are  found  in  sewer-water  multitudes  of 
bacteria  and  other  low  forms  of  cell-life.  Fungi  are  also  present  as  well 
as  myriads  of  ova  of  intestinal  entozoa.      (Cobbold.) 

The  variation  of  sewage  from  the  average  composition  is  very  con- 
siderable. It  is  evident  that  a  greater  amount  of  refuse  is  discharged  into 
sewers  at  one  time  than  at  another.  At  night,  in  luany  towns,  the  sew- 
age is  not  much  more  than  water.  At  some  seasons  it  is  much  diluted  on 
account  of  excessive  use  of  water  for  bathing  and  other  domestic  purposes. 
It  varies,  too,  on  account  of  the  admission  of  rain  and  subsoil  water. 

The  amount  of  sewer-water  in  some  cases  is  greater  than  the  total 
amount  of  rainfall  and  the  water  supplied  by  public  works.  This  excess 
is  derived  from  private  wells  and  from  the  water  of  the  subsoil  entering  the 
sewers.  Baldwin  Latham  took  the  average  of  120  English  towns,  and 
found  the  average  amount  of  water  supplied  by  public  works  was  25  gal- 
lons per  head.  The  extremes  were  10  and  56  gallons  per  head.  Where 
water-closets  and  private  baths  are  in  general  use,  there  will  always  be 
a  high  rate  of  water  consumption.  All  these  several  sources  of  supply 
must  be  taken  into  account  when  considering  the  probable  amount  of  sew- 
age to  be  dealt  with. 

Twenty-five  gallons  daily  per  head  of  population  .is  the  amount  of 
water  named  by  Mr.  Brunei  as  necessary  to  maintain  a  proper  flow  of 
sewage.  This  may  suffice  if  the  sewers  have  a  good  inclination  and  are 
thoroughly  well  constructed  in  all  particulars  ;  but  when  defective  in 
gradient,  courses,  and  workmanship,  so  as  to  require  frequent  flushing,  a 
much  larger  quantity  will  be  required. 

Whether  storm-waters  should  be  permitted  to  pass  into  sewers  is  a 
question  which  has  excited  discussion.  Local  conditions  and  circum- 
stances must  be  consulted  in  determining  this  point.  In  small  towns  and 
villages  it  is  not  advisable  to  provide  for  the  underground  removal  of  all 
the  water  of  heavy  rains;  but  in  cities  "all  sewerage  works  must  be  cal- 
culated to  conve}'  away,  either  by  the  sewers  or  by  storm-water  overflows, 
or  special  works  constructed  for  the  purpose,  the  maximum  amount  of 
rain  without  flooding  or  inconvenience  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  district." 
A  reasonable  amount  of  rainfall  can  always  be  admitted  with  advantage 
into  sewers  intended  for  the  removal  of  excreta.  If  the  sewers  be  prop- 
erly constructed,  the  admission  of  rain-water  has  the  effect  of  scouring 
and  cleansing  these  conduits  in  an  effectual  manner. 

Where  sewage  is  discharged  directly  into  the  nearest  watercourse, 
there  is  no  object  in  providing  separate  channels  for  the  rainfall.  There  is, 
however,  this  disadvantage  from  the  admission  of  surface-waters,  namely, 
that  when  sewers  are  made  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  water  of 
heavy  storms,  they  are  too  large  to  admit  of  self -cleansing  by  the  ordinary 
daily  flow.  But  this  difliculty  may,  in  a  measure,  be  overcome  by  adopt- 
ing a  shape  that  will  best  meet  both  of  these  requirements.  The  elliptical 
form  is  to  be  preferred  in  such  cases.  This  mode  of  disposal  of  sewage 
by  discharge  into  the  nearest  watercourse  is  generally  adopted  in  this 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  463 

country  ;  but  it  contravenes  a  well-established  sanitary  dictum — "  the 
rainfall  to  the  rivers  and  the  sewage  to  the  land." 

'I'he  mode  of  disposal  of  sewage  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  deciding 
for  or  against  the  exclusion  of  the  surface-waters.  When  the  sewage 
can  be  delivered  at  the  outfall  by  gravitation,  the  objections  to  the  ad- 
mission of  the  rainfall  are  greatly  lessened;  but  when  it  is  required  to  be 
lifted  to  a  considerable  height  by  artificial  power,  in  order  to  be  freed 
from  its  noxious  qualities  before  being  discharged  into  the  river,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  large  volume  of  rain-water  will  very  materially  increase  the 
expense  of  the  final  disposal  of  the  matter.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  to 
exclude  as  much  as  possible  of  the  surface-waters  in  excess  of  the  amount 
necessary  for  the  proper  cleansing  of  the  sewers.  All  rain-water  collected 
by  the  subordinate  sewers,  in  excess  of  the  quantity  provided  for  in  the 
intercepting  or  main  sewers,  may  be  passed  into  the  river  by  means  of 
"  storm  overflows."  The  occasional  discharge  of  the  excess  of  storm- 
water  into  the  river,  during  a  heavy  rainfall,  cannot  materially  impair  the 
quality  of  its  water. 

It  has  been  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  admission  of  the  surface- 
waters  that  the  sewage  proper  is  diluted  and  deteriorated  thereby,  and 
its  economic  treatment  greatly  imperilled.  This  objection  is  based  upon 
the  assumption  that  the  surface-drainage  is  comparatively  pure,  and 
should,  therefore,  be  conveyed  to  the  ordinary  watercourses  of  the  dis- 
trict. But  it  would  appear  from  the  investigations  of  the  surface-water 
of  London,  made  by  Professor  Way,  which  ought  to  hold  good  for  all 
crowded  localities,  that  their  manurial  value  is  equal  to  that  of  ordinary 
sewage.  He  says  that  "  so  far  as  London  is  concerned,  and  considering 
only  the  composition  of  the  liquid  which  reaches  the  sewers  in  the  time 
of  rain  from  the  streets,  it  seems  pretty  certain  that  it  would  be  as  valu- 
able in  a  manurial  point  of  view  as  the  ordinary  contents  of  the  sewers. 
There  would  seem  to  be  no  reason,  therefore,  to  exclude  such  waters  on 
the  ground  of  the  dilution  and  deterioration  of  the  sewage,  to  which  they 
might  be  supposed  to  lead."  If  such  be  the  case,  then  the  whole  of  the 
surface-water  of  a  crowded  locality  should  be  disposed  of  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  ordinary  sewage-matter.  This  difficulty  may  be  overcome 
by  admitting  into  the  sewers  rainfalls  which  are  small  in  amount,  and,  in 
time  of  excessive  downfall  of  rain,  only  the  first  or  foulest  portions  ;  the 
last  water  contributed  by  heavy  storms  being  comparatively  pure,  may 
be  suffered  to  pass  directly  into  the  river  by  storm  overflows. 

In  many  sea-side  towns,  and  in  districts  where  the  outfall  sewers  are 
tide-locked,  it  may  be  proper  to  construct  special  works  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  off  the  rainfall;  but  this  is  a  case  for  decision  upon  condi- 
tions largely  connected  with  the  locality.^ 

As  before  remarked,  the  purpose  of  a  system  of  sewerage  is  to  remove 
certain  waste  products  as  rapidly  and  completely  as  possible,  so  that  dur- 
ing their  passage  and  at  the  place  of  final  disposal,  neither  the  air,  water, 

^  Bailey  Denton:  San.  Engineering,  1877,  p.  157. 


464  SOIL    AND    WATER, 

nor  soil  shall  be  rendered  impure.  In  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose, 
sewers  perform  a  most  important  part.  They  are  not  mere  conveniences, 
as  mio-ht  be  supposed  from  the  manner  in  which  they  are  often  constructed. 
Thev  have  a  great  sanitary  mission  to  carry  out,  and  the  more  steadily 
this  object  is  kept  in  view  the  more  satisfactory  will  be  the  results  ob- 
tained. A  sewer  cannot  properly  perform  its  functions  unless  made  to 
conform  to  certain  essential  conditions.  These  have  been  clearly  and  cor- 
rectly stated  by  Mr,  Waring  as  follows  : 

"  1.  It  must  be  perfectly  tight  from  one  end  to  the  other,  so  that  all 
matters  entering  it  shall  securely  be  carried  to  its  outlet,  not  a  particle  of 
impurity  leaking  through  into  the  soil. 

"2,  It  must  have  a  continuous  fall  from  the  head  to  the  outlet,  in 
order  that  its  contents  may  '  keejD  moving,^  there  being  no  halting  to 
putrefy  by  the  way,  and  no  depositing  of  silt  that  would  endanger  the 
channel. 

"  3.  It  must  be  perfectly  ventilated,  so  that  the  injurious  gases  that 
necessarily  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  matters  carried  along  in  the 
water,  or  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  conduit,  shall  be  diluted  with  fresh 
air,  and  shall  have  such  means  of  escape  as  will  prevent  them  from  for- 
cing their  way  into  houses  through  the  traps  of  house-drains. 

"  -4.  It  must  be  provided  with  means  for  inspection,  and,  when  neces- 
sary, for  flushing. 

"5.  Its  size  and  form  must  be  so  adjusted  to  its  work,  or  to  its  flush- 
ing appliances,  that  the  usual  dry-weather  flow  may  be  made  to  keep  it 
free  from  silt  and  org-anic  deposits." 

It  is  necessary  that  all  of  these  particulars  should  be  faithfully  and 
efficiently  carried  out.  The  neglect  of  any  one  of  them  not  only  defeats 
its  own  special  end,  but  interferes  with  the  operation  of  all  the  rest,  and, 
to  some  extent,  renders  nugatory  the  sanitary  advantages  which  their 
united  observance  alone  can  secure. 

A  work  of  this  kind  is  not  intended  to  furnish  all  the  details  of  sewer 
construction;  it  will  suffice  to  set  forth  the  principal  features  of  the  sys- 
tem, with  the  objects  which  they  are  intended  to  accomplish. 

Construction  of  seioers. — In  the  construction  of  sewers  it  is  of  primary 
importance  that  the  work  should  be  thoroughly  well  done,  according  to  a 
well-arranged  and  systematic  plan.  The  workmanship,  as  well  as  the  ma- 
terials used,  should  be  of  the  best  quality.  To  secure  these  objects,  the 
services  of  a  thoroughly  competent  engineer  should  be  employed;  and  the 
work,  as  it  progresses,  should  be  subjected  to  the  rigid  scrutiny  of  quali- 
fied inspectors.  Such  advice  would  be  superfluous  if  it  were  not  too  often 
the  case  that  these  important  works  are  intrusted  to  engineers  of  very  in- 
different ability,  and  their  supervision  to  inspectors  sadly  deficient  in  the 
qualifications  which  such  officials  should  possess. 

In  arranging  a  plan  for  sewerage- works,  one  of  the  most  important 
points  to  be  considered  is  the  regulation  of  the  size  of  the  sewers.  This 
will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  sewage  proper,  as  influenced  by  the 
habits,  occupation,  and  trades  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  locality,   the 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  465 

amount  of  ground-water  that  may  be  accidentally  or  designedly  admitted,, 
and  the  quantity  of  rainfall.  The  quantity  of  ordinary  sewage  varies  with 
the  season  and  with  the  hour  of  the  day.  Provision  must  be  made  for 
its  maximum  outflow,  and,  in  addition  thereto,  for  the  maximum  quantity 
of  storm-water,  when  such  is  admitted  into  the  sewers.  The  influence  of 
the  grade  of  the  surface  in  determining  the  rapidity  with  which  the  rain- 
fall is  discharged  into  the  sewers  claims  attention. 

Mr.  Shed,  of  Providence,  says:'  "The  capacity  of  sewers  to  carry 
water  depends  mainly  on  their  sectional  area — if  of  proper  form — and 
the  rate  of  fall.  In  order  to  render  sewers  as  nearly  self-cleansing  as 
possible,  they  must,  as  before  stated,  be  adapted,  in  size  and  inclination, 
to  the  ordinary  flow  of  sewage,  so  far  as  to  keep  up  a  velocity  sufficient 
to  carry  on  all  light  matters,  and  to  leave  only  so  much  heavy  matter  as 
will  be  finally  carried  along  by  the  scouring  effect  of  the  storm-waters." 

As  a  general  rule,  sewers  are  made  too  large,  thereby  defeating  the 
very  object  they  are  intended  to  promote.  The  ordinary  stream  of 
sewage  being  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  sewer,  and  being 
spread  over  a  large  surface,  the  velocity  of  the  current  is  so  impeded  by  the 
bed  and  sides  of  the  channel,  that  the  solid  matters  become  deposited  and 
accumulate  until  the  sewers  become  completely  choked  up.  The  veloci- 
ties required  to  render  sewers  self -cleansing  have  been  variously  estimated 
by  different  writers.  Mr,  Wicksteed  showed  by  experiments  that,  for  the 
removal  of  heavy  sewage-matter,  when  the  sewer  was  running  full,  or 
nearly  so,  a  mean  velocity  of  137^  feet  per  minute  would  be  required. 
Bailey  Denton  considers  a  mean  velocity  of  150  feet  per  minute  as  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  flow  of  ordinary  sewage.  Other  observers  have  placed 
the  figures  a  little  higher.  Baldwin  Latham  says,  that  in  no  case  should 
the  velocity  be  less  than  120  feet  per  minute,  and  in  the  generality  of 
cases  it  should  be  much  greater.  He  says  "  that  in  order  to  prevent  de- 
posit in  small  sewers  or  drains,  such  as  those  of  six-inch  or  nine-inch  diam- 
eter, a  velocity  of  not  less  that  3  feet  per  second  shovild  be  produced. 
Sewers  from  12  to  24  inches  diameter  should  have  a  velocity  of  not  less 
than  2^  feet  per  second;  and,  in  sewers  of  larger  dimensions,  in  no  case 
should  the  velocity  be  less  than  2  feet  per  second.  In  order  to  maintain 
these  velocities  in  sewers,  it  is  absolutely  requisite  that  a  certain  rate  of 
inclination  should  be  secured;  thus  small  sewers  will  require  a  greater 
rate  of  fall  than  large  sewers;  and  large  sewers,  on  the  other  hand,  must 
have  provided  a  much  larger  volume  of  fluid,  so  that  proper  velocity 
through  them  may  be  maintained."^  The  velocity  of  the  current  'is 
greater  the  further  the  particles  of  the  liquid  are  removed  from  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  channel.  Hence  the  velocity  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sewer  is  much  less  than  the  mean  velocity  which  we  have  been  consider- 
ing. Velocity  diminishes  greatly  with  the  depth  of  the  stream  flowing 
through  the  channel;  and,  consequently,  when  the  stream  is  the  smallest, 

'  Waring:   Sanitary  Drainage,  etc.,  1878,  p.  130. 
-  Sanitary  Engineering,  1877,  p.  8. 
Vol.  I.— oO 


4:66 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


and  of  the  least  depth,  there  is  a  great  tendency  for  matters  suspended 
in  the  sewage  to  be  deposited.  For  this  reason  the  smaller  sewers,  which 
carry  but  a  small  quantity  of  sewage,  should  have  a  greater  inclination 
than  the  larger  sewers,  in  order  to  maintain  a  velocity  of  flow  necessary 
to  make  them  self-cleansing.  The  proper  inclination  of  various  sized 
sewers  may  be  ascertained  by  consulting  works  on  sanitary  engineering.^ 
A  sewer  designed  with  the  proper  rate  of  inclination  to  render  it  self- 
cleansing,  when  running  full  or  half  full,  may  become  a  sewer  of  deposit, 
if  the  volume  of  sewage  is  ordinarily  small  in  proportion  to  the  capacity 
of  the  channel.  This  difficulty  is  often  encountered  as  the  result  of  mak- 
ing sewers  sufficiently  capacious  to  accommodate  storm-waters.  If  possi- 
ble, the  size  of  the  conduit  should  be  proportioned  to  the  volume  of  sewage ; 
but  when  this  plan  cannot  be  adopted,  that  form  of  sewer  should  be  selected 
■which  will  give  the  greatest  velocity  to  the  ordinary  volume  of  sewage. 
The  oval  form  of  sewer  is  to  be  preferred  when  the  volume  of  sewage- 
matter  is  subject  to  fluctuations.  It  has  the  advantage  of  securing  greater 
depth  of  sewage  and  less  surface  than  the  other  forms,  as  will  be  seen  by 
Fig.  13. 


Pig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


Various  sectional  forms  for  sewers  have  been  adopted  from  time  to 
time,  but  those  considered  most  desirable,  and  which  are  most  commonly 
used,  are  the  circular  and  the  egg-shaped.  The  forms  vary  in  the  resistance 
which  they  offer  to  external  pressure,  but  all  forms  can  be  so  constructed 
as  to  insure  stability.  The  main  consideration  which  influences  the  selec- 
tion of  the  shape  of  a  sewer  relates  to  the  velocity  of  the  flow  of  sewage. 
That  shape  should  be  adopted  which  will  secure  the  maximum  velocity  to 
both  the  maximum  and  minimum  flows.  The  form  which  most  fully 
meets  these  requirements  is  the  egg-shaped  form.  Fig.  16.  "When  the 
volume  of  sewage  ordinarily  flowing  through  a  sewer  is  small  in  propor- 
tion to  the  capacity  provided,  the  lesser  area  of  the  wetted  perimeter  ^  and 
the  greater  depth  of  sewage,  afforded  by  the  egg-shaped  sewer,  give  a 
greater  velocity,  and,  therefore,  a  greater  cleansing  power  to  the  flow,  than 
could  be  secured  by  the  equivalent  circular  sewer,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
equal  facility  is  furnished  for  larger  volumes  of  sewage. 


'  Sanitary  Engineering'  by  Baldwin  Latham,  also  by  Bailey  Denton. 
-  ' '  That  portion  of  the  channel  in  a  sewer  or  watercourse  which  is  touched  by  the 
water." 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


467 


The  form  of  egg-shaped  sewer  considered  the  best  by  Latham,  and 
approved  by  Bailey  Denton,  is  that  represented  by  Fig.  14.  "  In  this 
form  the  horizontal  diameter  is  two-thirds  of  the  vertical  height,  the 
radius  describing  the  invert  being  one-fourth  the  horizontal  diameter. 
The  semicircle  drawn  on  the  horizontal  diameter  becomes  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  sewer,  Avhile  the  segment  drawn  on  the  radius  forms  the 
invert.  By  continuing  the  horizontal  diameter  half  its  length  on  each 
side,  points  C  and  C  are  gained  from  which  an  arc  may  be  struck  for  the 
sides  to  perfect  the  egg-shaped  form." '  Other  modifications  of  the  oval 
form  have  been  adopted.  That  by  Mr.  Hawksley  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
best;  it  has  the  advantage  of  easier  construction,  but  is  not  so  well 
adapted  for  sewers  in  which  the  volume  of  sewage  is  subject  to  constant 
variations  of  flow  as  the  one  recommended  bv  Mr.  Latham. 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17. 


The  circular  sewer.  Fig.  15,  is  to  be  preferred  when  the  volume  of 
sewage  is  large  and  maintains  a  tolerably  uniform  flow;  and,  moreover, 
it  is  cheaper,  since  it  affords  "  the  greatest  sectional  area  for  the  amount 
of  wall  required,  and,  therefore,  the  greatest  capacity  for  discharge." 

Sewers  with  perpendicular  sides,  having  an  arched  roof  and  a  flat  or 
hollowed  invert,  as  illustrated  by  Fig,  17,  are  sometimes  used;  but  they 
are  inferior  to  the  forms  mentioned  above.  Figs.  15  and  16,  and  are  only 
adopted  in  exceptional  cases. 

In  constructing  sewers  designed  to  carry  excreta,  it  is  of  paramount  im- 
portance that  they  be  made  water-tight.  This  object  is  frequently  defeated 
by  the  selection  of  faulty  materials,  or,  when  the  materials  are  of  the  proper 
kind  and  quality,  by  constructing  the  works  in  a  defective  manner.  The 
materials  generally  selected  are  bricks,  stone,  stoneware  and  earthenware, 
concrete,  and  sometimes  iron.  It  is  advisable  always  to  use  the  best 
possible  materials,  since  they  are  eventually  the  cheapest  and  altogether 
the  most  satisfactory.  Sewers  of  more  than  eighteen  inches  internal  di- 
ameter are  usually  constructed  of  bricks  set  in  cement  or  hydraulic  lime 
mortar.  They  should  be  hard,  well  burnt,  and  well  shaped.  Smoothness  of 
surface  is  a  desirable  quality,  especially  for  such  as  are  used  for  the  inner 
lining. 

The  inverts  of  sewers  of  moderate  size  are  generally  made  of  blocks 
constructed  of  terra  cotta,  stoneware,  or  fireclay,  glazed  on  their  inner 


^  Bailey  Denton  :  San.  Engineering,  1877,  p.  188. 


468  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

surface.  Ther  facilitate  the  work  of  construction,  are  durable,  and,  by- 
presenting  a  smooth  surface,  offer  the  least  frictional  resistance  to  the 
flow  of  sewage.  The  continuous  openings  in  these  blocks  form  a  simple 
mode  of  getting  rid  of  subsoil-water.  The  usual  forms  of  invert  blocks 
are  sketched  at  Figs.  18  and  19,  and  are  shown  in  position  in  Figs.  15 
and  16. 


Fig.  18.  Pig.  19. 

Sewers  are  sometimes  constructed  entirely  of  concrete.  This  material 
is  highly  appreciated,  and  is  now  being  more  commonly  used.  It  has  the 
advantages  of  durability  and  economy.  Sewers  formed  of  a  slight  ring 
of  brickwork,  surrounded  by  concrete,  are  preferred  by  Denton  to  all 
others.  Concrete  sewers  may  be  made  of  bricks  constructed  of  concrete 
and  laid  like  ordinary  brickwork,  or  they  may  be  formed  of  compressed 
blocks  of  concrete.  These  are  both  excellent  forms,  but  they  are  more 
expensive  than  brick  sewers. 

Small  seioers  and  house-drains  are  generally  made  of  stoneware  or 
earthenware  pipes.  For  the  smaller  conduits  it  is  advisable  to  select  the 
circular  form.  "  The  best  quality  of  pipes  for  sewers  are  those  made  of 
a  vitreous,  imperishable  material  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  fracture, 
having  toughness  enough  to  resist  shocks,  being  tenacious,  hard,  homo- 
geneous, impervious  in  character,  uniform  in  thickness,  true  in  section, 
and  perfectly  straight,  uniformly  glazed  both  inside  and  outside,  free  from 
fire  or  other  cracks,  and  when  struck  should  ring  clearly."  Porous  mate- 
rial is  unsuitable,  since  it  becomes  saturated  with  filth,  is  less  able  to 
resist  pressure,  and  is  more  easily  affected  by  frost  and  the  chemical  action 
of  sewage.  The  best  pipes  are  the  salt-  glazed,  as  this  process  requires  a 
more  thorough  burning  than  is  needed  for  lead  or  glass  glazing,  and  there- 
fore secures  a  harder  and  more  durable  material. 

The  pipes  most  commonly  used  are  the  simple  socketed  pipes,  with 
spigot  on  one  end  and  socket  on  the  other. 

In  laying  sewer-pipes  care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  well-regulated 
fall,  and  that  each  pipe  shall  have  a  uniform  bearing  throughout  the  entire 
length  of  the  sewer.  To  secure  a  true  position  and  a  firm  support  for  the 
pipes,  the  bottom  of  the  trench  should  be  hollowed  out  to  receive  each 
joint.  The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  adjusting  and  securing 
the  joints. 

In  all  cases  the  joints  should  be  caulked  with  tarred  gasket,  and  after- 
ward finished  with  cement  or  clay  in  the  usual  manner. 

Great  damage  may  be  done  to  pipe-sewers  by  the  entrance  of  roots. 
This  may  be  prevented  by  enveloping  the  sewer  in  concrete.  Asphalt 
used  for  jointing  is  said  to  be  equally  efficient  in  preventing  the  entrance 
of  roots  of  trees. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


469 


Various  modifications  have  been  made  in  the  form  of  pipes  used  in  the 
construction  of  drains  or  smalf  sewers.  One  of  the  early  modifications  is 
the  so-called  opercular  or  lidded  pipe,  represented  by  Fig.  30. 


WATER  LINEWHEK  OPEN 


Fig.  20. — Opercular,  or  lidded  pipe. 

The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is,  that  it  facilitates  the  examina- 
tion of  the  interior  of  the  pipes  and  the  removal  of  obstructions,  and,  also, 
that  it  affords  a  means  of  effecting  a  junction  with  pipes  that  have  already 
been  laid,  without  disturbing  the  bed  of  the  sewer.  The  ordinary  flow 
of  sewage  will  be  below  the  line  of  junction  of  the  lid  with  the  pipe, 
which,  however,  may  be  made  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  any  leakage. 
Another  form  of  access-pipe  is  that  introduced  by  Mr.  Jennings,  and  rep- 
resented at  Figs.  21,  23,  and  33.  The  pipes  are  "  plain  at  both  ends,  and 
laid  in  chairs  (c)  similar  to  the  metals  of  a  railway,  each  pipe  being  kept 
6,  9,  or  12  inches  apart,  according  to  their  diameter."     The  top  j^art  of  the 


Fig.  31. — Jennings'  access-pipe. 

chair,  which  is  called  the  saddle-piece,  Figs.  22  and  23,  can  easily  be  re- 
moved, so  as  to  afford  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  pipes,  and,  in  case  of 
stoppage,  facilitate  the  removal  of  obstructions  through  the  openings,  SS, 
without  in  any  way  disturbing  the  invert  or  general  drain.    "  In  laying  out 


Fig.  23. 


Fig. 


new  districts,  and  in  the  formation  of  new  roads,  streets,  etc.,  the  drainage 
may  be  laid  complete  without  the  introduction  of  the  ordinary  junctions, 
or  saddle-pieces.  Fig.  23.  When  house  is  added  to  house,  and  it  is  desired 
to  effect  a  junction  with  a  finished  line  of  pipes,  the  workman  has  only  to 
raise  one  of  the  plain  short  pieces.  Fig.  22,  and  substitute  for  it  a  similar 
short  piece  having  a  junction  on  it  of  the  required  size,  Fig.  23,  which,  by 
reversing,  is  applicable  to  either  side  of  the  street,  and  again  completes 
the  line  of  street  drain." 


470  '        SOIL    AND    WATER. 

According  to  Waring,  the  best  pipe  known  in  this  market  is  the 
Scotch;  there  is  also  excellent  pipe  to  be  had  of  domestic  manufacture. 
Unfortunately  the  best  quality  of  pipe  is  not  always  the  most  popular. 
The  inferior  grades  find  a  ready  sale,  because  they  are  cheaper.  An  im- 
mense quantity  of  this  defective  material  is  annually  used  for  the  drainage 
arrangements  of  the  so-called  "  bonus  "  houses,  which  are  a  disgrace  to  our 
large  cities.  Citizens  are  deceived  by  entrusting  so  important  a  matter  as 
the  construction  of  private  drains  to  incompetent  and  unfaithful  workmen, 
and  builders  purposely  slight  the  work  without  detection,  in  the  absence 
of  proper  inspection.  A  thorough  and  systematic  inspection,  under  proper 
authority,  of  all  private  drainage  arrangements,  would  tend  greatly  to 
remedy  this  great  evil,  and  should  be  insisted  on  by  all  local  health  boards. 


Fig.  24. — Segmental  stone-  Fig.  25. — Stoneware  drain-pipe, 

ware  sewer. 

Sewers  are  sometimes  made  of  blocks  of  stoneware  of  various  shapes. 
Fig.  2-i  represents  a  segmental  stoneware  sewer,  which  has  been  used  in 
England  with  success.  The  advantages  of  this  kind  of  sewer  are,  that  it 
is  strong,  easily  put  together,  and  is  exceedingly  durable. 

An  excellent  stoneware  drain-  or  sewer-pipe  is  made  in  Chester,  Pa,, 
which  possesses  the  advantages  of  strength,  durability,  accuracy  of  coup- 
ling, and  smoothness  of  internal  surface.  The  pipes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25, 
are  plain  at  both  ends,  and  are  united  by  a  double-socket  coupling  which 
fits  very  accurately.  The  joint  is  really  the  strongest  part  of  the  pipe. 
Each  piece  is  provided  with  a  bed  almost  its  entire  length,  which  gives  it 
additional  strength.  The  pipes  are  made  in  iron  moulds,  and  therefore 
have  a  perfectly  smooth  interior  bore,  which  facilitates  the  passage  of  their 
contents.  Their  strength  is  such  as  to  resist  rupture,  either  from  internal 
pressure  or  from  weight  applied  externally,  and  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  composed  resist  the  chemical  action  of  sewage  and  the  effects 
of  frost.     The  oval  form  is  well  adapted  for  moderate-sized  sewers. 

Iron-pipes  are  used  in  special  cases,  e.  g.,  when  sewage  has  to  be  con- 
veyed across  rivers  or  from  one  side  of  a  valley  to  another.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  such  pipes  of  sufiicient  thickness  to  resist  all 
strain.  Iron-pipes  are  often  employed  for  private  drains.  They  should  be 
carefully  tested  before  being  used,  that  no  sand  holes  or  other  defects  es- 
cape notice.  Cast-iron  soil-pipes,  especially  when  porcelain  lined,  are,  as 
a  rule,  superior  to  all  other  kinds. 

Sewers  should  be  laid  in  perfectly  straight  lines,  and  should  have  a 
true  and  even  bearing  from  point  to  point.  If  curves  cannot  be  avoided, 
the  sewer  should  have  a  little  extra  fall  in  the  bend  to  compensate  for 
friction. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


471 


Wherever  sewers  join,  or  wherever  there  is  a  change  of  direction  or 
of  gradient,  man-holes  or  lamp-holes  should  be  provided  in  order  to  afford 
convenient  access  for  the  purpose  of  inspection,  flushing,  and  the  removal 
of  obstructions.     These  shafts  also  supply  a  means  of  ventilation. 

The  junction  of  one  sewer  with  another,  or  of  house-drains  with  sewers, 
should  be  made  by  curves  in  the  direction  of  the  current  of  the  main 


Pig.  26. — Right-angled  junction  entering  at  the  crown  of  sewer-pipe,  a  cause  of  deposit. 


sewer.  Junctions  made  at  right  angles,  or  opposite  the  entrance  of  other 
sewers,  interfere».with  the  velocity  of  the  flow  and  favor  deposits.  House- 
drains,  and  branch  sewers  connecting  with  main  sewers,  should  have  their 
junctions  made  just  within  the  water-line,  but  not  so  low  as  to  leave  their 
inverts  upon  the  same  level.  When  made  in  the  crown  of  the  arch  of  the 
sewer,  they  have  the  effect  of  impeding  the  velocity  of  the  current,  and, 
thereby,  of  causing  the  formation  of  deposit  both  above  and  below  the  line 
of  junction,  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  26.  By  placing  the  junction  below  the 
water-line,  house-drains  are  provided  with  a  water-seal  more  or  less  ef- 
fectual in  excluding  the  entrance  of  sewer-air. 

Man-holes  and  lamp-holes. — Man-holes  and  lamp-holes  are  necessary 
adjuncts  to  every  complete  system  of  sewerage.  They  are  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  and  cleansing  the  sewers,  and  they  also  act 
as  ventilating  shafts.  They  should  be  located  at  points  of  deviation  from 
a  straight  line.  Man-holes  are  simply  shafts,  usually  built  of  brick,  by 
which  men  can  descend  from  the  street  surface  into  the  sewers,  or  to  the 
sewer  level.  They  either  open  above  the  sewer  or  at  its  side;  the  former 
plan  is  the  simpler  of  the  two,  and  is  the  one  most  commonly  adopted. 
Lamp-holes  are  small  shafts  made  of  stoneware  or  vitrified  jDipes,  and 
are  used  for  the  purpose  of  lowering  a  lantern  into  the  sewer,  in  order  that 
the  person  at  the  nearest  man-hole  may  discover  any  obstructions  existing 
in  that  part  of  the  sewer  intervening  between  the  two  points. 

Man-holes  and  lamp-holes  are  usually  provided  with  wrought  or  cast- 
iron  covers.  Strong  iron  gratings  are  to  be  preferred,  as  they  allow  of 
the  ventilation  of  the  sewer.  It  is  recommended  that  a  dirt-box  be  used 
below  the  grating  to  catch  any  earth  that  may  pass  through  the  openings. 
The  arrangement  adopted  by  Mr.  Denton  is  shown  at  Fig.  27.  This  pro- 
vision can  hardly  be  necessary,  as  very  little  dust  or  mud  is  carried  into 
the  sewer  through  these  openings,  and,  besides,  it  is  objected  to  on  the 


472 


?oiL  a:xd  avater. 


gTOund  that  it  interferes  with  the  ventilation.  However,  if  the  provision 
is  deemed  advisable,  the  plan  approved  by  Mr.  Waring  had  better  be 
adopted,  namely,  "to  make  a  recess  or  catch-pit  in  the  bottom  of  the 
sewer,  under  the  man-hole,  to  retain  any  earth  entering  through  the  grat- 


Fig.  27. — Man-hole  cover,  with  dirt-bo-.i  attached. 

ing.''  When  ventUating  side  chambers  are  provided,  the  cover  of  the 
man-hole  may  be  made  solid,  and  any  dirt  passing  through  the  grating  of 
the  ventilating  chamber  will  be  retained  by  the  catch-pit  at  its  bottom. 

Street-gaUies  and  trajjs. — Gullies  are  o^^enings  ^Dlaced  at  the  corners  of 
streets,  or  elsewhere,  to  receive  surface  and  waste  water,  slops,  etc.  They 
should  be  provided  with  catch-pits  below  the  point  of  overflow,  of  sufficient 
depth  to  intercept  and  retain  the  solid  materials  carried  in  by  the  surface- 
water.     In  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  sewer-air  from  these  street  in- 


FiG.  2S.. — Section  of  a  trapped  street-gnlly. 

lets,  an  efficient  means  of  trapping  should  be  adopted.  Various  devices 
have  been  introduced  to  accomplish  this  object.  Those  p^ost  generally  in 
use  depend  upon  water  as  the  means  of  trapping.  A  simple  form  of 
water-trapped  gully  is  shown  at  Fig.  28.     All  trapped  guKies    should  be 


SOIL  ANU  watp:k. 


473 


made  thoroughly  water-tight,  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  become  un- 
trapped  by  leakage.  Should  the  water-line  be  lowered  during  the  cleans- 
ing of  the  catch-pit  so  as  to  unseal  the  trap,  care  should  be  taken  to  refill 
the  basin.  It  is  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  use  of  water  as  a  means  of 
trapping  that  it  is  apt  to  be  evaporated.  This  disadvantage  is  readily 
overcome  by  filling  the  receptacles  with  water  from  the  public  hydrants, 
a  duty  which  may  be  entrusted  to  policemen.  Street  gutters  will  be  the 
better  for  such  flushing  in  dry  weather.  The  entrances  to  gullies  should 
be  protected  by  strong  iron  gratings.     Their  use  is  very  obvious. 

Tidal  vaIre-9.  ■ —  Whenever  sewers  empty  into  the  sea,  or  into  a 
tidal  stream  below  high-water-mark,  the  outlets  must  be  protected  by 
means  of  flaps,  or  valves,  to  prevent  the  water  from  rising  in  the  sewers, 
and  also  to  exclude  the  wind,  which,  in  time  of  storms,  may  force  the 
sewer-air  through  badly  trapped  house-drains.  They  are  usually  made  of 
iron,  and  are  so  balanced  as  to  yield  to  the  slig-htest  internal  pressure, 
and  close  readily  and  tightly  by  the  least  amount  of  pressure  from  with- 
out. Two  kinds  of  self-acting  tide-valves  are  shown  at  Figs.  29  and  30. 
(Denton.) 


Fig.  S'.t. 


Fig.  80. 


JEl,ushinfj  of  sewers. — AVe  have  seen  that,  in  order  to  prevent  sedi- 
mentary deposits  in  sewers,  a  certain  velocity  of  flow  must  be  maintained. 
But  as  every  sewer  has,  more  or  less,  an  intermittent  flow,  the  velocity 
required  to  make  them  self -cleansing  cannot  always  be  secured,  and  hence 
it  is  a  difficult  matter,  in  practice,  to  keep  sewers  thoroughly  cleansed 
and  in  good  working  order,  without  some  additional  means  for  removing 
the  sediment  and  for  washing  away  the  slimy  matter  which  collects  upon 
their  sides  and  crown.  This  is  especially  necessary  for  sewers  which  have 
been  badly  constructed,  or  which,  from  too  little  fall,  too  great  size,  or  want 
of  proper  flow,  are  unable  to  carry  forward  the  solid  matters  suspended 
in  the  sewage.  Arrangements  for  flushing  are,  therefore,  absolutely 
necessary  to  remove  these  deposits  and  keep  the  channels  free  from  ob- 
structions.    The  object  of  these  arrangements  is  to  discharge  a  body  of 


474 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


water,  or  sewage,  at  a  velocity,  and  for  a  length  of  time,  sufficient  to  re- 
move any  deposits,  and  thoroughly  wash  the  walls  of  the  sewer.  The 
volume  required  is,  according  to  Latham,  considerably  less  than  the  full 
discharge  of  the  conduit.  Various  plans  have  been  adopted  for  the  purpose 
of  flushing  sewers.  The  simplest  of  all  is  that  in  use  where  no  special 
appliances  exist.  It  consists  in  periodically  turning  on  a  number  of  pub- 
lic hydrants,  by  which  a  considerable  body  of  water  is  simultaneously  dis- 
charged into  the  sewers  of  .a  district  through  the  different  street  gullies, 
or  inlets.     The  effect  is  similar  to  that  produced  by  a  heavy  fall  of  rain. 

Sewer-water  is  sometimes  used  for  flushing  purposes.  It  is  held  back 
by  flushing-gates,  and  then,  upon  being  suddenly  liberated,  produces  a 
scouring  effect. 

These  gates  are  made  to  fill  the  entire  sectional  area,  or  only  a  part  of 
it.     The  half  and  three-quarter  flushing-gates  have  this  advantage,  that  if 
not  opened  at  the  proper  time,  the  sewage  will 
pass  over  their  upper  margin  without  causing  any 
damage.     A  half-gate  is  shown  at  Fig.  31. 

Self -tilting  flushing  apparatus,  similar  to  the 
self-acting  tumblers  sometimes  used  for  water- 
closets,  are  very  serviceable  for  small  sewers  in 
which  the  ordinary  flow  is  not  sufficient  for  cleans- 
ing purposes,  or  where  flushing-gates  are  not  ap- 
plicable. The  tank  is  set  on  trunnions  directly  in 
the  line  of  the  flow  of  sewage,  and,  when  filled, 
turns  over  by  its  own  weight,  and  after  thus  sud- 
denly discharging  its  contents  into  the  sewer 
below,  rights  itself.  The  same  operation  is  re- 
peated, more  or  less  rapidly,  according  to  the  flow. 

Reservoirs  are  made  use  of  for  collecting  sewage,  storm-water,  subsoil- 
water,  or  water  from  the  public  hydrants,  and  suddenly  discharging  it 
into  the  sewers.  Water  from  neighboring  streams  may  be  utilized  for 
flushing  purposes.  It  may  be  collected  in  basins,  and  conducted  into  the 
sewers  by  means  of  pipes  provided  with  sluice-gates,  or  with  valves  regu- 
lated by  a  lever  and  weight. 

In  flat  districts,  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  tide  in  collecting  river 
water  in  reservoirs  at  high  tide,  and  discharging  it  into  the  sewers  at  low- 
water  mark.  By  this  plan  the  sewers  may  be  kept  thoroughly  cleansed 
with  moderate  expense. 

In  flushing  sewers,  the  operation  is  generally  commenced  at  the  lower 
parts  of  the  district;  but  this  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  water  at 
command. 

In  some  systems  of  sewerage,  flushing  arrangements  are  provided 
at  every  man-hole  and  at  the  head  of  each  line  of  sewers.  The  various 
appliances  suggested  may  be  used  singly,  or  in  combination,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  each  particular  case. 

Flushing-tanks  placed  at  the  head  of  sewers  may  be  constructed  in  the 
manner  represented  by  Fig.  33.     They  are  closed  below  by   penstocks, 


Fig.   31.  —A  half   flush 
gate  or  valve.     (Denton. ) 


SOIL    AND    AVATEK. 


475 


•which  are  raised  by  a  rack  and  worm-wheel  motion,  whenever  it  is  required 
to  suddenly  liberate  the  body  of  water  contained  in  the  reservoir  for  flush- 
ing purposes.  These  reservoirs  may  also  be  used  as  man-holes  and  as 
ventilatins:  shafts. 


TunmrT^ 


TESTIS^ 


Fig.  3i!.— Flushing  tank.     (After  Tarbott on.) 

Ventilation  of  seioers. — Sewer- ventilation  is  even  more  important  than 
sewer-flushing,  though  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  can  safely  be  dis- 
pensed with  in  any  system  of  sewerage.  Unfortunately  the  means  of 
carrying  into  effect  this  most  important  sanitary  measure  have  not  yet 
been  determined  with  entire  satisfaction.  Much,  however,  has  been  ac- 
complished in  this  direction. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  concentration  of  sewer-air,  relieve  pressure, 
and  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  decomposition  of  organic  substances  con- 
tained in  sewage,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  opening's  communi- 
cating with  the  sewers  should  be  provided,  to  afford  an  outlet  for  the  foul 
gases,  and  secure  the  free  admission  of  atmospheric  air.  No  system  of 
sewerage,  however  well  designed,  and  however  carefully  the  plans  may  be 
carried  into  effect,  can  be  depended  upon  to  fulfill  its  sanitary  mission, 
unless  there  be  combined  with  it  a  thorough  system  of  ventilation.  By 
ignoring  this  principle,  the  town  of  Croydon  suffered  from  repeated  out- 
breaks of  enteric  fever.  "The  early  sewer-works  were  designed  on  the 
principle  that  all  matters  were  to  be  so  rapidly  discharged  from  the  sewers, 
and  the  sewers  flushed  with  such  a  copious  supply  of  water,  that  decom- 
position could  not  take  place,  and,  therefore,  it  was  thought  that  '  sewer- 
gas '  would  never  be  present;  but,  in  practice,  this  theory  was  not  found 
to  be  borne  out;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  coincidence  as  to  the  cause  of  the 
frequent  outbreaks  of  fever  in  Croydon  (which  took  place  at  certain  inter- 
vals until  the  year  1866,  when  the  sewers  were  thoroughly  ventilated),  that 
diseases  which  formerly  made  their  haunt  in  the  low-lying  districts  were 


476  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

transferred,  after  the  completion  of  the  drainage-works,  to  the  highest  or 
best  portions  of  the  town,  thereby  establishing  the  fact  that  the  presence 
of  the  disease  in  the  high  localities  was  due  to  something  carried  in  the 
air  of  the  sewers,  which,  in  obedience  to  a  natural  law,  accumulated  in 
the  highest  part  of  the  district,"  Since  the  introduction  of  ventilation 
there  has  been  no  epidemic  of  fever  until  very  recently  (due  to  defects 
which  were  promptly  remedied);  and  the  mortality  has  decreased,  so 
that  the  death-rate  rarely  exceeds  eighteen  per  thousand  of  population. 
The  ventilation  of  the  sewers  of  London,  though  not  by  the  most  approved 
method,  is  asserted,  by  competent  authority,  to  have  been  attended  with 
good  results,  as  indicated  by  the  small  death-rate  of  that  city. 

The  higher  temperature  of  the  air  of  houses,  especially  when  artifi- 
cially lieated,  favors  the  entrance  of  sewer-air  through  the  drain-pipes. 
The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  traps  within  houses  being  less  than 
the  pressure  upon  traps  outside,  the  air  of  unventilated  sewers  will  natur- 
ally find  its  most  convenient  outlet  through  the  pipes  communicating 
with  the  interior  of  houses. 

There  are  forces  at  Avork  within  an  unventilated  sewer  which  tend  to 
drive  the  foul  air  into  houses.  Heat  is  one  of  these  forces.  The  hot 
water  discharged  into  sewers  from  baths,  kitchens,  and  manufacturing- 
establishments,  affects  the  pressure  of  the  air.  The  repeated  expansions 
and  contractions  of  the  air,  caused  by  the  admission  of  hot  and  cold  water, 
develo]^  a  force  which  no  trap  can  resist,  unless  free  ventilation  is  estab- 
lished. 

The  air  of  sewers  is  displaced,  sometimes  with  great  force,  by  the  con- 
stant fluctuation  in  the  volume  of  sewage.  Unless  openings  are  provided 
to  accommodate  these  changes  in  the  pressure  of  the  sewer-air,  the  effect 
is  directly  exerted  upon  the  house-traps.  When  the  pressure  is  increased 
by  the  rise  of  the  sewage,  the  foul  air  is  expelled  through  the  traps;  and 
when  the  pressure  is  reduced  by  the  fall  of  the  sewage,  the  traps  are 
forced  in  a  reverse  direction.  In  either  case  they  may  be  left  open  to 
the  free  passage  of  sewer-air  for  a  variable  length  of  time.  Storm-water, 
Avhen  discharged  into  sewers,  has  the  effect  of  displacing  the  air  with  like 
results.  When  sewers  empty  into  the  sea,  or  tide-rivers,  they  may  be- 
come tide-locked,  and,  by  damming  up  the  sewage,  force  the  sewer-air 
through  weak  traps. 

Parkes  contends  that  the  tide  rises  so  slowly,  and  the  air  is  displaced 
so  equably  and  gradually,  that  no  appreciable  movement  can  be  detected, 
and  that,  therefore,  any  well-arranged  trap  will  be  able  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure.    This  is  true,  if  outside  ventilation  is  provided. 

The  discharge  of  exhaust  steam  into  sewers  increases  the  pressure  and 
tends  to  force  the  air  into  houses,  unless  a  vent  for  its  escape  exists. 

When  the  outlets  of  sewers  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind,  the 
sewer-air  may  be  driven  forward  into  houses,  if  no  outside  channels  of 
escape  are  provided.  Latham  recommends  that,  even  in  ventilated  sewers, 
every  outfall  should  be  protected  so  as  to  control  the  currents  of  air. 

Barometric  changes  also  influence  the  pressure  of  sewer-air. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  477 

Of  the  various  plans  proposed  to  effect  the  ventilation  of  sewers,  very 
few  are  of  much  practical  value.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  ven- 
tilation by  drawing  the  air  out  by  mechanical  appliances,  but  with  only 
limited  success.  Experiments  have  been  tried  with  shafts  and  furnaces 
specially  contrived  for  the  purpose,  but  the  results  have  been  far  from 
satisfactory.  It  has  been  proposed  to  make  use  of  the  chimney  shafts  of 
manufactories,  and  this  plan  has  been  tested  to  some  extent.  The  conclu- 
sion in  the  matter  has  been  adverse  to  the  adoption  of  this  method  as  a 
general  one  for  promoting  ventilation.  Another  plan,  which  depends  for 
its  efficiency  upon  the  ascensional  force  of  the  sewer-aii*,  consists  in  the 
use  of  special  metallic  pipes  connecting  with  the  crown  of  the  sewer,  and 
carried  underground  to  the  external  walls  of  the  buildings,  and  thence  up- 
wards some  distance  above  the  eaves.  Combustion  by  means  of  large 
furnaces  has  also  been  tried,  the  sewer-air  being  conducted  into  the  ash- 
pit and  through  the  furnace-fire. 

Ventilation  by  rain-water  pipes  has  been  recommended.  This  method 
likewise  has  its  disadvantages.  When  ventilation  is  most  needed,  as 
during  the  time  of  storms,  these  pipes  are  filled  with  water  and  are 
therefore  inefficient.  Moreover,  being  almost  invariably  connected  with 
the  house-drains  whose  terminal  openings  in  the  sewers,  if  not  ordinarily 
below  the  water-line,  are  certainly  so  during  a  heavy  rainfall,  these 
pipes  fail  to  afford  an  outlet  to  the  confined  gases  when  such  a  vent 
is  most  required.  There  is  still  another  and  a  very  serious  objection 
to  this  plan.  When  the  sewer-air  is  discharged  from  rain-water  pipes 
under  the  eaves  of  houses,  it  may  find  access  to  sleeping"  apartments, 
with  the  most  disastrous  consequences.  At  Croydon  this  system  was 
rigorously  enforced  for  several  years,  during  which  time  the  death-rate 
of  the  district  increased.  In  1866  it  was  abandoned  and  a  better  system 
of  public  ventilation  substituted,  when  the  death-rate  fell  again  to  its 
former  figure. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  lamp-posts  and  telegraph  poles  be  altered 
in  their  construction  so  as  to  serve  as  ventilators.  In  Liverpool  small 
shafts  have  been  fitted  with  Archimedean  screws  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
hausting the  air  from  the  sewers.  Parkes  states  that  these  screws  appear 
to  act,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  to  warrant  the  expense. 

As  all  these  schemes  have  been  only  partially  successful,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  attempts  have  been  made  to  neutralize  the  poisonous  constit- 
uents of  sewer-air,  or  to  prevent  their  formation.  It  was  thought,  at  one 
time,  that  sewers  could  be  made  so  thoroughh^  self-cleansing  that  ventila- 
tion would  not  be  required.  This  theory  has  proved  delusive,  as  has  been 
exemplified  by  the  works  at  Croydon.  It  has  been  proposed  to  deodorize 
or  disinfect  all  matters  either  before  being  passed  into  the  sewers,  or  dur- 
ing their  transit  through  these  channels.  This  plan  is  not  only  expensive, 
but  it  has  been  found  to  be  impracticable.  The  use  of  carbide  of  iron, 
lime,  and  other  substances  in  sewers,  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  and  de- 
stroying foul  gases,  has  been  recommended,  but  the  plan  of  their  applica- 
tion is  as  difficult  as  that  suggested  for  the  introduction  of  gases,  such  as 


478  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

chlorine  or  sulphurous  acid  gas,  which  are  intended  to  destroy  the  noxious 
properties  of  the  sewer-air. 

Charcoal  has  been  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and  as  long  ago  as  1858 
Mr.  Chisholm  proposed  the  application  of  electricity  or  galvanism  to  the 
vitiated  and  noxious  gases  contained  in  confined  places,  as  in  sewers, 
drains,  and  the  like,  in  order  to  decompose,  disinfect,  and  destroy  them, 
by  producing  or  disengaging  ozone. 

All  these  methods  for  preventing  the  formation  of  sewer-gas,  or  for 
destroying  its  noxious  qualities,  possess  but  little  merit,  and,  unless  com- 
bined with  a  proper  system  of  ventilation,  are  worthless. 

What  then  is  the  best  plan  for  the  ventilation  of  the  public  sewers  ? 
In  determining  this  question  the  essential  points  to  be  borne  in  mind,  are, 
as  stated  by  Mr.  Latham: 

"  1st.  That  the  system  shall  be  simple  in  its  operation  and  not  likely  to 
get  out  of  order,  and  that  it  shall  be  independent  of  uncertain  mechanical 
aid. 

''Sd.  That  it  shall  admit  of  the  expulsion  of  all  sewer-air,  and  the  sup- 
ply of  fresh  air  at  all  j)eriods. 

"3d.  That  the  escaping  gases  shall  be  so  diluted  with  atmospheric  air 
as  to  be  rendered  harmless,  or  that  they  shall  be  destroyed  or  arrested. 

"4th.   That  the  system  shall  not  impede  natural  ventilation. 

"  5th.  That  it  shall  not  be  costly  in  execution  or  maintenance." 

The  method  of  ventilation  by  means  of  man-holes  and  lamp-holes  in 
the  centre  of  the  street  is  the  one  which  most  completely  fulfills  these 
conditions.  The  openings  should  be  large  and  sufficiently  numerous  to 
insure  complete  ventilation  of  every  part  of  the  sewer.  In  the  lower 
districts  they  should  be  placed  nearer  together  than  in  the  higher  parts 
of  the  town.  "In  no  case  in  which  houses  are  connected  with  the 
sewers,"  says  Latham,  "  should  the  distance  between  ventilators  be  more 
than  200  yards." 

These  openings  should  always  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  street,  so 
that  the  escaping  air  shall  be  diluted  as  much  as  possible  before  reaching 
the  sidewalk.  Thorough  dilution  is  the  great  safeguard;  if  this  be  secured, 
sewer-air  is  robbed  of  its  noxiousness.  Where  the  streets  are  very  nar- 
row, shafts  had  better  be  used. 

The  sewer  inlets,  or  gullies,  when  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk, 
as  they  usually  are,  should  always  be  efficiently  trapped.  A  man-hole 
provided  with  a  grating  to  act  as  a  ventilator  is  represented  by  Fig. 
33.  Beneath  the  grating,  a  perforated  iron  dirt-box  (illustrated  by 
Fig,  27)  is  fixed,  to  intercept  any  substances  that  would  otherwise  fall 
into  and  obstruct  the  stream  of  sewage.  This  form  of  man-hole  and 
ventilator  is  adopted  by  Mr.  Denton,  from  whose  work  the  illustration  is 
copied. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  escape  of  sewer-air,  and  jjrevent  its  passage 
from  the  lower  to  the  higher  districts,  it  is  usual  to  place  a  lightly-balanced 
hanging  valve,  or  flap,  in  front  of  the  outlet  into  the  man-hole.  This  plan 
does  not  interfere  with  the  flow  of  sewage,  while  it  prevents  the  further 


SOIL    AKD    WATEK. 


479 


passage  of  the  air  along  tlie  sewer,  and  compels  it  to  escape  through  the 
ventilating  shaft.     This  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

For  years  past  charcoal  has  been  used  in  sewer-ventilators  as  an  agent 
well  fitted  to  absorb  and  destroy  the  escaping  gases  and  impurities.  It  is 
undoubtedly  a  most  efficient  article,  and  it  has  the  additional  advantage 
of  cheapness.      Bat  its  use  is  objected  to  on  the  ground  that  it  obstructs 


ri]]!B§iiir 


Fig.  33. — Man-hole  for  pipe-sewers. 


the  free  circulation  of  air,  which,  after  all,  is  the  great  object  to  be  at- 
tained. The  charcoal  becomes  saturated  with  moisture  and  covered  uj) 
with  dust  from  the  streets,  and  is  thereby  rendered  inoperative,  so  far  as 
its  special  action  is  concerned,  and,  moreover,  it  forms  a  barrier  to  the 
circulation  of  air  into  and  out  of  the  sewer.  For  these  reasons  the  plan 
is  gradually  being  abandoned,  though  it  still  has  some  firm  advocates,  Mr. 
Latham  being  among  the  number.  The  misuse  of  charcoal  ventilators  is, 
doubtless,  one  reason  why  these  appliances  have  come  into  disfavor. 
Latham  says  "that  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  using  charcoal,  that 
whenever  it  is  used  it  should  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  obstruct  natural 
ventilation,  and  it  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry,  for  it  loses  its  power  if  it 
gets  saturated  with  water."  These  are  the  difficulties  which  in  practice 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  overcome,  and  hence  the  disposition  to  dispense  with 
the  use  of  charcoal  in  street  sewers. 

Fig.  34  represents  the  plan  adopted  by  Mr.  Rawlinson,  and  which  has 
frequently  been  brought  into  use.  The  man-hole  is  sealed  with  a  movable 
iron  cover.     Across  the  shaft  are  two  trays  of   charcoal,  through  which 


480 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


the  sewer-air  passes  into  the  side  ventilating-ch amber  and  escapes  through 
the  grated  opening  above.  At  the  bottom  of  this  chamber  is  a  space  in- 
tended to  receive  any  solid  mate- 
rials that  may  pass  through  the 
grate.  The  flap  at  the  discharge 
end  of  the  sewer  compels  the  gases 
to  escape  by  the  opening  above  in- 
stead of  traversing  the  sewer  from 
a  lower  to  a  higher  elevation. 
The  charcoal  is  used  in  mass,  and 
therefore  interferes  with  ventila- 
tion. The  position  of  the  trays  is 
also  objectionable,  since  they  have 
to  be  removed  whenever  the  man- 
hole is  used  for  examination  of  the 
sewei".  The  other  plan  adopted  by 
Mr.  Rawlinson,  where  the  screen 
is  placed  vertically  between  the 
man-hole  and  ventilating  shaft,  is 
preferable  on  this  account. 

Other  forms  of  charcoal  sewer- 
ventilators  have  been  devised,  but 
none  of  them  are  free  from  the  ob- 
jections already  alluded  to.  The 
form  introduced  by  Mr.  Latham, 
in  1869,  combines  the  greatest 
number  of  advantages,  and  has, 
therefore,  been  very  generally 
adopted  by  engineers,  where  it  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  use  some 
form  of  charcoal  ventilator.  Reference  to  Figs.  35  and  36  will  explain 
the  action  of  this  ventilator.  The  frame,  a,  receives  the  cover,  C,  and  to 
its  under-surface  are  attached  the  dirt-box,  d,  and  charcoal  ventilator. 
The  centre  cover,  C,  (filled  in  with  wood,  concrete,  or  asphalt)  protects 
the  charcoal  from  rain,  or  from  water  used  for  sprinkling  the  streets. 
Around  this  solid  cover,  C,  is  the  open  grating,  g,  by  which  air  escapes 
from  the  sewer,  or  is  drawn  into  it.  The  dirt-box,  d,  hangs  under  this 
grating;  S  is  an  open  spiral  trough,  used  for  conveying  the  overflow- water 
from  the  dirt-box  to  the  sewer.  The  spiral  tray,  t,  represented  by  Fig.  36, 
is  made  of  galvanized  iron,  in  order  to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the 
sewer-gases.  After  being  filled  with  charcoal,  the  tray  is  screwed  into 
the  ventilator  over  the  spiral  trough,  S,  by  means  of  the  handle  A.  To 
use  Mr.  Latham's  words,  "The  advantages  of  this  ventilator  are:  1st. 
That  should  the  charcoal  concrete  in  the  tray,  or  if  its  pores  are  stopped 
with  dust,  no  impediment  is  offered  to  ventilation,  as  there  exists  a  free 
communication  between  the  sewer  and  the  external  atmosphere.  2d. 
That  the  charcoal  is  completely  protected  from  rain  or  water  entering 
the  ventilator  or  leaking  through  the  joints  of  the  cover,  consequently 


Fig.  34. — Manhole,  tumbling-bay,  and   double 
ventilating  arrangement. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


481 


it  will  retain  its  efficiency  for  a  long  period,  od.  That  the  passage  pro- 
vided for  the  overflow-water  from  the  dirt-box  is  not  dependent  upon 
traps  or  any  other  uncertain  device  needing  assistance  to  maintain  it  in 
perfect  working  order.     4th.  The  escaping  vapors  are  all  brought  in  con- 


FiG.   o5. — Latham's  charcoal  sewer-ventilator. 

tact  with  the  charcoal,  it  being  impossible  for  any  to  escape  by  the  sides 
of  the  tray  or  in  any  other  way." ' 

The  charcoal  used  in  this  form  of  ventilator  is  broken  to  about  the 
size  of  filberts.  It  is  advantageous  to  remove  it  about  once  a  month,  and 
to  prepare  it  for  further  use  by  reburning  in  iron  retorts,  atmospheric  air 
being  excluded  during  the  process.  The  total 
cost  of  the  management  of  these  ventilators 
in  Croydon,  including  reburning,  labor,  etc., 
amounted  to  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents 
per  annum  for  each  ventilator. 

Notwithstanding  the  advantages  claimed 
by  Latham  for  this  kind  of  ventilator,  the  ver- 
dict of  the  most  experienced  engineers  is  now 
pronounced  against  its  general  use.  Charcoal 
is  "  so  often  an  evil  rather  than  a  benefit,  that, 
as  a  rule,  it  should  be  discarded  from  sewerage 
systems"  (Denton).  Any  device  which  ob- 
structs the  free  circulation  of  air  into  and  out 
of  the  sewer  is  objectionable.  The  greatest 
possible  dilution  of  the  sewer-air  is  the  object  to  be  aimed  at  in  sewer- 
ventilation,  and  this  can  be  best  attained  by  providing,  as  has  been 
already  recommended,  a  sufficient  number  of  openings  at  man-holes  and 


Fig.  36. — Spiral  tray. 


'  Op.  cit.,  p.  44. 


Vol.  L— 31 


482  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

lamp-holes,  and  by  means  of  shafts  carried  from  the  sewer  up  to  the  level 
of  the  street. 

House-drainage. — No  system  of  house-drainage  can  be  said  to  be  com- 
plete that  does  not  insure  the  rapid  and  thorough  removal  of  all  liquid 
refuse,  waste-water,  and  faecal  matter  without  leakage  by  the  way,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  prevent  the  entrance  of  air  from  the  sewer  or  from  the 
drain-pipes  into  the  house.  As  a  rule,  these  objects  are  very  imperfectly 
attained,  either  on  account  of  faulty  construction  of  the  drainage  arrange- 
ments, or  from  defects  in  the  plan  of  the  works,  or  from  their  subsequent 
improper  management.  It  is  not  intended,  in  this  place,  nor  is  it  neces- 
sary, to  give  a  detailed  account  of  all  the  varied  appliances  which  are  in 
iise.  It  will  suffice  if  the  correct  principles  be  stated  upon  which  these 
important  sanitary  works  should  be  based,  and  the  best  means  pointed 
out  by  which  these  principles  are  to  be  carried  into  effect,  so  that  the 
evils  which  inevitably  result  from  a  bad  system  cf  house-drainage  may  be 
avoided. 

The  house-pipes  which  receive  the  waste  matters  from  water-closets, 
sinks,  baths,  etc.,  and  empty  into  the  private  sewer  or  drain-pipe  which 
connects  with  the  common  sewer,  are  made  of  iron,  lead,  or  earthenware. 
The  drain-pipes  are  usually  made  of  glazed  stoneware  or  earthenware. 
Iron  i^ipes  are  sometimes  used,  and,  when  well-made,  and  of  proper  thick- 
ness, and  carefully  laid,  they  form  a  very  serviceable  conduit.  Brick 
drains  and  porous  earthenware  pipes  are  always  to  be  discarded. 

Glazed  stoneware  or  earthenware  pipes  are  to  be  preferred  for  h.ouse- 
drains.  In  laying  these  j^ipes,  especial  care  must  be  taken  to  make  the 
joints  thoroughly  watertight,  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  liquid 
sewage  into  the  underlying  soil,  and  the  collection  of  sediment  in  the 
pipes,  which  will  ultimately  choke  them.  The  pipes  should  be  laid  in 
well-j)uddled  clay.  In  loose,  dry  soils  a  broad  bed  of  concrete  will  give 
better  results. 

In  new-made  ground  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  disarrange- 
ment and  leakage  of  the  pipes,  to  use  piles  in  addition  to  the  concrete; 
or  support  and  stability  may  be  secured  by  laying  the  drains  upon  boards 
sustained  by  piers  of  brickwork. 

In  very  wet  soil,  the  use  of  the  compound  drain-pipe  and  subsoil-pipe, 
shown  at  Fig.  10,  will  answer  every  purpose.  Joints  packed  with  tarred 
gasket,  and  then  bedded  in  cement  or  concrete,  are  not  only  rendered 
watertight,  but  they  prevent  the  penetration  of  the  roots  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  which,  if  admitted,  speedily  choke  the  pipes  and  make  them  use- 
less. Coating  the  joints  with  coal-tar,  or  packing  them  with  asphalt,  is 
also  said  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  roots  of  trees. 

Drain-pipes  should  not  be  laid  inside  the  house.  If  this  cannot  be 
avoided,  every  precaution  must  be  adopted  to  prevent  any  escape  of  sewer- 
air  or  liquid  filth  from  the  drain.  It  is  recommended  that  the  pipes  be 
placed  in  a  position  easily  accessible.  They  should  be  embedded  in  con- 
crete, and  provided  with  means  of  inspection  without  disturbing  the  invert. 
*'  Access-pipes  "  are  now  made  for  this  very  purpose,  and,  when  carefully 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


483 


laid  and  jointed,  allow  no  escape  of  their  contents.  Two  kinds  of  access- 
pipes  are  shown  at  Figs.  20  and  21.  By  inserting  one  of  these  pipes  at  in- 
tervals of — say  one  to  every  ten  ordinary  pipes,  the  whole  drain  is  brought 
under  control,  and  may  be  cleaned  by  means  of  flexible  bamboo  or  jointed 
rods,  without  disturbing  the  bed  of  the  drain.  Parkes  advises,  in  all  cases 
where  the  drain-pipe  must  pass  under  the  house,  that  it  is  much  better  to 
place  it  above  the  basement  floor  than  beneath  it,  and  to  have  it  exposed 
throughout  its  course. 

Where  the  drain-jDipes  pass  through  or  under  the  foundation  walls,  it 
is  recommended  always  to  tux'n  a  relieving  arch  over  them,  otherwise  the 
weight  o,f  the  superstructure  may  cause  them  to  crack  or  to  open  at  the 
joints  and  leak,  with  evil  consequences,  or  the  pipes  may  be  crushed  by  a 
weight  which  they  are  not  fitted  to  sustain. 

The  course  of  the  drain-pipe  connecting  with  the  sewer  should  be 
straight,  if  it  is  possible  to  make  it  so.  When  such  a  course  cannot  be 
obtained,  and  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  direction,  curved  pipes  should 
be  used,  such  as  are  sketched  at  Figs.  37  and  38. 


Pig.  37.— Quarter  bend. 


Offset. 


The  union  of  one  drain-pipe  with  another,  or  with  the  common  sewer, 
should  be  effected  by  a  curved  junction,  adjusted  so  as  to  deliver  the 
sewage  obliquely  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the  main  current.  Pipes 
are  made  with  these  junctures  cast  upon  them.  There  are  a  great  many 
varieties  of  shapes,  but  only  those  forms  are  represented  in  Figs.  39  to 
45  inclusive,  which  are  best  adapted  for  facilitating  the  flow  of  sewage 


Fig.  39. 


Pig.  40.  - 
Curved  junctions. 


Fig.  41. 


from  one  pipe  to  another  without  danger  of  causing  sedimentary  de- 
posits. These  special  pipes  are  made  with  single  and  double-curved 
or   oblique  junctions,  which  are  variously  inclined  toward  the  line  of  the 


484 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


pipe,  to  suit  the  angle  at  which  one  drain-pipe  may  be  joined  to  an- 
other. Square  or  right-angled  junctions  are  also  manufactured,  but  they 
should  never  be  used,  as  they  cause  deposits  to  form  which  may  ulti- 
mately block  up  the  pipe  altogether.     Fig.  74  illustrates  the  manner  in 


Fig.  42. 


Fig.  43.  Fig 

Double-curved  junctions. 


Fig.  45. 


which  this  effect  is  produced.  The  taper-pipe,  shown  in  Fig.  46,  is  often 
used  when  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  calibre  of  a  drain-pipe.  It  is  usual 
to  give  the  drain-pipe  an  extra  dip  whenever  a  bend  or  a  junction  occurs 
in  its  course. 


Fig.  46.— Taper-pipe. 


Fig.  47.— Junction-block. 


The  communication  of  the  drain-pipe  with  the  common  sewer  should 
be  just  within  the  ordinary  water-line,  and  the  junction  should  be  made 
by  the  use  of  a  "junction-block,"  a  section  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  47. 
These  blocks  are  made  of  stoneware  or  fire-clay,  and  are  placed  in  the 
Avails  of  the  sewer  when  first  constructed,  or  they  may  be  inserted  after- 
ward as  occasion  may  require.  The  branch  enters  the  sewer  in  an  ob- 
lique direction  and  forms  a  most  excellent  means  of  making  a  tight  con- 
nection with  the  sewer.  Ordinarily,  the  junctures  are  made  in  the  rudest 
possible  manner,  and,  even  when  the  work  is  carefully  executed,  more  or 
less  injur}^  is  done  to  the  pipe  or  sewer,  which  may  be  only  temporarily 
remedied  by  the  use  of  cement.  Some  writers  recommend  flap-valves  to 
be  placed  at  the  termination  of  the  house-drain  in  the  sewer  to  exclude 
.sewer-air  and  prevent  the  back  flow  of  sewage.  Experience  has  proved 
the  recommendation  to  be  unwise,  as  these  valves  are  liable  to  get  out  of 
order,  when  they  defeat  the  object  for  which  they  are  applied,  and, 
moreover,  they  tend  to  impede  the  current  of  sewage,  esj^ecially  when 
they  are  out  of  repair.  Other  devices  are  in  use  which  more  safely  and 
successfully  attain  the  object  sought  to  be  accomplished  by  these  flap- 
trap  arrangements,  the  mechanism  of  which  will  be  hereafter  explained. 

It  is  of  great  im^Jortance  that  the  drain-pipe  should  have  a  sufficient 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  485 

inclination  to  secure  a  free  and  uninterrupted  flow  of  water  from  the 
house-pipes  to  the  sewer.  Denton  says  the  velocity  should  not  be  less 
than  three  feet  nor  more  than  ten  feet  per  second.  If  less  than  three  feet 
per  second,  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting-  pipes  with 
a  perfectly  smooth  interior  surface,  and  even  then  it  will  be  necessary  to 
resort  to  frequent  flushings  to  keep  them  free  from  obstructions.  Ac- 
cording to  Latham's  Tables  for  determining  the  proper  inclination  of 
drain-pipes  for  different  velocities,  the  rate  of  inclination  for  a  velocity  of 
three  feet  per  second,  for  a  four-inch  pipe  should  be  1  in  92  ;  for  a  six- 
inch  pipe,  1  in  137  ;  and  for  an  eight-inch  pipe,  1  in  183.  This  calculation 
is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  pipes  are  running  full  or  half  full. 
But  as  it  is  seldom  the  case  that  the  pipes  carry  to  the  extent  of  their 
capacity  or  even  half  of  it,  a  much  greater  fall  will  be  required  than  that 
indicated  by  the  table.  Mr.  Eassie  recommends  that,  as  a  general  rule,  a 
fall  of  2f  inches  or  3  inches  to  every  10  feet  be  allowed,  which  is  about  1 
in  40. 

It  is  important  to  adjust  the  size  of  the  drain-pipe  to  the  greatest  vol- 
ume of  sewage  required  to  be  conveyed  by  it.  As  a  rule,  drain-pipes  of 
too  great  calibre  are  used.  A  four-inch  pipe  will  be  ample  for  the  ordi- 
nary drainage  of  a  house.  If  water-closets  are  in  use,  a  pipe  six  inches  in 
diameter  will  be  required  ;  in  fact,  a  pipe  of  this  size  will  be  sufficiently 
capacious  for  all  except  the  very  largest  establishments,  for  which  a  nine- 
inch  pipe  had  better  be  provided.  When  the  drain-pipes  are  too  large 
they  fail  to  be  self-cleansing,  unless  the  inclination  be  made  unusually 
great. 

The  i^roper  management  of  house-drains  involves  the  use  of  appliances 
for  the  periodical  discharge  of  a  large  volume  of  water  thi-ough  the  entire 
length  of  the  pipe,  so  as  to  remove  all  obstructions  and  cleanse  the  surface 
of  the  pipe  above  the  usual  water  line,  which  is  liable  to  be  covered  with 
a  fungoid  growth.  In  some  systems,  the  water-closet  is  provided  with  a 
special  arrangement  by  which,  on  each  occasion  of  the  use  of  the  closet,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  water  passes  into  the  basin  and  thence  into  the 
pipe.  Another  plan  is  to  collect  the  sink-water  in  trap-tanks,  and  then  to 
suddenly  discharge  it  into  the  drain-pipe.  This  object  may  be  automati- 
cally effected  by  the  use  of  Field's  flush  tank,  into  which  a  certain  amount 
of  rain-water  may  also  be  allowed  to  flow.  The  best  plan  is  to  provide 
tanks  above  ground  or  underground  for  the  collection  of  rain-water;  or 
these  reservoirs  may  be  filled  from  the  ordinary  water-supply,  and  at  in- 
tervals of  about  once  a  month  their  contents  should  be  discharged  through 
a  free  opening  into  the  drain -pipes,  so  as  to  thoroughly  scour  them  from 
one  end  to  the  other.  '  It  is  advisable  to  have  these  opening  outside  the 
dwelling,  if  jDossible,  as,  during  the  operation,  the  sewer-air,  displaced  by 
the  rush  of  water,  will  escape  into  the  house  unless  this  precaution  is 
taken.  The  traps  are  very  liable  to  be  emptied  by  the  flushing,  and  it  is 
therefore  wise  to  pass  water  into  them  immediately  after  the  operation. 

It  is  very  important  that  a  correct  plan  of  the  underground  drainage 
arrangements  of  every  house  should  be  provided,  showing  the  size  and 


486  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

course  of  the  pipes,  the  position  of  the  bends,  junctions,  traps,  and  access- 
pipes,  the  depth  of  the  pipes  from  the  surface,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
Any  alterations  subsequently  made  should  be  carefully  noted  upon  it.  The 
landlord  should  be  required  to  furnish  a  drainage-plan  to  the  tenant  mak- 
ing a  lease;  and  such  a  j)lan,  properly  certified,  should  accompany  the 
deed  of  every  property. 

Ventilation  and  trapping  of  drain-pipes. — Two  important  principles 
are  to  be  insisted  upon  in  house-drainage.  The  first  is  the  maintenance 
of  a  constant  and  ample  supply  of  fresh  air  throughout  the  entire  length 
of  the  main  drain,  and  the  soil-pipe  connected  with  it;  and  the  other 
is  the  exclusion  of  sewer-air  by  means  of  some  kind  of  trap  arrangement 
placed  in  the  main  house-drain  just  outside  the  building.  The  former  ob- 
ject may  be  accom^Dlished  by  carrying  the  soil-pipe,  of  full  diameter,  to 
some  distance  above  the  top  of  the  house,  and  providing  it  with  a  cowl  to 
improve  the  draught,  fresh  air  being  supplied  at  the  lowest  part  of  the 
drain-pipe,  somewhere  between  the  outside  trap  and  the  entrance  of  the 
soil-pipe,  by  means  of  a  small  air-pipe  or  other  opening.  In  cold  climates, 
where  an  opening  between  the  drain-pipe  and  the  outer  air  might  be  dan- 
gerous on  account  of  frost,  the  pipe  admitting  fresh  air  may  be  carried 
underground  for  some  distance  to  temper  the  air  before  it  enters  the 
drain. 

A  common  plan  of  arranging  house-drains  is  to  carry  the  pipes  directly 
into  the  sewer,  without  a  break  in  the  continuity,  and  without  providing 
a  means  of  ventilation,  dependence  being  plaiced  upon  the  small  traps  in 
the  house  to  exclude  sewer-gas.  This  is  a  most  delusive  practice,  and 
cannot  be  too  severely  condemned.  The  sewer-gas,  when  compressed 
from  any  cause,  is  certain  to  force  the  small  water-seals,  and  diffuse  itself 
throughout  the  house. 

An  efficient  trajD  should  be  placed  in  the  main  drain  just  outside  of 
the  house,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  sewer-air;  and  the  soil-pipe  should 
be  continued  to  the  top  of  the  house,  as  suggested  above.  But  this  plan 
is  not  complete;  for  it  does  not  insure  a  free  circulation  of  atmospheric 
air  through  the  house-drain.  Lest  the  sewer-air  should  be  forced  through 
the  trap,  or  be  absorbed  by  the  water  forming  the  seal,  and  emitted  on 
the  side  toward  the  house,  an  opening  should  be  made  in  the  drain-pipe 
between  the  trap  and  the  house,  communicating  with  the  outside  air,  and 
protected  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  a  grating,  so  as  to  form  an 
air  disconnection  between  the  house-pipe  and  the  drain  leading  into  the 
sewer.  This  will  also  afford  a  free  circulation  of  air  through  the  house- 
drain  and  soil-pipe;  and  any  sewer-air  that  may  pass  the  trap,  should  it 
not  escape  through  the  grating,  will  be  so  thoroughly  diluted  as  to  be 
innoxious.  The  Molesworth  trap.  Fig.  48,  illustrates  this  principle.  By 
this  arrangement  an  excellent  provision  is  made  for  the  discharge  of  rain- 
water, and  waste-water  from  sinks,  baths,  etc.  The  smaller  waste-pipes 
— which  should  be  trapped  inside  the  dwelling  to  prevent  the  effluvia 
from  the  trap  being  drawn  into  the  house — and  the  rain-water  pipes  may 
be  discharged  ujjon  or  near  the  grated  opening,  G;  while  the  foul  matters 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


487 


from  the  water-closets  are  carried  off  by  the  pipe  D.  The  pipe  D  is  con- 
tinued above  the  top  of  the  house.  Any  effluvia  arising  from  the  trap,  or 
any  sewer-air  that  may  be  forced  through  the  water-seal,  will  either  be 
discharged  through  the  grating  at  G,  or  be  diluted,  and  carried  upward, 
and  discharged  into  the  atmos- 
phere above  the  house  with  the 
body  of  air  entering  at  the  grat- 
ing G. 

Another  arrangement,  sug- 
gested by  Professor  Reynolds, 
deserves  mention  on  account  of 
its  simplicity  and  efficiency.  It 
assumes  that  all  the  drains  in 
the  house  flow  into  one  pipe, 
which  should  be  the  only  connec- 
tion between  the  house  and  the  sewer,  and  provides  for  the  effectual  trap- 
ping of  this  pipe.  This  is  a  principle  which  should  always  be  observed. 
The  device  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  49  and  50,  and  is  described  as  follows: 
"  A  man-hole  or  shaft  is  sunk  from  the  surface  to  the  pipe,  the  floor  of 
the  man-hole  being  about  two  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  Across 
this  floor  there  is  an  open  trough  which  takes  the  place  of  the  pipe;  this 
is  about  two  feet  deep,  and  of  the  same  width  as  the  pipe.  The  ends  of 
the  pipe  which  are  connected  with  the  trough  are  (as  shown  in  the  dia- 
gram) so  depressed  that  the  water  stands  in  the  trough  about  half  an 


Fig.  48. — Molesworth's  trap;  D,  house-pipe  or 
house-drain  ;  G,  grating  to  receive  water  from  rain- 
pipe  and  smail  waste-pipes,  and  to  afford  ventilation. 


Pig.  49.  Fig.  50. 

Reynolds's  man-hole  and  trough,  and  rain-spout  opening  over  trough. 


inch  above  the  orifice  on  the  sewer  side,  and  an  inch  above  the  mouth  on 
the  house  side.  In  this  way  a  trap  is  formed  which  effectually  closes 
both  the  house  and  the  sewer  from  the  man-hole,  and  doubly  closes 
the  house  from  the  sewer.  And  if  care  is  taken  to  arrange  the  orifices 
of  the  pipes  in  the  man-hole  as  recommended,  it  will  not  be  possible  for 
the  water  to  be  sucked  out  of  the  trap,  should  the  pipe  run  full.  The 
man-hole  affords  a  ready  means  of  examining  or  cleansing  out  the 
trap,  but  in  order  to  prevent  a  scum  from  forming  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  trough,  the  pipe  from   a  roof -spout  may  be  arranged 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


SO  as  to  discharge  itself  on  to  the  tojD  of  the  trough,  as  shown  in  the 
diagram." ' 

The  same  principle  may  be  carried  out  in  a  simpler  manner  by  using 
a  special  earthenware  or  iron  trap,  as  represented  at  Fig.  51.  A  pipe  is 
inserted  in  the  centre  of  the  syphon  and  carried  straight  up  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground  where  it  may  be  protected  by  a  grating,  or  it  may  be  con- 
tinued to  the  top  of  the  house,  if  desirable,  but  in  no  case  should  the  rain- 
water pipe  be  utilized  for  this  purpose,  for  when  most  needed  for  ventila- 
tion, viz. :  at  the  time  of  a  storm,  it  will  be  wholly  employed  in  its  own 
specific  work.  Between  the  water-seal  and  the  grating  at  the  surface 
there  shovild  be  a  side  junction  in  one  of  the  pipes  near  the  top  of  the 
shaft  for  the  discharge  of  rain-water  or  waste  water  from  the  house,  simi- 
lar to  the  arrangement  shown  in  Pigs.  49  and  50. 

There  are  a  great  many  similar  arrangements  for  disconnecting  drain- 
pipes outside  the  house,  but  the  examples  furnished,  which  are  among 
the  best,  will  answer  to  explain  their  construction  and  their  uses. 

The  opening  of  the  drain-pipe  to  the  outer  air,  after  the  manner  just 
alluded  to,  may  possibly  be  the  cause  of  a  nuisance,  especially  if  the  open- 
ing be  near  a  window.  It  may  be  desirable,  therefore,  to  luake  use  of 
some  plan  for  disinfecting  the  air  escaping  from  these  openings.    Various 


Pig.  51. — Simple  ventilating  trap. 


Fig.  52. — Deodorizing  trap. 


devices  are  in  use  for  accomplishing  this  purpose.  The  accompanying- 
diagram,  Fig.  52,  copied  from  Eassie,^  illustrates  a  very  simple  "device  for 
deodorizing  the  unpleasant  smells  by  providing  a  charcoal  tray  fitted  in 
the  ventilating-shaft  above  the  surfacs  of  the  ground.  The  effluvia  from 
the  drain,  D,  are  intercepted  at  the  mouth  of  the  upright  pipe,  placed 
over  the  syphon  trap.  A,  and  are  compelled  to  pass  through  the  charcoal 
in  the  tray  under  the  earthenware  cap  at  B,  before  escaping  into  the 
(juter  air,  and  are  thereby  robbed  of  their  offensiveness.  Two  other  plans 
for  ventilating  drain-pipes  are  shown  at  Figs.  53  and  54.  Charcoal  is  the 
deodorizing  material  used  in  both  these  contrivances.  In  the  Brooks 
ventilator  the  charcoal  is  deposited  in  mass  in  the  tray,  T,  placed  upon 
the  top  of  the  ventilating-pipe.  Any  foul  gas  entering  the  upright-  shaft 
must  pass  through  the  porous  charcoal  before  escaping  into  the  open  air. 
The  tray  is  conveniently  located,  and  can  be  removed  with  the  greatest 


'  Reynolds:   Sewer-Gas,  etc.,  London,  187(5,  p.  12. 
-  Sanitary  Arrangements  for  Dwellings,  1874,  p.  38. 


SOIL    AXD    WATEK. 


489 


Fig.  o'S. — Brooks'  drain-pipe  ventilator. 


ease.  This  foi'm  of  ventilatoi"  is  much  used  in  England.  The  arrange- 
ment represented  by  Fig.  54  is  an  invention  of  Mr.  Latham.  The 
principles  of  its  construction  and  the  advantages  it  possesses  have 
already  been  explained  in  connection  with  sewer  ventilation.  This  par- 
ticular form  is  well   adapted 

for  the  ventilation  of  sewers  in.  :::^^ ; f 

courts,  alleys,  narrow  streets, 
and  confined  places.  The  lid  is 
kept  perfectly  tight  by  a  sand- 
trap,  or  an  india-rubber  joint. 
The  outlet  of  air  from  the 
sewer  or  drain,  after  it  has 
passed  the  charcoal  trays,  is 
through  the  ventilating-pipe, 
which  is  carried  above  the  top 
of  the  adjoining  houses.  If 
from  any  cause  the  charcoal 
is  neglected,  the  sewer-air  will 
pass  through  this  pipe  and 
be  diffused  in  the  atmosphere 
without  causing  any  annoy- 
ance. 

If  the  ventilating-pipe  is  not  required,  a  grated  opening  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  solid  lid.  This  particular  form  of  ventilator  is  well 
adapted  for  use  in  drain-pipes  of  large  public  buildings,  or,  wherever,  on 

account  of  the  great  length  of 
the  drain,  foul  gases  are  liable 
to  form  in  large  C[uantity.  By 
all  of  these  arrangements  the 
rain-water  is  excluded,  while 
all  the  gases  rising  from  the 
drain  are  compelled  to  pass 
the  barriers  formed  by  char- 
coal. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to 
ventilate  drain-pipes  by  means 
of  rain-water  pipes.  We  have 
already  shown  why  they  can- 
not be  depended  upon  to  per- 
form this  service  when  most 
needed,  that  is,  during-  storms. 
They  do  act  at  other  times. 
The  more  efficient  thev  are  as 


-Latham 


chill L-oal  veutilatui  ±01  oonhned 
places. 


ventilators,  the  more  dangerous  are  they  as  disseminators  of  foul  air,  by 
reason  of  their  openings  being  placed  under  the  eaves  of  houses,  fre- 
quently close  to  open  windows.  In  certain  cases  they  may  be  used  with- 
out objection,  but  these  cases  should  be  well  selected.     Rain-water  pipes 


490 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


are  very  frequently  connected  with  drains  to  prevent  the  nuisance  caused 
by  the  flow  of  water  over  the  sidewalk,  and  the  formation  of  ice  in  cold 
weather.  Where  this  is  the  sole  object,  the  practice  may  be  allowed, 
provided,  however,  that  the  drains  be  thoroughly  ventilated  from  some 
other  source. 

It  has  been  recommended  that  house-drains  be  ventilated  by  means  of 
chimney  flues,  but  this  plan  should  never  be  adopted.  There  is  no  cer- 
tainty of  a  constant  up-draught  in  the  flue,  and  besides,  bricks,  of  which 
the  chimneys  are  constructed,  being  porous,  will  absorb  the  sewer-air,  and 
in  time  become  very  offensive. 

Eassie  refers  '  to  a  system  "in  practice  for  ventilating  the  house-drains 
by  leading  a  junction  from  the  drain-pipe  to  the  back  of  fire-grates  or 
kitchen  ranges,  at  which  places  a  fire-brick  chamber  is  formed,  where  the 
air  can  be  rarified,  and  then  taking  a  metal  pipe  from  this  chamber  up  to 
the  house-top."  He  is  opposed  to  this  plan,  since  it  encourages  the  prac- 
tice of  laying  the  house-drains  under  the  dwelling.  This  objection  is  not 
a  valid  one,  as  the  inlet  pipe  attached  to  the  air-brick  of  the  range  can  be 
made  as  tight  as  a  gas-pipe,  and  may  be  made  to  connect  with  the  common 
drain  outside  of  the  building  without  impairing  its  efficiency.  There  is 
often  no  other  way  of  gaining  access  to  the  common  sewer  except  by 
means  of  pipes  laid  under  the  dwelling.  In  cities  this  course  for  the  drain 
is  by  far  the  most  common  one.  Many  houses  have 
no  rear  outlet  ;  others,  more  favorabl}'  situated  in 
this  respect,  can  make  no  use  of  the  advantage  on  ac- 
count of  the  absence  of  sewer  facilities  in  the  back 
street;  then  again,  some  of  the  finest  residences  have 
their  bath-rooms  and  water  closets  in  the  centre  of  the 
house — a  most  pernicious  practice — so  that  the  drain- 
pipe must  necessarily  lie  under  a  portion  of  the  build- 
ing. If  the  pipes  are  of  the  best  material  and  the 
drains  are  constructed  in  the  best  manner,  the  danger 
from  this  source  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  evil, 
if  it  may  be  called  such,  exists;  and  as  it  is,  in  most 
cases,  next  to  impossible  to  reconstruct  the  entire  drain- 
age arrangements,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  sanitary  engi- 
neer to  devise  some  plan  to  avert  the  dangers  of  the 
system.  A  plan  recently  devised  and  patented  hj  Mr. 
Rand,  of  Philadelphia,  for  ventilating  house-drains  in 
the  manner  above  alluded  to,  will  insure  complete  ven- 
tilation of  the  entire  house-drainage  system,  provided 
all  the  other  parts  are  pro23erly  co-adapted  thereto. 
Fig.  55  represents  a  section  of  a  hollow  cast-iron  box  intended  to 
supply  the  place  of  an  ordinary  fire-brick  in  the  kitchen-range  or  stove. 
It  is  made  perfectly  tight,  and  of  sufficient  thickness  to  resist  the  destruc- 
tive effects  of  the  fire  to  which  it  is  directly  exposed.     At  one  end  is 


500°  F 


B 


U 


50°  F. 

Fig.  55.  —  Section 
of  air  -  chamber  of 
Rand's  house -drain 
ventilator. 


'  Op.  cit.,  p. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


491 


attached  the  inlet  pipe  A,  and  at  the  other,  the  outlet  jjipe,  JJ.  The 
box  is  provided  with  a  number  of  partitions,  C,  which  extend  not  quite 
across  the  air-chamber,  the  object  being-  to  create  a  sinuous  course  for  the 
air,  so  as  to  expose  it  to  as  much  heating-  surface  as  possible.  The  radi- 
ating surface  is  still  further  increased  by  means  of  metal  points  projecting 
from  the  sides  of  the  air-chamber.  With  a  slow  fire  the  temperature  of 
the  air  in  the  outlet-pipe,  four  feet  distant  from  the  range,  has  been  found 
by  actual  test  to  reach  300°  F. ;  with  a  hot  fire  the  temperature  has  risen 
to  500°  F.    The  air  from  the  main  drain-pipe  enters  by  the  pipe  JL,  passes 


Fig.  56. — Rand's  system  of  house-drain  ventilation. 

in  the  direction  represented  by  the  arrows,  and  is  discharged  by  the  pipe 
£.  A  coiled  pipe  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  air-box.  A  special 
heater  may  be  constructed,  if  necessary. 

The  plan  of  operation  of  this  device  is  illustrated  by  the  diagram,  Fig. 
56.  The  location  of  the  bath-room  and  water-closet  is  such  as  is  fre- 
quently adopted  in  city  houses  in  this  country.  As  will  be  seen  by  the 
diagram,  all  the  pipes  throughout  the  house  are  provided  with  traps.  In 
addition  to  this  safeguard,  the  precaution  is  taken  to  ventilate  the  prin- 


492  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

cipal  traps  themselves  by  means  of  special  pipes  running  to  the  top  of 
the  house.  The  drain-pipe  is  trapped  between  the  house  and  the  sewer 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  and,  at  its  other  extremity,  is  connected  by  means 
of  a  curved  bend  with  the  soil-pipe,  which  is  continued  upward,  at  a 
diameter  of  not  less  than  four  inches,  and  opens  into  the  air  above  the 
top  of  the  house.  Into  the  soil-pipe  are  emptied  all  the  house-wastes 
except  the  sink-water,  which  passes  directly  into  the  drain-pipe.  The 
main  drain  is  tapped  between  the  soil-pipe  and  the  outside  trap,  as  near 
to  the  latter  as  possible,  by  a  two-inch  wrought-iron  pipe  (provided  with 
gas-tight  joints),  which  is  carried  upward  and  joined  to  one  end  of  the 
iron  box  in  position  in  the  range  (Fig.  55,  A).  From  the  other  end  of 
this  box  (Fig.  55,  -S)  a  similar  pipe  is  carried  upward,  through  the  chim- 
ney flue,  to  a  point  at  or  near  its  top. 

By  the  suction  power  of  the  hot-air  box,  the  air  is  forcibly  drawn  down 
the  soil-pipe,  through  the  drain-pipe  and  ventilating  tube  into  the  hot-air 
chamber,  and  is  thence  forced  ujDwards  through  the  wrought-iron  venti- 
lating tube,  and  discharged  into  the  atmosphere  above  the  house,  thus 
constantly  maintaining  an  active  circulation.  The  tube  AB,  Fig.  56,  is 
exposed  for  clearness  of  description;  it  should  pass  directly  backward 
from  the  box  into  the  kitchen  flue. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  sewer-air  is  rendered  innocuous  by  exposure  to 
so  high  a  degree  of  heat,  and,  therefore,  when  discharged,  can  cause  no 
nuisance  whatever.  Should  sewer-air  escape  through  the  trap  placed  out- 
side the  house,  it  will  immediately  be  drawn  into  the  ventilating  tube  and 
hot-air  box,  without  gaining  access  to  the  soil-pipe  with  which  the  other 
house  pipes  communicate.  This  plan  provides  a  constant  supply  of  fresh 
air  to  all  the  house  23ipes  and  to  the  drain-pipe,  relieves  the  traps  from 
pressure  from  below,  and  provides  for  the  destruction  of  the  poisonous 
properties  of  the  sewer-air. 

Smk  and  icaste-water  2yi'J)&s. — These  jDipes  are  usually  made  of  lead,  as 
it  seems  to  be  the  most  serviceable  material.  They  are  either  connected 
with  the  soil-pipe,  or  made  to  discharge  in  the  open  air  over  a  grating. 
The  English  authorities  advise  that  they  should  never  be  connected  di- 
rectly with  the  drain-pipe,  but  should  open  outside  the  house  over  the  grat- 
ing of  a  trap  or  gully,  through  which  the  waste  water  passes  into  the  trap, 
and  thence,  through  the  private  drain,  into  the  sewer.  In  this  manner  a 
complete  air-disconnection  is  provided  between  the  waste-pipes  and  the 
drain-pipe.  This  plan  is  well  illustrated  by  Fig.  48.  The  outlet  pipes 
under  the  sinks,  wash-bowls,  baths,  etc.,  should  alwaj^s  be  trapped,  to  avoid 
any  accidental  influx  of  foul  air.  This  method  of  air-disconnection  should 
be  applied  wherever  the  climate  will  permit  it.  In  many  parts  of  this 
country  its  adoption  would  be  attended  with  the  greatest  annoyance  on 
account  of  the  action  of  frost.  It  has,  therefore,  been  usual,  in  places 
where  the  winters  are  severe,  to  connect  the  waste-water  j)ipes  with  the 
soil-pipes,  depending  on  water  traps  to  exclude  the  sewer-air.  When  the 
lead  waste-pipes  enter  the  iron  soil-pipes  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  the  joints  solid  and  secure;  the  use  of  glazier's  putty  is  never 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


493 


admissible.  There  is  also  the  most  urgent  necessity  for  efficient  soil-pipe 
ventilation,  which  may  be  secured  by  some  one  of  the  plans  already  sug- 
gested. 

Stationary  wash-stands  in  sleeping  apartments,  when  the  outlet  pipe 
is  connected  with  the  soil-pipe,  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  If 
these  conveniences  are  required,  the  waste-pipes  should  always  be  made  to 
discharge  in  the  open  air  and  not  into  the  soil-pipe  or  drain-pipe.  They 
may  be  discharged  near  the  grating  of  a  flush-tank  or  gully  connected 
with  the  drain-pipe. 

Special  provision  is  needed,  in  some  cases,  for  the  disposal  of  the  waste 
water  from  the  kitchen  and  scullery  sinks.  The  grease  discharged  with 
the  kitchen  slops  should  be  kept  out  of  the  drain-pipe,  if  possible,  to  pre- 
vent the  serious  inconvenience  it  occasions  by  adhering  to  the  sides  of 
the  pipes  and  clogging  the  channel. 

Ordinarily,  the  water-pipes  from  the  kitchen  and  scullery  are  connected 
with  the  soil-pipe,  or  with  the  main  drain,  and  the  frequent  discharge  of  hot 
water  is  relied  upon  to  keep  them  clean,  or  to  remove  the  grease  when  the 
pipes  become  choked  up.  Tanks  may  be  used  to  intercept  and  collect 
grease  and  other  substances  from  the  water  on  its  passage  to  the  sewer. 
These  tanks  are  made  of  brick,  stoneware,  or  iron.  Their  proper  location 
is  outside  the  house.     They  are  made  to  connect  with  the  main  drain  by 


Fig.  b^ 


u  1     I  i  ^1  ase. 


Fig.  58.— Field's  flush-tank. 


a  trapped  outlet,  and  are  provided  with  ventilation  by  means  of  a  pipe 
running  up  the  exterior  wall  of  the  house,  Avith  an  outlet  above  it.  Mr. 
Philbrick  describes  '  a  simple  form,  Fig.  57,  made  of  brick,  laid  in  hydrau- 
lic cement,  and  plastered  smooth  on  the  inside.  The  inlet-pipe  opens 
soilie  distance  from  the  water-line,  so  as  to  prevent  the  clogging  of  the 
pipe  with  grease.  The  outlet-pipe  is  curved,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  out- 
flow of  the  liquid,  and  its  mouth  is  placed  about  one  foot  below  the 
water-line.     A  vent-pipe  is  arranged  to  pass  up  the  side  of  the  house,  as 


Seventh  Eeport  of  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1876,  p.  443. 


494 


SOIL    AND    WATEE. 


before  described.  The  grease  collects  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
may  be  removed  at  the  time  of  cleaning  the  tank. 

Field's  flush-tank  is  a  very  convenient  form  of  intercepting  tank.  It 
is  automatic  in  its  action,  and  can  be  used  for  flushing  the  main  drain- 
pipe. Mr.  Denton  gives  the  follov^^ing  description  of  the  apparatus,  which 
is  here  illustrated  by  Fig.  58.  It  "  consists  of  a  cylindrical,  water-tight, 
iron  or  stoneware  tank,  A.  This  tank  has  a  trapped  inlet,  J?  (which  also 
forms  a  movable  cover  to  give  access  to  the  interior  of  the  tank),  and  a 
socket,  C,  for  a  ventilating  pipe.  The  outlet  consists  of  a  syphon,  J),  so 
arranged  that  no  discharge  takes  place  till  the  tank  is  completely  filled 
with  liquid,  when  the  syphon  is  brought  into  action,  and  the  contents  are 
immediately  discharged.  The  inner  end  of  the  syphon  is  protected  by  a 
strainer,  JEJ,  to  hold  back  grease,  etc. ;  and  at  the  outer  end  enters  a  dis- 
charging trough,  J^,  Avhich  is  made  to  turn  round  so  that  its  mouth  may 
be  directed  as  required  to  connect  the  tank  with  the  line  of  outlet-pipes, 
G.  This  trough  has  a  cover,  which  can  be  removed  to  give  access  for 
cleaning.  In  this  contrivance  the  liquid  refuse  from  the  house-sinks  is 
discharged  on  to  the  grating."  The  soil-pipes  from  water-closets  should  not 
be  allowed  to  empty  into  these  receptacles.  Other  kinds  of  tanks  are  in 
use;  but  the  two  varieties  described  above  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the 
principle  upon  which  they  are  iisually  constructed.  When  exposed  to 
severe  frosts,  these  appliances  are  apt  to  have  their  functions  interfered 
with;  but  the  difficulty  may  be  overcome,  in  most  cases,  by  sinking  the 
receptacles  at  a  proper  depth  in  the  ground. 

House-traps,  sink-traps,  etc. — There  appears  to  be  scarcely  any  limit 
to  the  variety  of  appliances  used  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  from  our 
houses  the  foul  air  generated  in  drain-pipes  and  sewers.  Some  of  these 
have  already  been  described. 

The  simplest  form  is  the  syphon-trap,  illustrated  by  Fig.  59.  If  prop- 
erly constructed,  well  laid,  and  frequently  flushed  out,  it  forms  one  of  the 


Fig.  59. — Common  syphon-trap. 


Fig.  60. — Inlet  syphon-trap. 


best  house  drain -traps  in  use.  To  add  to  its  efficiency,  a  junction  should 
be  provided,  as  shown  at  Fig.  60,  so  as  to  furnish  a  means  for  inspecting, 
cleaning,  and  ventilating  the  trap.  A  frequent  cause  of  inefficiency  of 
traps  lies  in  their  mode  of  construction.  If  the  depression  is  too  shallow, 
the  level  of  the  water  in  the  curve  will  not  be  high  enough  to  block  the 
passage  of  air  from  the  pipe  below  it.  But  even  when  the  depression 
is  sufficiently  deep  for  this  purpose,  the  trap  may  be  emptied  by  the 
syphon  action  of  the  pipe  beyond  it,  especially  when  the  latter  has  a 
great  and  sudden  fall.     This  may  be  remedied  by  making  the  pipe  large 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


495 


enough  to  prevent  its  running  full,  or  by  making  the  trap  of  a  larger  size 
than  the  pipe  itself.  A  good  trap  may  become  useless  by  being  improp- 
erly laid.  Traps  also  become  ineffective  from  want  of  proper  manage- 
ment. As  water  is  dej)ended  on  to  block  the  passage  of  the  sewer-air,  it 
is  plain  to  see,  that,  when  the  flow  is  very  infrequent,  there  is  danger  of  the 
trap  becoming  unsealed  by  the  evaporation  of  the  Avater.  Should  the 
water  not  evaporate,  between  the  intervals  of  the  passage  of  sewage,  suf- 
ficiently to  unseal  the  trap,  there  is  danger  from  another  source.  Unless 
frequently  renewed,  the  water  in  the  trap  becomes  impregnated  with  sewer 
effluvia,  which  are  then  discharged  into  the  drain-pipe  on  the  house  side 
of  the  trap.  This  accident  may  be  prevented  by  using  a  ventilating  shaft, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  60. 

Traps  sometimes  fail  in  their  object,  on  account  of  the  pressure  of 
the  sewer-air — aided  by  the  suction-power  of  the  heated  air  of  the  house, 
forcing  a  passage  through  the  water.  Sometimes  the  water  in  the  trap  is 
displaced  by  these  forces,  though,  according  to  Parkes  and  Burdon-San- 
derson,  this  accident  is  rare  if  the  trap  be  a  good  one.  The  remedy  in 
these  cases  is  thorough  ventilation  of  the  trap  and  house-drains. 

Traps  become  useless  from  leakage  or  by  the  collection  of  sediment. 
A  means  of  examination  should  always  be  provided,  so  that  by  frequent 
inspection  these  difficulties  may  be  prevented  or  corrected. 


Fig.  61. — Earthenware  sj-phon  sink-trap. 


Fig.  63. — Ventilated  syphon-trap. 


A  common  form  of  sink-trap  is  shown  at  Fig.  61.  It  would  be  safer 
if  provided  with  a  ventilating  tube  connected  at  A,  and  leading  to  the  ex- 
terior of  the  house,  similar  to  that  represented  at  A  in  Fig.  62.  Bell- 
traps  should  not  be  used  indoors,  since  the  cover,  with  the  inverted  cup 
attached,  is  apt  to  be  removed,  in  which  case  the  obstruction  to  the  pass- 
age of  sewer-air  into  the  room  no  longer  exists.  Another  form  of  sink- 
trap,  and  a  very  good  one,  is  that  represented  by  Fig.  63.  Should  the 
cover  be  removed,  the  trap  will  still  be  sealed.  These  traps  are  sometimes 
arranged  so  that  they  can  be  locked,  to  prevent  their  improper  use  for  the 
disposal  of  refuse,  such  as  scraps  of  meat  and  the  like.  A  form  of  S  trap, 
shown  at  Fig.  64,  is  frequently  used.  It  is  made  of  iron,  and  has  a  means 
of  access  provided  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  trap  for  the  removal  of  ob- 
structions. The  inner  surface  should  be  well  enamelled  to  prevent  oxida- 
tion and  the  adhesion  of  waste  matters. 


496 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


Common  earthenware  S  traps,  used  for  closets,  are  illustrated  by  Figs. 
65  and  66.  They  are  found  to  give  satisfaction,  provided  the  soil-pipe  is 
vpell  ventilated ;  but  they  are  not  well  adapted  for  the  removal  of  obstruc- 


PiG.  63. — Trap  and  lock-grate. 


Fig.  64. — ^Tron  sink-trap. 


tions,  as  they  are  not  furnished  with  a  means  of  access  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  curve.  The  iron  traps  are  preferable  on  this  account.  Fig.  67 
represents  such  a  trap,  which  is  provided  with  a  movable  cover  made  per- 


PiG.  6.5. — Earthenware  closet-syphon. 


Pig.  66. — Earthenware  closet-syphon 
of  compact  form. 


fectly  air-tight  by  means  of  a  clamp  and  proper  packing.  This  form  of 
trap  is  also  made  with  an  outlet  for  lead-pipe  connection,  which  is 
trapped  by  entering  below  the  water-line.     It  may  be  used  for  the  attach- 


FiG.  67. — Iron  closet  syphon,  with  lead-pipe 
connection. 


Pig.  68. — Improved  water-closet  trap. 
A,  socket  for  closet-pan  ;  B,  outlet- 
pipe  into  drain ;  C,  ventilating-pipe. 


ment  of  the  waste-i^ipe  from  bath  or  wash-basin.  Fig.  68  represents  a 
trap  for  use  in  water-closets,  which,  Mr.  Eassie  says,  "embodies  all  the 
requirements  of  modern  times."  He  describes  it  as  follows  :  "  The  pan 
of  the  closet,  which  is  fitted  into  the  socket.  A,  is  ventilated  by  a  pipe 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


497 


which  joins  the  ventilating-pipe,  C,  and  goes  up  to  the  roof.  A  two-inch 
supply-pipe  from  the  cistern  divides  behind  the  closet-pan,  and  one  moiety 
enters  the  pan  above  the  opening,  A,  whilst  the 
other  enters  the  syphon-trajD  under  the  opening,  A, 
through  the  inclined  channel.  These  two  streams 
of  water  act  simultaneously  when  the  water-valve 
is  raised,  and  scour  out  both  the  pan  and  trap  be- 
neath, down  the  pipe,  B,  into  the  drain.  Apart 
from  the  value  of  this  improved  syphon  as  a  closet 
fittinof,  its  use  as  a  laro-e  ventilatino'-sink  or  other 
trap  must  be  obvious."  ^ 

There  are  various  kinds  of  traps  made  for  use  in 
area-sinks,  cellars,  and  yards.     They  embody  in  their 

construction  the  principles  illustrated  by  the  different  forms  already 
brought  to  notice.  A  simple  and  useful  form  is  that  presented  at  Fig. 
69.  If  used  in  enclosed  places,  the  pipe  should  be  ventilated  in  the  curve 
at  JL.  The  bell-trap,  variously  modiiied,  is  a  form  of  trap  in  very  general 
use  for  out-door  purposes.  If  the  cover  be  tightly  fastened,  and  water 
be  kept  constantly  in  the  receptacle,  it  will  answer  tolerably  well  the 
purposes  of  an  ordinary  trap.     Fig.  71  represents  a  section  of  one  of  the 


Fig.  69.— Sink  trap. 


Fig.  70. — Section   of   bell-trap  with 
square  receiver. 


Fig.  71. — Section  of  common  bell-trap. 


Fig.  72. — Mansergh's  \entiJating  trap. 


simplest  forms.  The  variety  presented  in  section  at  Fig.  70  has  the 
advantage  of  greater  capacity  for  holding  water,  and  therefore  is  less 
apt  to  become  unsealed  by  evaporation. 

A  good  style  of  trap  is  that  devised  by  Mr.  Mansergh,  and  much  used  in 
England,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  a  yard  gully  and  an  outlet  for 
the  waste  water  from  the  house.  It  is  made  compactly  in  one  piece  of 
stoneware,  and  is  provided  with  two  water-seals,  between  which  there  is  an 
open  communication  with  the  air  by  means  of  the  grating  G,  Fig.  72, 
The  waste-water  pipe  is  sealed  by  the  trap  S,  while  the  escape  of  sewer- 


'  Op.  cit.,  p.  48, 


Vol.  I.— .32 


498 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


air  at  the  grating  is  prevented  by  the  body  of  water  W.  The  outlet  of 
the  trap  is  at  D,  over  which  is  a  ventilating-pipe,  P,  running  up  above 
the  top  of  the  house.  The  waste-water  pipe  is  well  protected  by  two 
water-seals.  Should  the  sewer-air  pass  the  first  seal,  which  is  well  pro- 
tected by  the  ventilating-pipe  so  long  as  water  remains  in  the  trajD,  it  will 
escape  into  the  open  air  through  the  grating  at  G. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  traps  we  may  make  mention  of  a  useful 
invention  by  Mr.  Bower,  in  the  form  of  a  syphon-trap  with  a  ball-valve 
combined,  and  intended  for  apjDlication  to  stationary  wash-bowls  and  trays. 
By  this  device,  exhibited  at  Fig.  73,  the  syj^hon  action  of  the  pipe  is  pre- 
vented. A  represents  the  inlet-pijje,  and  B  the  outlet-pipe.  The  escape 
of  gas  from  the  pipe  B  is  barred,  first  by  the  body  of  water  in  the  recep- 
tacle or  cup  C,  and,  secondly,  by  the  air-ball  D,  which  presses  firmly 
against  the  smooth  concave  surface  at  the  end  of  the  inlet-pipe  A.  So 
soon  as  the  water  ceases  to  flow  down  this  pipe,  the  ball  adjusts  itself  to 

the  outlet  of  the  pipe.  Pressure 
of  sewer-air  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  trap  causes  the 
ball-valve  to  fit  more  tightly.  The 
cup,  C,  is  provided  with  a  rubber 
gasket,  so  as  to  make  an  air-tight 
joint  at  F  F.  It  is  easily  detached, 
in  order  to  cleanse  the  trap.  The 
cup  is  made  of  lead  or  glass. 
When  not  exposed  to  hard  usage, 
the  latter  material  is  preferable, 
as  it  affords  a  ready  means  of  in- 
sj^ection.  Another  viseful  trap  for 
basins,  sinks,  and  urinals  is  the 
one  devised  by  Col.  Waring, 
which  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  51,  in 
chapter  on  Hospital  Construction. 
IVater-dosets. — The  pipe  con- 
necting the  water-closet  Avith  the 
drain-pipe  is  called  the  soil-pijDe. 
In  this  country  all  the  waste-water 
pipes  from  the  upper  part  of  the  house  are  usually  made  to  empty  into  it. 
Soil-pipes  may  be  made  of  lead,  iron,  and  zinc.  The  English  give  the  pre- 
ference to  lead,  but  this  material  is  more  expensive  than  iron,  and  is  apt 
to  sag  out  of  place,  and  it  is  in  danger  of  being  perforated  by  rats,  or  by 
nails  carelessly  driven.  It  is  also  liable  to  be  perforated  by  the  corrosive 
action  of  sewer-gas,  as  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Andrew 
Fergus.'  When  lead  is  used,  the  pipes  should  be  drawn  or  cast,  and  not 
soldered  together,  as  is  sometimes  the  custom.  In  this  country  cast-iron 
pipes  are  considered  to  be  superior  to  lead  pipes.     The  chief  objection 


Pig. 


73. — Bower's    patent 
trap. 


ball-and-water 


'  The  Sewage  Question :  Edinburgh  Med.  Journal.  1878. 


SOIL    AND    AVATEK.  499 

urged  against  them  seems  to  be  that  they  become  coated  from  oxidation, 
and  retain  the  fecal  matter  on  account  of  their  rough  surface.  Zinc  and 
earthenware  pipes  are  not  often  used  for  this  purpose,  nor  are  they  desir- 
able. Iron  soil-pipes  should  always  be  of  the  very  best  quality,  uniform 
in  casting,  and  of  smooth  finish.  An  excellent  article  may  now  be  had 
of  domestic  manufacture,  which  overcomes  entirely  the  objection  stated 
above.  It  is  the  porcelain-lined  pipe,  which,  on  account  of  cleanliness 
and  durability,  recommends  itself  to  especial  favor.  The  traps,  bends, 
and  other  fittings  are  finished  in  the  same  manner. 

The  joints  should  all  be  well  leaded  and  well  calked,  and  the  entire 
line  of  pipes  should  be  firmly  supported  to  jorevent  any  strain  upon  the 
joints.  Due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  metal  caused  by  changes  of  temperature.  A  diameter  of  four  or 
five  inches  will  be  ample  for  ordinary  purposes.  At  this  same  diameter 
the  soil-pipe  should  be  carried  above  the  top  of  the  house  and  left  open 
at  the  extremity.  A  ventilating  cowl  is  sometimes  used  to  increase  the 
outward  flow  of  air. 

It  is  important  that  the  junction  of  the  soil-pipe  with  the  drain-pipe 
should  be  effected  with  a  curved  bend,  such  as  is  shown  at  Fig.  75,  so  as 
to  retard  as  little  as  possible  the  flow  of  sewage  from  one  pipe  to  the 
other.  This  is  especially  necessary  when  the  junction  is  made  with  a  pipe 
conveying  sewage  from  another  part  of  the  premises.  It  is  a  serious 
fault  to  connect  one  pipe  with  another  vertically,  for  this  plan  not  only 
has  the  effect  of  impeding  the  flow  of  the  waste  matter,  but  it  also  tends 
to  cause  the  formation  of  deposits,  which,  in  time,  may  seriously  interfere 
with  the  efficiency  of  the  drainage.     The  effect  of  joining  pipes  at  right 


Fig.  74. — Faulty  junction  (Reynolds).  Fig.  75.— Correct  plan  of 

junction  (Reynolds). 

angles  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  74.     The  obstructions  usually  form  at  the 
upper  side  of  the  connection. 

The  soil-pipes  should  be  placed  outside  the  main  building,  if  possible. 
Where  the  water-closets  are  placed  in  enclosures  projecting  from  the  side 
of  the  house,  or  in  a  tower  constructed  for  the  purpose — a  plan  to  be 
recommended  whenever  practicable,  this  direction  can  easily  be  carried 
out.  But  it  is  too  commonly  the  case  that  these  conveniences  are  located 
within  the  main  building.  In  such  instances  it  is  all  the  more  necessary 
that  the  pipes  be  constructed  of  the  best  material,  and  set  up  in  the  most 


500  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

approved  manner.     Only  such  closets  should  be  selected  as  are  safe  and 
sanitary  in  all  respects. 

The  different  kinds  of  water-closets  which  have  been  invented  may  be  ' 
conveniently  divided  into  two  classes:  those  with  valves  and  traps,  and 
those  with  simple  traps.     Many  of  these  devices  are  complicated  and  cum- 
brous, and  are  very  liable  to  get  out  of  repair.     The  simpler  they  are,  the 
better,  provided  they  fulfil  the  necessary  sanitary  requirements. 

The  requirements  of  a  good  water-closet  are,  that  it  shall  be  free  from 
odor,  simple  in  its  construction,  strong,  and  not  liable  to  get  out  of  repair; 
that  it  shall  admit  of  being  projDerly  flushed,  and  be  provided  with  the 
means  of  preventing  the  inflow  of  gases  from  the  soil-pipe  and  sewer. 

Any  unpleasant  odor  arising  from  the  closet  indicates  a  gross  defect 
in  the  apparatus.  Ventilating  the  apartment  may  overcome  the  annoy- 
ance for  the  time  being,  but  it  only  palliates  the  nuisance.  The  remedy 
should  be  radical.  Sewer-air  is  not  necessarily  offensive,  especially  to 
those  who  spend  most  of  their  time  indoors,  and  still  it  may  be  actively 
poisonous.  The  absence  of  a  disagreeable  odor  is  therefore  not  a  reliable 
proof  of  the  fitness  of  the  apj^liance. 

It  should  be  made  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  ordinary  usage, 
should  be  free  from  complicated  arrangements,  which  are  liable  to  get  out 
of  order,  and  should  be  perfectly  smooth  upon  its  interior  surface,  so  as 
to  be  incapable  of  retaining  any  portion  of  the  fecal  matter.  White 
glazed  earthenware  is  the  best  material  for  the  basin.  The  entire  basin 
and  trap  are  sometimes  made  of  this  substance  in  one  piece,  in  the  manner 
exemplified  by  the  Jennings  closet. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  efficient  flushing  and  rapid  and  complete 
removal  of  the  excreta.  The  water  should  be  admitted  with  sufficient 
force  to  thoroughly  cleanse  the  basin  and  sweep  everything  out  of  the 
syphon  into  the  soil  pipe.  If  the  water  be  supplied  from  the  house  cis- 
tern, which  is  provided  for  storing  water  when  the  water-supply  is  inter- 
mittent, there  is  danger  of  foul  air  rising  through  the  pipe  which  conveys 
the  water  to  the  closet  when  empty;  it  is  therefore  important  that  a  sep- 
arate cistern  should  be  used  for  supplying  the  closet  with  water.  By 
adopting  this  plan  the  contamination  of  the  general  water-supply  of  the 
house  is  prevented,  and  the  waste  of  water  is  guarded  against  by  appli- 
ances designed  for  this  special  purpose. 

It  might  at  first  be  supposed  that  where  the  water-supply  is  constant 
no  danger  of  fouling  the  water  in  the  service-pipe  need  be  apprehended, 
by  tapping  it  for  a  suj^ply  to  the  water-closet.  And  this  is  probably  true 
where  the  Holly  system  is  used,  as  the  pressure  of  the  water  is  so  great 
that  by  tapping  the  service-pipe  in  the  lower  part  of  the  house  the  flow 
to  the  upper  part  is  not  entirely  interrupted.  But  in  most  of  our  cities, 
where  the  pressure  of  water  in  the  mains  and  service-pipes  depends  upon 
the  condition  of  the  supply  in  the  reservoirs,  and  where  the  distributing 
mains  are  often  inadequate  to  the  heavy  demands  made  upon  them  at 
certain  periods,  the  opening  of  a  faucet  in  the  basement,  or  lower  part  of 
the  house,  prevents  the  flow  of  water  at  a  higher  point.     The  consequence 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  501 

is,  that,  when  the  pipe  connecting  the  service-pipe  with  the  water-closet 
basin  is  opened,  the  water  recedes  and  is  followed  by  a  rush  of  foul  air, 
which  will  render  the  water  subsequently  drawn  impure  and  unwholesome. 
The  valves  of  the  water-closet  are  frequently  left  open  when  the  flow  of 
water  fails  for  a  time,  as  when  the  demand  is  excessive,  and  the  result  is 
that  the  foul  air  from  the  "  container"  passes  into  the  water-pipes,  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  moisture  still  adhering  to  their  sides,  and  the  impurities 
thus  retained  will  be  imparted  to  the  water  subsequently  drawn  from  the 
pipe,  and  possibly  used  for  drinking  or  culinary  purposes.  The  remedy 
for  this  evil  is  to  provide  for  the  water-closet  a  separate  pipe  which  shall 
not  be  drawn  on  for  any  other  purpose,  or  to  provide  a  special  cistern 
from  which  the  water  used  for  flushing  shall  be  taken. 

The  water  is  usually  discharged  into  the  basin  by  a  flushing  rim  placed 
at  the  upper  edge,  or  it  may  enter  behind  a  fan  arranged  so  as  to  spread 
the  water  over  the  entire  surface.  The  outlet  should  be  of  good  size,  and 
so  arranged  that  the  volume  of  water,  at  the  lifting  of  the  valve,  shall 
suddenly  sweep  over  the  sides  of  the  basin  and  wash  away  through  the 
trap  all  the  excreta  deposited  in  it.  A  good  water-closet  will  prevent  the 
escape  of  gases  from  the  soil-pipe  into  the  dwelling.  This  obje'ct  is  ac- 
complished by  a  system  of  trapping  and  ventilation.  A  double  trap  and 
a  double  means  of  ventilation,  if  properly  arranged,  will  protect  the 
apartment  against  the  entrance  of  sewer-air.  The  upper  trap  is  formed 
by  a  body  of  water  held  in  the  basin  by  a  pan  or  valve  fitting  closely  to 
its  bottom.  The  lower  trap  is  usually  of  the  form  known  as  the  syphon- 
trap,  and  is  connected  with  the  soil-pipe.  Between  the  two  is  an  air  space, 
which  should  be  ventilated  by  a  pipe  carried  to  the  exterior  of  the  build- 
ing, or  connected  with  the  soil  ventilating-pipe.  The  soil-j)ipe  is  venti- 
lated by  carrying  it  above  the  top  of  the  house,  as  already  pointed  out. 
Should  the  main  soil-pipe  be  tapped  at  a  distance  from  the  water-closet, 
it  will  be  a  safe  expedient  to  connect  the  highest  part  of  the  branch  soil- 
pipe,  which  will  be  the  upper  part  of  the  curve,  with  the  main  ventilating- 
pipe,  so  as  to  insure  more  perfect  ventilation  of  this  branch. 

The  mode  in  which  this  combined  system  of  trapping  and  ventilation 
acts  is  at  once  apparent.  By  ventilating  the  soil-pipe,  pressure  is  relieved 
and  the  sewer-air  is  so  diluted  that  there  is  but  little  danger  of  impurities 
being  absorbed  from  it  by  the  water  in  the  trap.  Should  the  sewer-air, 
from  any  cause,  pass  the  first  trap,  it  will  find  a  channel  of  escape  through 
the  ventilating  tube  under  the  pan  or  valve.  This  ventilating  tube  also 
carries  away  any  foul  air  that  may  be  formed  by  deposits  beneath  the 
basin,  which  would  otherwise  be  discharged  into  the  room  at  the  moment 
of  opening  the  basin-valve  or  pan. 

An  additional  plan  for  preventing  the  escape  of  effluvia  into  the  room 
— which  can  hardly  be  necessary  if  the  above  suggestions  are  carefully 
put  into  practice — is  the  one  described '  by  Mr,  Philbrick.  It  consists  of 
an  annular  ventilating  tube,  shown  at  Fig.  76,  to  be  placed  over  the  top 

'  Seventli  Annual  Report  of  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  p.  448. 


502  SOIL    ATTD    WATER. 

edge  of  the  basin  and  under  the  seat.  It  is  provided  with  perforations 
around  the  inner  edge  of  the  ring  for  withdrawing  the  air  that  may 
escape  when  the  contents  of  the  basin  are  discharged  into  the  pipe  below. 
This  tube  is  connected  with  an  iron  tube,  three  inches  in  diameter,  which 
is  carried  into  and  up  the  kitchen  flue.  Before  pulling  up  the  handle 
connected  with  the  pan  or  valve,  the  lid  is  shut  down,  so  that  any  foul  air 
escaping  from  beneath  the  basin  is  immediately  sucked  up  by  the  superior 


Fig.  76-. — Annular  ventilating  tube  FiG.  77. — Wheeler's  water-closet  disin- 

over  basin.  factor. 

V 

draught  of  the  tube,  and  discharged  at  the  top  of  the  house.  If  no  chim- 
ney-flue is  convenient,  the  tube  may  be  carried  directly  through  the  roof, 
with  some  ventilating  attachment  at  its  top  to  increase  the  upward 
draught. 

In  some  cases  attempts  have  been  made  to  disinfect  water-closets  by 
means  of  an  apparatus  connected  with  the  supply -pipe  of  the  closet,  by 
which  a  certain  portion  of  disinfectant  fluid  is  discharged  into  the  basin 
each  time  the  closet  is  used.  Various  devices  have  been  introduced  to  carry 
out  this  object.  Of  these,  Wheeler's  water-closet  disinfector  (Fig.  77)  is 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  efiicient.  It  consists  of  a  metallic  cup-shaped  re- 
servoir, which  is  fitted  in  the  wood-work  of  the  closet  at  one  side  of  the 
seat,  and  has  the  appearance,  when  in  position,  of  the  metallic  cup  for  the 
handle  of  the  valve-rod.  The  cap,  when  fitted,  forms  a  water-tight  joint. 
It  is  easily  removed  by  a  small  wrench.  The  entrance  of  the  supply  pipe 
of  the  water-closet  is  on  one  side  and  the  exit  on  the  other.  The  lever 
controlling  the  flow  of  water  is  on  the  entrance  side,  so  as  to  disconnect 
the  service-pipe  from  the  receiver,  except  at  the  time  of  use.  The  water 
passes  through  the  receiver  whenever  the  handle  of  the  closet  is  raised, 
and  is  impregnated  with  the  disinfectant — placed  in  the  interior  of  the 
receiver — in  the  form  of  a  solid  saponaceous  ball.  The  friction  of  the 
water  flowing  under  pressure  dissolves  or  disintegrates  the  material  before 
it  reaches  the  bowl.  Carbolic  acid  and  various  other  disinfectants  are  in- 
corporated in  saponaceous  material,  and  compounded  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  dissolve  at  a  known  and  even  rate.  When  once  attached  the  apparatus 
IS  automatic,  and  the  only  attention  required  is  in  replacing  the  com- 
pounds. 

If  a  closet  be  properly  constructed,  disinfectants  are  rarely  required. 


SOIL    AND    WATFAl. 


503 


In  some  cases,  as  when  sickness  of  an  infectious  character  prevails,  the 
excreta  should  invariably  be  disinfected  before  being  passed  into  the  re- 
ceptacle or  sewer.  This  is  usually  effected  by  placing-  the  disinfectant  in 
the  vessel  before  being  used  by  the  patient. 

When  water-closets  are  exposed  to  frost,  the  freezing  of  the  water  in 
the  traps  may  be  prevented  by  occasionally  placing  a  little  common  salt 
in  the  traps. 

Water-closets  are  constructed  of  enamelled  iron,  glazed  earthenware, 
and  china.  Iron,  when  porcelain-lined,  forms  an  excellent  closet  so  long 
as  the  lining  remains  intact;  but,  should  it  get  chipped  or  cracked,  the 
water  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  iron,  and  oxidation  takes  place,  and 
sooner  or  later  the  destruction  of  the  apparatus  follows.  Glazed  earthen- 
ware is  more  durable,  and,  in  many  respects,  the  material  to  be  preferred 
in  the  construction  of  these  appliances. 

Very  few  of  the  many  kinds  of  water-closets  which  have  been  offered 
to  the  public  from  time  to  time,  combine  all  the  requirements  necessary  to 
fulfil  the  objects  of  this  important  sanitary  contrivance.  The  popular  de- 
mand is  for  a  cheap  article,  and  cheapness  usually  means  inferiority.  But 
even  some  of  the  more  expensive  appliances  are  not  free  from  serious  de- 
fects. Mr.  Latham  says  that  most  of  the  water-closets  used  in  the  best 
houses  in  England  are  of  the  kind  known  as  pan-closets.  "  They  are  ex- 
pensive and  cumbrous  appliances,  and  cannot  be  introduced  within  a 
house  without  creating  a  nuisance."  Mr.  Denton  says  the  pan-closets 
should  always  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and  he  holds  the  same 
opinion  with  regard  to  closets  provided  with  what  is  known  as  the  "  D  " 
trap.  According  to  Mr.  Bayles,  the  pan-closet  is  the  kind  usually  selected 
in  this  country.  He  says,  that  "closets  of  this  pattern  are  defective  in 
principle  and  unsatisfactory  in  operation; 
and  although  they  have  been  variously  modi- 
fied and  improved  during  the  past  few  years, 
it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  susceptible  of  such 
improvement  as  will  wholly  correct  their  in- 
herent defects."  '  An  ordinary  pan-closet 
with  a  "D  "  trap  is  shown  at  Fig.  78.  It  con- 
sists of  a  basin,  JB,  usually  made  of  earthen- 
ware, a  pan,  I\  which,  when  the  handle,  H^, 
is  raised,  is  tilted,  and  deposits  its  contents 
into  the  receiver,  Ji,  from  which  they  fall 
down  into  the  trap,  T,  and  thence  pass  into 
the  soil-pipe.  When  the  pan  (which,  when 
closed,  retains  water  to  form  a  trap)  is  tilted 
backward  by  a  sudden  raising  of  the  handle, 
the  water  and  ffecal  matter  are  thrown  against 
the  sides  of  the  receiver,  which  soon  become  coated  with  a  mass  of  foul 
matter.     This  undergoes  decomposition,  and  the  noisome  gases  generated, 


Fig. 


The    ordinary  pan- 
closet. 


'  House-drainage  and  Water-service,  1879,  p.  90. 


504 


SOIL    AND    WATEPw 


collect  in  the  receiver  between  the  two  traps,  and  are  thence  discharged 
into  the  apartment  and  through  the  house  at  every  use  of  the  closet. 
These  gases,  being  almost  constantly  under  increasing  pressure  in  the 
confined  space  between  the  two  traps,  niay  escape  through  the  upper 
water-seal,  even  when  the  pan  is  closed,  in  the  manner  already  described. 
Improvements  have  been  made  in  this  form  of  closet.  One  of  these  is 
the  addition  of  an  arrangement  for  flushing  the  receiver.  Another  is  the 
ventilation  of  the  receiver.  And  still  another  is  the  provision  of  a  dis- 
infecting apparatus,  of  the  automatic  kind,  by  which  an  even  quantity  of 
fluid  is  discharged  into  the  basin  at  the  closing  of  the  pan.  The  annular 
ventilating-tube  (Fig.  76)  may  also  be  used  as  a  valuable  adjunct  to  this 
apparatus.  Although  these  improvements  have  made  the  pan-closet  less 
objectionable,  it  is  still  defective  in  design,  unnecessarily  cumbrous,  and 
far  from  being  a  perfect  appliance. 

The  simple  hopper  closet,  consisting  of  a  basin  and  trap  without 
either  pan  or  valve  or  other  complicated  arrangements,  if  provided  with 
an  ample  supply  of  water  for  flushing,  and  if  well  ventilated  below  the 
trap  in  the  manner  already  explained,  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  cheaper 
kinds  of  water-closets.  It  is  especially  useful  for  outside  closets  or  for 
apartments  well  separated  from  the  main  jDart  of  the  dwelling.  There  is 
no  chamber  to  conceal  the  filth,  and  if  the  water 
used  for  flushing  is  of  sufficient  volume  and  prop- 
erly directed,  the  inside  of  the  hopper  and  trap 
can  be  kept  free  at  all  times  from  foul  matter. 
This  apparatus  is  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order, 
and  is  easily  kept  clear,  as  any  articles  which  get 
into  the  trap  by  accident,  or  are  thrown  into  it, 
can  be  taken  out  by  the  hand  or  by  a  wire  hook. 
The  flow  of  water  is  generally  regulated  by  a  simple 
valve  connected  with  the  seat.  This  form  of 
closet  is  much  used  in  factories,  prisons,  hotels, 
and  in  poor  neighborhoods.  An  excellent  form 
of  hopper  closet  is  that  shown  at  Fig.  79.  It 
is  made  of  stoneware,  and  can  be  easily  kept 
clean. 

Of  the  better  styles  of  water-closets,  that  knoAvn 
as  the  Jennings  closet  (Fig.  80)  may  be  taken  as  an 
illustration.  It  consists  of  a  basin  and  a  syphon- 
trap  in  one  piece  of  glazed  earthenware.  There  is  no  pan  or  receiver, 
the  fgecal  matter  being  received  at  once  by  a  large  volume  of  water 
dammed  up  in  the  basin  by  a  hollow  plug,  which  acts  as  an  overflow. 
To  prevent  any  escape  of  gas  through  this  hollow  plug  from  the  trap 
below,  an  inverted  cup  (not  shown  in  the  illustration)  has  recently 
been  adjusted  to  the  top  of  the  ojDening,  which  efliectually  traps  the 
air-hole. 

When  the  handle,  II,  which  lifts  the  valve,  is  raised,  the  whole  volume 
of  water  is  suddenly  discharged  through  the  water-trap  below  into  the 


Fig.  79. — Stoneware  hop- 
per closet  and  trap. 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


505 


soil-pipe.  The  supply- valve  can  be  adjusted  to  any  pressure  of  water,  and 
can  receive  it  from  the  ordinary  service-pipe  or  from  a  cistern.  All  back- 
flow  of  foul  air  is  prevented  by  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  valve.  A 
socket,  marked  V,  is  provided  for 
the  reception  of  a  ventilating- 
pipe.  The  branch,  W,  is  jDroperly 
located  for  the  connection  of  a 
waste-pipe  from  a  bath-tub  or 
wash-basin.  There  are  other  ex- 
cellent water-closets  in  the  mar- 
ket, but  it  will  suffice  for  our  pur- 
pose to  cite  this  one  example  to 
serve  as  an  illustration  of  the 
principles  upon  which  these  im- 
portant sanitary  appliances  should 
be  constructed. 

For  large  collections  of  peo- 
ple, or  where  a  number  of  closets 
are  necessary,  water-troughs,  or 
latrines,  will  be  found  service- 
able. They  are  strong  earthenware  or  cast-iron  (porcelain-lined)  recepta- 
cles, placed  under  a  row  of  seats,  with  a  slight  inclination  toward  one  end, 
at  which  a  simple  outlet  with  a  valve  is  provided.  The  valve  is  lifted 
daily  (or  as  often  as  may  be  required)  by  a  person  having  special  charge  of 
the  apparatus,  and  the   entire  receptacle  is  emptied  at  once.     When  the 


Fig.  so. — Jennings"  all-earthen  closet. 


valve,  or  plug,  is  raised  to  empty  the  trough,  each  latrine  is  thoroughly 
washed  in  the  same  manner  as  a  water-closet,  by  the  automatic  action  of  a 
valve  controlling  the  water-supply.  On  closing  the  valve,  the  trough  is  im- 
mediately refilled  with  water  to  a  proper  depth.     A  receptacle  should  be 


506 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


provided  to  intercept  any  foreign  substances  that  may  be  thrown  into  tlie 
trough  and  which  might  obstruct  the  discharge-pipe.  The  jaroper  traps 
and  ventilating-tubes  should  always  be  supplied.  Fig.  81  represents  Jen- 
nings' latrines  modified,  so  as  to  have  the  valve  arrangements  in  a  separate 
apartment,  and  also  by  providing  a  socket  for  a  ventilating-pipe.  An- 
other form  of  closet  used  in  public  places  is  the  "tumbler  water-closet." 
The  apparatus  is  similar  in  construction  to  that  described  on  a  previous 
page,  under  the  head  of  Flushing  of  Sev^ers. 

Urinals. — Urinals  are  made  of  glazed  earthenware  or  stoneware,  or  of 
porcelain-lined  iron.  The  first-mentioned  material  is  the  best  for  the  pui'- 
pose.  Some  forms  are  made  with  slabs  of  slate.  They  require  the  greatest 
care  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  offensive.  When  located  within 
doors,  the  waste-pipe  should  be  well  trapped  close  to  the  urinal  itself,  and 
provision  should  be  made  for  ventilating  the  discharge-pipe  by  means  of 
a  tube  carried  outside  the  house,  as  already  described.  They  are  kept 
clean  either  by  a  constant  supply  of  water  so  distributed  as  to  sweep  over 
every  part  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  receptacle,  or  the  supply  may  be 
intermittent,  the  discharge  taking  place  only  by  the  turning  of  a  valve, 
or  by  some  arrangement  actuated  by  the  door  of  the  apartment  or  by  the 
weight  of  the  person  using  the  convenience. 

Mr.  Wheeler  has  constructed  an  appliance  for  disinfecting  urinals, 
which  has  been  tried  with  excellent  results.  The 
principle  is  similar  to  that  described  under  the 
head  of  Water-closet  Disinfection,  The  disinfect- 
ing agent — usually  carbolic  acid — is  contained  in 
the  small  chamber  shown  in  Fig.  82,  and,  being  in 
a  solid  saponaceous  form,  is  gradually  dissolved  by 
the  action  of  the  water  under  pressure  before  it 
reaches  the  basin  of  the  urinal.  The  water,  in 
this  manner,  is  constantly  charged  with  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  the  agent  to  prevent  decomposi- 
tion, and  the  production  of  offensive  effluvia.  The 
occasional  renewal  of  the  compound,  when  dis- 
solved, is  all  the  care  that  is  required. 

The  examination  of  house-pipes  and  traps. — 
The  regular  and  systematic  inspection  of  the  drain- 
age arrangements  of  houses,  although  a  matter 
of  paramount  importance  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  is  almost  wholly 
ignored.  House-drains,  even  when  properly  constructed  according  to  the 
best  possible  system,  require  occasional  examination.  How  much  more 
necessary  is  it  that  house-fittings,  as  usually  constructed,  with  a  multi- 
tude of  defects,  should  be  periodically  subjected  to  a  thorough  inspection, 
in  order  to  detect  and  remedy  serious  faults,  which  may  otherwise  remain 
unsuspected  until  serious  illness  attracts  attention  to  the  probable  cause 
of  the  trouble.  Traps  may  become  obstructed,  openings  designed  for 
ventilation  get  clogged  up,  and  joints  may  give  way  and  allow  the  foul 
sewage  matter  to  exude  and  pollute  the  ground  under  the  dwelling.    The 


Fig.    S3.— Urinal 
fector. 


disin- 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  507 

pipes  themselves  frequently  corrode  by  rust,  or  by  the  action  of  sewer- 
gas,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Fergus,  and  allow  the  sewer-gas  to 
escape.  Various  other  defects  may  exist,  unsuspected,  unless  some  means 
of  examination  is  resorted  to  at  frequent  intervals. 

Because  the  house-drains  have  been  well  constructed,  it  is  unwise  to 
infer  that  they  will  always  remain  so.  The  fact  that  a  drain  is  water- 
tight to-day  is  no  guarantee  that  it  will  never  leak.  Considering  the  per- 
ishable nature  of  the  materials  used  in  its  construction,  the  liability  to 
disarrangement  by  accidental  circumstances,  as,  for  example,  the  settle- 
ment of  a  foundation-wall,  and  the  frequency  with  which  obstructions 
occur,  either  by  the  gradual  deposit  of  matters  suspended  in  the  sewage, 
or  by  the  surreptitious  introduction  of  extraneous  substances,  it  cannot  be 
too  strongly  recommended  that  the  drainage  of  every  house  be  periodi- 
cally examined,  say  at  least  once  a  year,  under  the  direction  of  men 
skilled  in  sanitary  engineering.  The  public  authorities  cannot  assume 
this  duty,  nor  intrude  inside  the  house,  unless  a  nuisance  has  already  been 
created,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  householder  attend  to  it 
himself.  But  there  is  the  common  indifference  that  exists  upon  this  sub- 
ject, and  the  difficulty  of  securing  the  right  sort  of  advice  when  attention 
has  been  aroused  to  its  very  great  importance.  Edinburgh  has  solved  the 
problem  by  the  organization  of  a  sanitary  protection  association,  under 
the  leadership  of  Professor  Fleeming  Jenkin,  and  it  would  be  well  if  the 
example  were  imitated  in  every  town  and  city  where  the  water-carriage 
system  has  been  adopted. 

The  object  of  the  association  is  to  provide  a  thorough  inspection,  at 
least  once  a  year,  of  all  the  drainage  appliances  of  the  house  of  every 
member,  who,  by  the  annual  jDayment  of  a  small  fee,  obtains  the  services 
of  skilled  workmen,  acting  under  the  advice  of  a  leading  engineer.  These 
services  may  also  be  extended  to  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  by  giving  to 
members  the  privilege  of  obtaining  reports  on  such  houses  at  a  small  rate. 
By  special  arrangement,  schools,  hospitals,  hotels,  and  other  public  build- 
ings may  likewise  share  in  these  advantages.  The  association  will  confer 
direct  benefits  upon  the  individual  members;  but  it  will  go  further:  "it 
will  educate  the  community  in  sanitary  matters,  strengthen  the  hands  of 
the  public  authorities,  and  indirectly  exercise  a  most  beneficial  influence 
over  the  work  executed  on  all  new  buildings." 

When  the  drains  are  properly  laid,  so  that  every  joint  and  bend  can 
be  readily  exposed  to  view;  when  they  are  furnislied  with  a  proper  out- 
side trap  provided  with  a  grating,  or  with  a  well-hole  for  inspection;  and 
if  access  pipes  have  been  placed  at  convenient  distances  along  the  course 
of  the  drain — a  complete  examination  of  the  entire  house  system  can  be 
made  with  very  little  difficulty  and  at  trifling  expense.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  when  all  the  pipes  and  traps  are  entirely  covered  up,  and  there  is 
an  absence  of  the  facilities  for  inspection,  their  direct  examination  will  be 
difficult  and  necessarily  costly.  It  is  therefore  necessary,  in  these  cases, 
to  resort  to  some  other  means  of  obtaining  the  desired  information.  This 
can  be  instituted  without  tearing  up  the  ground,  except  when  necessary 


508  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

for  the  introduction  of  an  outside  trap  with  ventilating  grid,  which  will 
be  required  in  conducting  the  experiments. 

The  plan  to  pursue  in  making  the  examination  is  thus  described '  by 
Mr,  Jenkin:  "1.  Is  the  house  drained?  This  will  be  tested  by  simply 
fastening  up  the  water-closet  handles  for  a  few  minutes,  and  watching  the 
flow  past  the  grid  at  the  external  trap.  It  is  clear  that  no  obstruction 
can  exist  on  either  side  of  the  trap  if  this  flow  is  seen  to  be  unimj^eded. 
2.  Is  there  any  leakage  from  the  sewer  under  the  house  into  the  base- 
ment ?  If  so,  of  what  magnitude  ?  This  will  be  tested  by  temporarily 
plugging  up  the  drain  at  the  trap,  and  filling  the  pipe  or  drain  in  the 
basement  with  water.  If  the  water  remains  at  a  constant  level,  the  drain 
is  clearly  water-tight;  if  not,  the  amount  of  the  leakage  can  be  measured 
by  the  rate  at  which  the  surface  falls.  No  head  of  water  should  be  put 
on  the  drain,  or  pipe,  which  is  usually  not  designed  to  resist  pressure;  but 
all  sewage-pipes  passing  under  the  basement  of  a  house  should  be  as  tight 
as  a  bottle.  It  will,  in  this  way,  be  quite  easy  to  test  the  soundness  of  a 
drain,  without  uncovering  it,  and  to  repeat  this  experiment  as  often  as 
may  be  desired.  This  experiment  will  also  make  sure  that  no  old  open 
ends  are  left  connected  with  the  main  drain,  as  not  unfrequently  happens, 
with  the  result  of  allowing  a  part  of  the  sewage  to  run  out  into  the  base- 
ment. 3.  Are  the  pipes  of  a  house  air-tight  ?  and  are  all  openings 
trapped?  This  will  be  ascertained  by  making  fumes  of  jDaraffine  inside  a 
closed  vessel,  over  the  open  grid  at  the  trap,  and  driving  these  fumes  into 
the  house  system  by  a  fan,  but  not  so  as  to  cause  any  internal  pressure. 
When  it  has  been  ascertained  that  these  fumes  have  reached  the  highest 
points  in  the  pipes,  each  room  in  the  house  will  be  inspected,  and  any  es- 
cape of  paraffine  into  any  room  will  certainly  be  smelt;  the  place  of  the 
escape  will  also  be  easily  detected.^  4.  Are  the  traps  and  pipes  of  a  house 
properly  ventilated  ?  This  will  be  ascertained  by  endeavoring  to  put  the 
pipes  under  a  slight  pressure  by  pumping  air  into  the  pipes  at  the  bottom. 
If  no  paraffine  fumes  are  then  forced  into  the  house,  it  is  clear  that  at  least 
one  part  of  the  ventilating  system  is  in  order.  In  addition  to  this  experi- 
ment, the  test  of  passing  smoke  through  ventilating  openings  will  be 
made  whenever  this  may  seem  desirable.  5.  Is  the  drinking-water  un- 
polluted ?  The  cisterns  will  be  examined,  the  position  of  the  overflow- 
pipes  recorded,  and  the  action  of  the  water-closets  insiDected." 

2.   The  Dry  Systems. 

When  sewers  are  properly  constructed  and  managed,  and  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  dealing  with  the  sewage  at  the  outfall,  and  when  the  supply 
of  water  is  abundant,  the  water-carriage  system  is  undoubtedly  the  best 
plan  for  the  removal  of  excreta.  But  in  many  places  the  use  of  sew- 
ers for  excrement-removal  is   impracticable.      There  may  be  a  want  of 

'  Edinburgh  Med.  Journal,  April,  1878,  p.  870. 

-  A  similar  test  by  means  of  oil  of  peppermint  is  in  constant  use  by  the  sanitary 
inspectors  of  Boston. — (Dr.  Draper.) 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  509 

proper  fall,  or  there  may  be  a  scarcity  of  water,  or  the  climate  may  be  so 
severe  as  to  render  all  attempts  at  this  mode  of  disposal  a  failure.  In 
these  cases,  and  for  isolated  houses,  and  villages,  and  small  towns,  there 
must  needs  be  some  other  plan  adojoted  for  getting  rid  of  the  excreta 
without  causing  offende.  In  carrying  out  this  object,  some  form  of  dry 
conservancy  may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage.  Even  where  water  is 
abundant,  and  the  use  of  sewers  is  practicable,  this  plan  is  recommended 
by  some  authorities  as  preferable  to  the  system  by  water-carriage. 

The  dry  system  consists  in  the  admixture  of  dried  earth,  coal-ashes,  or 
other  dried  refuse,  with  the  excrement  in  sufficient  quantities  for  absorb- 
ing and  reducing  it  to  an  inodorous  form,  so  as  to  prevent  foul  jDutrefac- 
tion  and  the  consequent  production  of  offensive  gases.  Certain  conditions 
are  to  be  observed  in  the  application  of  this  system.  The  material  must 
be  perfectly  dry,  and  must  be  applied  immediately,  and  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  cover  the  excretions  and  remove  all  the  fluidity  of  the  material. 
All  slops  or  sink-water  or  other  fluids  and  solid  substances  must  be  care- 
fully excluded,  otherwise  the  sanitary  objects  of  the  plan  will  be  defeated, 
and  the  agricultural  value  of  the  products  impaired.  Although  with 
proper  care  the  material  will  be  completely  deodorized,  it  is  still  very 
desirable  that  its  removal  be  as  frequent  as  possible.  In  rural  districts 
this  may  be  conveniently  attended  to;  but  in  towns  it  is  seldom  that  its 
removal  takes  place  oftener  than  once  a  week,  and  frequently  it  is  only 
once  a  month.  The  closets  should  be  well  constructed  and  frequently  in- 
spected, in  order  to  see  that  their  appliances  are  in  proper  working  con- 
dition. 

The  location  of  the  closet  is  also  a  matter  of  considerable  importance. 
The  same  caution  should  be  observed  as  has  been  suggested  with  regard 
to  the  position  of  water-closets,  for,  although  the  odor  may  be  removed, 
there  is  no  certainty  that  excrement  retained  in  this  manner  about  a 
dwelling  may  not,  under  certain  circumstances,  convey  disease.  The 
closets  should  be  placed  in  an  isolated  part  of  the  building,  in  an  apart- 
ment projecting  from  the  house,  or,  better  yet,  in  a  detached  enclosure. 
Thorough  ventilation  should  be  maintained  by  the  use-  of  windows  in  the 
vestibule  leading  to  the  closets,  or  by  a  ventilating-flue,  or  by  ventilating- 
glass  in  the  windows,  or  by  air-bricks  near  the  ceiling  of  the  room. 

Ventilation  of  the  receptacle  may  be  effected  by  connecting  it  with  the 
outside  air  by  means  of  a  tube.  The  receptacles  should  always  be  made 
of  impervious  material. 

When  powdered  earth  or  well-screened  ashes  are  used  as  the  absorb- 
ent medium,  the  charged  material  may  be  dried  and  used  a  second  time, 
or  even  oftener.  It  may  be  spread  out  under  cover  and  exposed  to  the 
air,  but  the  drying-shed  should  be  removed  from  the  house.  In  towns 
this  is  not  advisable.  And  even  in  the  country  and  in  villages  it  is 
hardly  necessary,  as  earth  can  be  procured  at  trifling  cost,  and  dried '  and 
stored  away  without  much  labor.     It  is  therefore  safer  to  return  it  to  the 

'  Stoves  are  specially  constructed  for  drying  the  earth. 


510 


SOIL    AND    WATEE. 


land  when  once  charged,  and  supply  its  place  with  fresh  material.  Earth 
should  be  well  dried  and  thoroughly  pulverized,  and  ashes  should  be  well 
screened  before  being  used,  otherwise  their  absorbent  power  will  be  greatly 
reduced. 

The  dry  method  is  an  exceedingly  convenient,  economical,  and  efficient 
means  of  excrement  removal  where  water-closets  cannot  be  used.  For 
country-houses,  villages,  small  towns,  and,  under  certain  circumstances, 
for  schools,  prisons,  and  charitable  institutions,  this  arrangement  is  cer- 
tainly a  most  desirable  one.  It  might  be  adopted  with  advantage  in 
summer  boarding-houses  and  hotels  and  at  watering-places,  in  which,  as  a 
rule,  the  privy  conveniences  are  extremely  unsatisfactory,  and  frequently 
a  source  of  discomfort  and  danger.  No  better  substitute  can  be  provided 
for  the  extremely  filthy  and  dangerous  arrangements  which  so  commonly 
exist  in  this  country,  where  water-closets  are  not  in  use,  than  some  form 
of  dry  conservancy. 

The  systems  under  this  head  are  :  Moule's  earth-closet  system,  the 
Goux  system,  and  the  ash-closet  system. 

Moule^s  earth-closet  system. — This  system  derives  its  name  from  its  ori- 
ginator, the  Rev.  Mr.  Moule,  who  has  advocated  and  brought  into  promi- 


FiG.  83. — The  earth-commode. 


Fig.  84. — Mechanism  of  the  earth-commode. 


nent  notice  the  use  of  dried  earth  in  closets  on  account  of  its  powerful 
absorbing  and  deodorizing  qualities. 

The  original  apparatus  designed  by  ^Ir.  Moule  has  been  variously 
modified  Avithout  interfering  with  its  distinctive  features,  which  are  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  83  and  84.  The  closet  consists  of  a  wooden-box  in  two 
main  compartments.  The  lower  one,  marked  13,  Fig.  83,  contains  a  re- 
ceptacle or  pail  for  the  sewage,  and  the  upper  one,  A,  the  reservoir,  or 
hopper,  from  which  the  dried  earth  is  supplied  in  requisite  quantity  when- 
ever the  closet  is  used.     The  arranarement  of  the  mechanism  of  this  form 


SOIL    AND    WATFJK.  511 

of  commode  is  sliown  in  Fig.  84,  and  is  thus  described  by  Mr,  Waring: 
"^4  is  a  swinging  hopper  capable  of  holding  an  ordinary  coal-hod  full  of 
earth  ;  3  is  the  '  chucker,'  which,  on  being  tilted  by  lifting  the  handle,  II, 
throws  forwai'd  the  proper  quantity  of  earth  into  the  movable  hod  stand- 
ing under  the  seat.  When  the  handle  is  released,  the  chucker  drops  back 
into  the  position  shown  in  the  cut,  and  is  filled  from  the  hopper,  which 
enters  its  top,  its  mouth  being  at  the  same  tinie  closed  by  the  shelf,  I,  sus- 
pended beneath  it.  The  commode  should  be  supplied  with  two  hods,  the 
one  not  in  use  being  exposed  to  the  air  during  the  time  that  it  is  waiting. 
When  fresh  earth  is  needed  for  the  hopper,  it  is  carried  to  it  in  this  dry 
hod,  which,  after  being  emptied,  is  substituted  for  the  filled  one  under  the 
seat." 

This  is  the  simple  form  of  portable  commode  adapted  for  use  in  any 
room  or  closet.  A  fixed  apparatus  for  regular  use  requires  a  modification 
of  this  plan,  but  the  principle  is  the  same.  A  reservoir  for  the  dried  earth 
may  be  fitted  up,  so  that  the  supply  need  be  renewed  only  at  long  inter- 
vals, and  the  inconvenience  of  frequent  removal  of  the  charged  earth  may 
be  dispensed  with,  by  carrying  the  soil-pipe  down  to  a  vault  or  portable 
receptacle  beneath  the  lowest  closet.  The  receptacle  of  each  closet 
shoi;ld  be  provided,  at  the  bottom,  Avith  a  sliding  valve,  which  is  opened 
by  a  handle  when  the  holder  is  full,  and  its  contents  then  pass  through 
the  pipe  into  the  vault  or  other  proper  reservoir. 

The  principles  to  be  observed  in  applying  this  form  of  the  dry  method 
are  stated  by  Mr.  Waring,  as  follows: 

"  1.  The  earth  for  use  in  closets  must  be  dry;  not  necessarily  dried  by 
artificial  heat,  but  made  as  dry  as  it  can  be  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  by 
the  exclusion  of  rain. 

"  2.  It  must  contain  enough  alumina  (clay),  or  organic  matter,  or  oxide 
of  iron,  or  be  sufficiently  powdery,  to  give  it  sufficient  absorbing  power. 

"  3.  It  must  be  sifted  of  its  stones  and  coarser  particles. 

"  4.  The  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  closet  must  be  such  that  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  earth  will  be,  with  certainty,  deposited  upon  the 
fa?ces — enough  to  cover  them  and  to  absorb  the  urine  of  the  single  evacu- 
ation. And  the  accumulation  under  the  seat  must  be  occasionally  raked 
down  or  levelled  off  in  the  vault,  when  an  ordinary  vault  is  used. 

"  5.  When  the  vault  or  receptacle  has  become  too  full,  its  contents 
must  be  removed,  and,  before  the  supply  is  exhausted,  the  reservoir  must 
be  refilled. 

"  G.  If  the  earth  is  to  be  again  used,  its  organic  matter  must  be  de- 
stroyed by  fermentation,  and  its  moisture  must  be  evaporated. 

"  7.  In  towns  some  system  must  be  adopted  for  the  supply  of  earth 
and  removal  of  deposits,  either  by  the  public  authorities  or  by  private  en- 
terprise." 

The  advantages  of  the  dry-earth  system  are  summarized '  by  Dr.  Bu- 
chanan, as  follows: 

1  Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Med.  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council,  1869. 


512  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

"  1.  The  earth-closet,  intelligently  managed,  furnishes  a  means  of  dis- 
posing of  excrement  without  nuisance,  and  apparently  without  detriment 
to  health. 

"  2.  In  communities  the  earth-closet  system  requires  to  be  managed 
by  the  authority  of  the  place,  and  will  pay  at  least  the  expenses  of  its 
management. 

"  3.  In  the  poorer  classes  of  houses,  where  superv^ision  of  any  closet 
arrangements  is  indisj^ensable,  the  adoption  of  the  earth  system  offers 
special  advantages. 

"4.  The  earth  system  of  excrement-removal  does  not  supersede  the 
necessity  for  an  independent  means  of  removing  slops,  rain-water,  and 
soil-water. 

"  5.  The  limits  of  application  of  the  earth  system  in  the  future  can- 
not be  stated.  In  existing  towns,  favorably  arranged  for  access  to  the 
closets,  the  system  may  be  at  once  apjDlied  to  jDopulations  of  10,000 
persons. 

"  6.  As  compared  with  the  water-closet,  the  earth  system  has  these  ad- 
vantages: It  is  cheaper  in  the  original  cost;  it  requires  less  repair;  it  is 
not  injured  by  frost;  it  is  not  damaged  by  improper  substances  driven 
down  it;  and  it  very  greatly  reduces  the  quantity  of  water  required  by 
each  household." 

The  disadvantages  of  the  system  are — the  trouble  and  exjoense  of  col- 
lecting, artificially  drying,  and  storing  the  earth,  especially  in  crowded 
localities  ;  the  annoyance  and  expense  of  frequent  removal  of  the  soil, 
which  has  only  trifling  commercial  value;  the  discomfort  sometimes  oc- 
casioned by  the  earth  when  in  a  very  dry  and  powdery  state;  the  constant 
care  required,  especially  among  the  improvident  classes,  to  prevent  slops, 
sink-water,  and  other  liquids  being  added,  by  which  the  object  of  the 
system  would  be  defeated,  and  a  nuisance  created;  and  the  necessity  of 
supplementing  this  system  with  an  additional  provision  for  the  removal  of 
liquid  refuse  matters. 

These  difficulties  would  be  greatly  aggravated  if  the  plan  were  applied 
to  a  large  town  of  many  thousands  of  inhabitants;  indeed,  it  is  tolerably 
certain  that  the  use  of  the  dry-earth  sj^stem,  or  any  of  the  dry  methods, 
even  as  a  substitute  for  the  offensive  privy  nuisances  which  usually  exist 
on  premises  unprovided  with  water-closets,  however  satisfactory  for  coun- 
try houses,  public  institutions,  and  villages,  is  entirely  impracticable  for 
densely  populated  places. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  obviate  some  of  the  difficulties  mentioned 
above,  by  modifying  the  construction  of  the  closet  so  as  to  separate  the 
urine  from  the  solid  portions  of  the  excreta,  and  allow  the  former  to  pass 
away  by  a  separate  channel.  In  one  form  the  house-water  can  be  carried 
off  in  the  same  channel  with  the  urine.  In  another  plan,  the  urine  passes 
into  some  absorbent  substance  in  the  front  of  the  receptacle,  which  is 
separated  from  the  ftecal  matter  by  means  of  a  partition;  the  solids  are 
therefore  kept  perfectly  dry.  By  some  these  modifications  are  considered 
an  improvement,  but  wherein  it  consists  it  is  difficult  to  perceive,  since 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  513 

they  really  unnecessarily  complicate  the  apparatus  and  render  it  more 
liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

Charcoal  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  dried  earth.  It  is  a  better 
disinfectant,  but  its  use  is  more  expensive,  although  a  smaller  quantity  is 
required.  Peat-charcoal  is  cheaper  than  animal  charcoal,  and  may  be 
used  in  its  place.  Mr.  Stanford  proposes  to  obviate  the  difficulty  of  price 
by  obtaining  charcoal  from  seaweed.  It  is  a  cheap  article  and  very  use- 
ful as  a  deodorant.  After  being  once  charged  with  the  excreta  it  may  be 
again  used  after  being  recarbonized  in  a  retort  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
the  prod,ucts  of  distillation  being  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  re- 
burning  the  mixture.  Various  kinds  of  deodorizing  powders  have  been 
substituted  for  dry  earth  and  charcoal,  such  as  carbolic  acid  powders, 
Bond's  terebene  powders,  cupralum,  etc.,  but  though  these  svibstances  are 
efficacious,  the  plan  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the  expense.  The  use 
of  sawdust  mixed  with  carbolic  acid  or  sulphuric  acid,  or  with  chloralum 
powder  has  likewise  been  suggested,  and  tried  on  a  small  scale. 

The  Goux  system. — This  system  consists  in  collecting  the  excreta  in 
pails  or  receptacles  lined  with  some  dry  absorbent  substance,  to  which  a 
deodorant  is  usually  added. 

"  A  tapering  tub  or  container  is  provided,  say  16|-  inches  high,  and 
20  inches  at  its  greatest  diameter.  Upon  the  bottom  of  the  tub  is  placed 
3  or  4  inches  of  refuse,  such  as  new  stable-litter,  loft  sweepings,  stack 
bottoms,  ferns,  shavings,  sawdust,  shoddy,  flax  dressings,  spent  tan,  or 
hops,  or  the  various  waste  materials  to  be  found  in  the  town  or  country  ; 
this  is  mixed  with  a  little  soot,  charcoal,  gypsum,  or  other  deodorizer,  for 
the  purpose  of  packing  or  lining  the  tub.  A  mould  of  the  same  shape  as 
the  tub,  but  six  inches  less  than  the  internal  diameter,  is  placed  upon  the 
four  inches  of  absorbent  material  referred  to,  and  the  space  between  the 
mould  and  the  tub  is  packed  with  the  same  kind  of  refuse.  One  boy  can 
pack  eighty  tubs  in  an  houi-,  and  this  is  all  the  manipulation  required, 
excepting  placing  and  removing  the  tubs  at  stated  times.  The  absorbent 
material  having  been  only  moderately  pressed  down,  the  mould  is  with- 
drawn, and  there  remains  a  cavity  into  which  the  dejections  fall,  the 
liquid  parts  of  which  are  taken  up  by  the  absorbents,  and  retained  by 
them,  so  as  to  check  fermentation."  ' 

This  system  has  been  adopted  at  Halifax,  and  is  said  to  work  very  sat- 
isfactorily. It  is  certainly  an  immense  improvement  upon  the  ordinary 
privy  systems,  and  far  superior  to  many  of  the  plans  now  in  use  for  dis- 
posing of  excreta  by  means  of  pails. 

The  sanitary  advantages  of  this  system  depend  upon  the  careful  pre- 
paration of  the  tubs,  the  exclusion  of  all  extraneous  matter,  chamber-slops, 
and  the  like,  and  the  careful  supervision  of  the  system  by  the  authorities, 
so  that  the  pails  shall  be  prepared  in  a  suitable  manner,  and  carefully 
removed  at  the  proper  time,  without  causing  any  nuisance  at  the  place 
or  during  the  transportation  of  the  material. 


'  Bailey  Denton :   San.  Engineering',  p.  221. 
Vol.  I.— 33 


514  SOIL    AND    WATEK. 

The  ash-closet  system. — The  ash-closet  system  has  been  introduced  in 
several  large  towns  in  England,  where  it  was  desired  to  supplant  cess- 
pools and  privies,  and  the  results  have  been  very  beneficial.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  the  use  of  screened  ashes  as  a  substitute  for 
dry  earth  in  the  ordinary  commode.  The  method  under  consideration  re- 
fers particularly  to  the  incorporation  of  ashes  with  excrement  in  pails,  or 
small  vaults,  easily  accessible  for  the  removal  of  their  contents. 

The  pails  used  at  Manchester  and  Salford  are  made  of  galvanized  iron, 
fifteen  inches  high,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  a  capacity  of  ten 
gallons.  In  both  places  cinder-sifters  connected  with  the  closets  have 
been  introduced,  and  aj)pear  to  act  very  well.  It  has  been  suggested,  by 
way  of  improvement,  to  make  use  of  strong,  wooden  pails  instead  of  the 
iron  receivers,  and  to  place  the  tubs  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  instead  of 
locating  them  in  pits,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  material, 
and  to  secure  greater  cleanliness.  The  system  provides  for  the  frequent 
removal  of  the  pail,  in  some  cases  as  often  as  once  a  week.  Mr.  Radcliffe 
has  made  a  careful  examination  of  the  system  as  applied  at  Manchester, 
and  reports  upon  it  as  follows:  "  In  the  series  of  inspections  I  have  made 
with  reference  to  the  working  of  this  new  system,  I  had  occasion  first  to 
observe  the  contrast  as  to  nuisance  between  the  dry-ash  closet  and  the  old 
midden  closet.  In  several  streets  where  the  process  of  reconstruction  had 
been  only  partially  completed,  it  was  possible  to  compare  the  old  and  new 
privy  arrangements  in  contiguous  premises.  It  was  the  contrast  between 
open,  big,  uncieanable  cavities,  containing  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  de- 
composing feecal  matter,  and  emitting  a  horrible,  penetrating  odor,  and 
small  receptacles,  emitting  hardly  any  appreciable  smell,  even  with  the 
nose  above  the  privy-seat,  and  admitting  of  thorough  cleansing.  Most 
significant  testimony  was  given  to  the  benefit  of  the  change  by  some 
householders.  Many  houses  in  Manchester  are  built  in  parallel  rows,  a 
back  passage  running  between  the  rows,  and  each  house  having  a  small 
yard  in  the  rear,  in  which  the  privy  is  placed.  Since  the  reconstruction 
of  the  privies,  '  it  has  been  possible  to  open  the  back  windows  of  the 
houses.'  The  change,  moreover,  has  affected  beneficially  the  value  of  cot- 
tage property;  and  tenants  are  quite  willing  to  give  threepence  more  rent 
weekly,  since  the  reconstruction  of  the  privies,  for  the  gain  in  decenc}' 
and  comfort.  Soakage  of  excremental  matter  into  the  soil,  and  its  passage 
into  and  accumulation  in  drains,  is,  of  course,  obviated  by  the  reconstruc- 
tion; and  the  smaller  space  occupied  by  the  new  closet  is  not  an  unimpor- 
tant matter.  The  removal  of  the  excrement-pail  is,  with  the  most  ordinary 
care,  free  from  offensiveness;  and  if  commonly  conducted,  as  I  saw  the 
operation,  it  may  well  be  executed  during  the  day-time,  and  the  abomina- 
tion of  night-scavenging  done  away  with.  The  use  of  the  cinder-sifters 
has  been  adopted  by  householders  with  a  readiness  which  proves  how  ac- 
curate the  corporation  was  in  depending  upon  their  cooperation  in  the 
Avorking  of  the  scheme.  The  high  price  of  coal  during  the  last  two  years 
has  contributed  to  this  good  result,  from  the  value  of  the  cinders  in  econo- 
mizing its  use.     It  is  found,  also,  that  a  class  of  the  population,  commonly 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  515 

believed  to  be  unmanageable  in  regard  to  any  niceties  of  arrangement  for 
excrement  disposal,  have  rapidly  appreciated  the  advantages  of  the  new 
closet,  and  taken  to  the  use  of  the  cinder-sifter.  In  other  words,  it  has  been 
found  that  habits  of  decency  and  order  in  the  particular  matters  referred 
to  have  been  largely  developed  with  the  opportunities  for  such  decency 
and  order.  Among  the  lowest  class,  occupying  sublet  houses,  and  having 
privies  used  by  families  in  common,  it  will,  however,  probably  be  found 
necessary  to  adopt  some  special  supervision,  and  to  remove  the  excrement 
and  dry  house-refuse  daily." 

Another  form  of  ash-closet  consists  of  a  small  water-tight  pit  to  receive 
the  excrement  and  ashes.  It  is  best  illustrated  by  the  arrangement 
adopted  by  the  town  of  Hull.  Instead  of  the  movable  receptacle,  a  shal- 
low vault  is  used  for  retaining  the  excrement.  It  is  built  of  bricks  in 
cement,  and  is  intended  to  be  thoroughly  water-tight.  In  front  of  the 
seat  there  is  a  movable  board,  to  afford  access  to  the  pit.  Ashes  and  dry 
refuse  of  the  house  are  thrown  down  through  the  hole  in  the  privy-seat. 
Rain-water  and  slops  are  intended  to  be  excluded.  The  ashes  absorb  the 
moisture,  and  render  the  mixture  sufficiently  dry  to  be  removed  by  a 
spade.  The  removal  of  the  material  takes  place  about  once  a  week,  and 
the  carts  used  for  the  purpose  are  required  to  be  water-tight  and  properly 
covered.  The  pit  consists  of  nothing  but  the  space  between  the  seat  and 
the  flag  or  brick  floor,  which  latter  slopes  a  little  from  the  front  toward 
the  back,  where  it  is  slightly  below  the  ground-level.  A  separate  closet 
is  provided  for  each  family;  otherwise,  in  practice,  it  is  found  impossible 
to  have  the  proper  care  taken  of  them.  The  capacity  of  the  recejJtacles 
is  purposely  limited,  so  as  to  prevent  accmiiulation  for  any  length  of 
time,  and  necessitate  frequent  removal  of  the  sewage.  Unless  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  care  is  exercised  by  the  householder,  and  the 
scavenging  arrangements  are  complete,  and  unless  regular  and  constant 
supervision  is  maintained,  the  closets  are  sure  to  become  nuisances  of  the 
worst  description,  rivalling  the  old-fashioned  ash-pits  and  middens  which 
were,  and  still  are  in  some  places,  the  abominations  of  English  towns. 

Dr.  Radcliffe  gives  as  his  opinion  founded  upon  a  wide  range  of  ex- 
perience, that  "  in  all  forms  of  fixed  closets  the  foremost  condition — the 
one  to  which  all  other  considerations  should  yield — is  the  frequency  of 
removal  of  deposited  excrement.''''  The  complete  removal  of  all  excrement 
within  a  day,  he  considers  as  practically  constituting  safety  in  the  case 
where  the  material  is  unmixed,  or  is  only  mixed  with  ordinary  ashes,  and 
he,  with  Dr.  Buchanan,  recommended  this  view  to  the  authorities  of 
Hull;  but,  thus  far,  a  weekly  removal  is  all  that  has  been  attempted. 

The  ash-closet  system  may  fail  in  its  sanitary  objects  through  faulty 
construction  or  deterioration  of  the  walls  of  the  pits,  leading  to  imperfect 
cleansing",  and  perhaps  to  the  escape  of  liquid  filth  into  the  soil.  Or,  its 
designs  may  be  defeated  by  the  want  of  care  and  cleanliness,  particularly 
on  the  part  of  the  ignorant  and  improvident  classes.  The  use  of  tlie 
privy-pits  as  receptacles  for  house-slops  is  inevitable  in  a  certain  number 
of  cases.      It  can  hardly  be  prevented,  except  by  an  amount  of  supervi- 


516  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

sion  which,  ordinarily,  it  would  not  be  practicable  to  provide.  This  prac- 
tice hastens  the  decomposition  of  the  excrement,  and  may  lead  to  an  occa- 
sional overflow  of  the  receptacle,  and  to  all  the  evils  attendant  upon  a  bad 
form  of  cesspool. 

All  these  disadvantages  have  been  experienced  at  Hull,  which  has  per- 
haps the  best  system  of  ash-closets  or  vaults  (fixed  receptacles)  that  has  as 
yet  been  adopted  by  any  town  of  considerable  size. 

The  dry-ash  method  has  never  been  systematically  introduced  in  any 
town  in  this  country  that  we  are  aware  of,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  it  should 
be,  unless  as  an  improvement  upon  the  common  privy-well  or  cesspool. 
For  small  towns,  where  some  form  of  conservancy  must  be  depended  upon, 
the  dry-earth  system  offers  far  greater  advantages.  In  large  towns,  un- 
less impracticable,  the  water  system  should  be  adopted  as  being  "the 
cleanest,  the  readiest,  the  quickest,  and,  in  many  cases,  the  most  inexpen- 
sive method  "  of  removal  of  excreta.  In  regard  to  large  cities,  the  ques- 
tion has  already  been  practically  settled. 

3.    Other  Systems. 

Privy-vaults  and  cess2nts. — It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  describe 
these  forms  of  receptacle  for  the  accumulation  of  human  excrement. 
Unfortunately,  the  public  are  already  too  familiar  with  these  nuisances, 
which  have  their  place  in  every  city,  town,  and  hamlet  in  the  land.  It  has 
already  been  shown  that  privies  of  the  accumulative  sort  are  injurious  to 
health,  and  should  be  discontinued,  especially  in  populous  places.  It  is  idle 
to  hope  for  this  much-needed  reform  until  public  opinion  is  more  enlight- 
ened upon  sanitary  tojDics,  and  our  local  authorities  are  clothed  with  more 
ample  and  peremptory  powers.  In  the  meantime,  "  all  that  can  be  at- 
tempted is  to  reach  such  a  modification  of  the  methods  now  in  use  as 
shall  render  them  at  least  much  less  offensive  and  dangerous  than  they 
now  are." 

The  sinqile  pail  system. — This  is  one  of  the  systems  which  has  been 
put  forward  as  an  amendment  of  the  system  just  alluded  to.  It  has  for 
its  aim  "  that  the  excremental  matter,  unaltered,  shall  be  removed  from 
the  privies  at  so  short  intervals  as  not  to  have  become  offensive;  and 
adopting  as  a  means  to  this  end  the  use  of  movable  receptacles,  which 
systematically,  at  short  intervals,  are  to  be  changed,  clean  for  dirty  by  the 
scavenger;  and  which,  for  the  prevention  of  nuisance  in  this  process,  have 
close-fitting  air-tight  lids  to  be  applied  to  the  foul  pails  under  removal." 
Dr.  Parkes  states  that  this  plan  is  carried  out  in  a  part  of  the  city  of  Glas- 
gow, containing  80,000  people,  with  satisfactory  results.  The  excrement 
is  removed  daily  without  admixture,  except  with  the  ordinary  kitchen- 
refuse,  and  is  transported  a  long  distance  with  profit.  The  same  plan  has 
been  adopted  in  some  English  towns,  and  in  a  number  of  cities  on  the 
continent. 

The  Fosses  Mobiles  of  Paris  are  a  variety  of  this  system.  The  pails 
or  barrels  are  not  placed  under  the  seat,  but  are  connected  with  the  closets 


SOIL    AND    WATEE.  517 

by  means  of  a  descent-pipe,  which  is  usually  straight.  This  main  pipe  is 
carried  above  the  building  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation,  and  at  its  lower 
end  rests  upon  a  slab  of  stone  over  the  receptacle,  which  is  placed  in  the 
basement  of  the  building.  The  connection  with  the  barrel  is  made  by 
means  of  a  sliding  copper  pipe  which  fits  in  an  opening  in  the  lid,  so  that 
the  excreta  are  delivered  directly  into  the  receptacle.  The  barrel  when 
full  is  placed  upon  a  small  cart  which  is  moved  on  rails.  Before  the  re- 
moval takes  place,  the  copper  pipe  is  withdrawn  from  the  vessel,  and  its 
mouth  is  tightly  secured  with  a  cap  and  clamps;  the  lid  is  then  removed, 
and  another  covering  without  any  opening  is  firmly  fastened  in  its  place, 
and  the  former  one  is  used  for  the  empty  barrel,  which  is  placed  directly 
under  the  outlet  of  the  jorivy  pipe;  the  copper  pipe  is  then  adjusted  as 
before.  The  work  of  transfer  and  removal  is  quickly  and  neatly  done. 
The  barrels  are  sometimes  fitted  with  a  separator  for  keeping  the  fteces 
and  urine  apart ;  the  latter  may  be  discharged  into  the  sewer  by  means  of 
a  small  pipe. 

The  "  Abfuhrtonnen "  of  the  Germans,  are  similar  to  the  "Fosses 
Mobiles  "  of  the  French,  and  consist  of  wooden  or  metallic  vessels,  which 
are  placed  directly  under  the  descent-pipes,  and  when  filled  are  covered 
with  a  tightly  fitting  lid  and  transported  direct  to  the  country,  or  they  are 
emptied  into  a  vehicle  waiting  in  the  street.  The  removal  of  the  vessels 
is  necessarily  frequent,  as  their  capacity  is  limited.  The  excrement  is 
either  taken  direct  to  the  country  or  is  first  subjected  to  a  process  of 
manipixlation  by  which  it  is  converted  into  a  manure. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  plans  for  the  removal  of 
excreta  without  admixture  is  that  adopted  at  Rochdale.  It  consists  of  a 
closet  (outside  the  house)  of  simple  construction,  beneath  the  seat  of 
which  is  placed  a  tub  (usually  made  from  a  disused  petroleum  barrel  by 
cutting  it  in  two)  to  receive  the  solid  and  licpid  excreta  without  admix- 
ture with  any  absorbent  material.  The  "  pails  "  are  provided  with  tightly 
fitting  lids  so  that  the  process  of  removal  is  inoffensive.  When  one 
pail  is  removed,  another,  which  has  been  thoroughly  Avashed  and  dis- 
infected at  the  depot,  is  put  in  its  place.  The  pails  are  fitted  with 
iron  handles  so  as  to  be  more  thoroughly  under  the  control  of  one  man. 
Having  but  limited  capacity,  their  frequent  removal  becomes  a  necessity. 
In  Rochdale,  the  weekly  removal  seems  to  answer  very  well.  The  ashes 
are  collected  at  the  same  time  and  used  in  the  process  of  manure  manu- 
facture. Mr.  Taylor,  the  originator  of  the  system  at  Rochdale,  describes 
the  treatment  of  the  material  at  the  depot  as  follows:  "The  pails  are 
thoroughly  washed,  and  into  each  is  pnt  a  portion  of  chloride  of  alumina 
and  sulphate  of  lime.  The  excreta  are  emptied  from  the  pails  into  a  trench 
formed  of  fine  ash,  which  has  been  sifted  from  the  refuse  and  cinders 
collected  by  the  ash-cart.  A  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  30  lbs.  to  one 
ton  of  excreta,  is  poured  into  the  trench  and  the  whole  mixed.  In  three 
days  the  trench  is  turned  over  with  a  spade,  and  again  in  twenty-one  days, 
by  which  time  the  whole  will  have  become  in  a  tolerably  dry  state,  con- 
taining about  35  per  cent,  of  water.     Before  the  sale  of  the  manure  it  is 


518  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

again  turned  over  and  screened.     The  quantity  of  excreta  to  ash  used  at 
present  is  7  cwt.  of  ash  to  1  ton  of  excreta. 

"  The  ash-carts  pour  their  contents  into  the  hopper  of  a  sifting  machine, 
which  separates  the  fine  ash,  fine  cinder,  roug'h  cinder,  vegetable  matter, 
glass,  pots,  and  rags.  The  disposal  of  this  refuse  is  by  using  the  fine  ash 
for  manure,  the  fine  and  rough  cinder  for  fuel  for  the  steam  boilers,  and 
for  sale;  the  vegetable  matter  is  burnt,  and  the  ash  from  it  ground  and 
added  to  the  manure  for  the  sake  of  the  potash;  the  clinkers  and  pots  are 
ground  up  for  mortar  and  cement,  and  the  rags,  glass,  and  iron  sold." 

In  some  towns  the  contents  of  the  pails  are  emptied  into  carts.  If 
this  plan  be  adopted,  a  daily  removal  is  required.  But  this  system  is 
needlessly  offensive,  and  does  not  provide  for  the  cleansing  of  the  re- 
ceptacles. 

Proper  attention  and  frequent  removal  of  the  vessels  are  the  principal 
objects  to  be  aimed  at  in  carrying  out  the  pail  system.  Upon  the  observ- 
ance or  the  contrary  of  these  essential  features  will  depend  very  greatly 
the  success  or  failure  of  the  system. 

The  sinijyle pneumatic  system. — This  method,  in  its  best  form,  consists 
in  the  provision  of  well-ventilated,  watertight  vaults,  of  small  dimensions, 
for  the  collection  of  solid  and  liquid  excreta  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
waste  substances,  such  as  house-slops,  kitchen-refuse,  etc.,  which  are 
emptied  in  an  odorless  manner,  and  at  frequent  intervals,  by  means  of  a 
portable  pneumatic  apparatus,  the  so-called  "  odorless  excavating  appa- 
ratus." 

To  derive  the  most  satisfactory  results  from  this  plan  it  is  necessary 
that  the  construction  of  the  vaults  with  regard  to  their  form,  size,  loca- 
tion, and  other  details  be  under  the  strictest  municipal  regulations,  and 
that  the  subsequent  management  of  the  vaults  and  the  removal  of  their 
contents  be  subjected  to  the  most  careful  sanitary  supervision.  As  a 
rule,  in  this  country  at  least,  the  first-mentioned  important  requirement 
is  almost  entirely  neglected,  the  manner  of  the  construction  of  the  re- 
ceptacles being  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  private  householder  or  builder; 
consequently,  they  are  almost  universally  unsatisfactory,  and  most  of  them 
are  positive  nuisances. 

Various  kinds  of  apparatus  have  been  used  for  exhausting  the  con- 
tents of  wells  in  an  odorless  manner.  Suction  power  has  been  applied, 
the  air-pumps  used  for  the  purpose  being  worked  either  by  steam  or  by 
hand.  In  another  kind  of  apparatus,  the  air  in  the  tank  is  exhausted  by 
connecting  the  air-pump  with  the  wheels,  so  that  by  the  time  the  receiver 
arrives  at  the  vault,  it  is  in  readiness  for  filling.  In  still  another  arrange- 
ment the  pumping  appliances  are  dispensed  with  altogether,  and  only  the 
receiving  cylinder  is  used.  "  When  about  to  be  employed,  this  cylinder 
is  filled  from  a  small  stationary  boiler  with  steam  of  about  one  and  a 
quarter  atmosphere  pressure,  which  drives  all  the  air  contained  in  it 
through  a  chimney  containing  a  charcoal  fire  to  make  it  inoffensive.  When 
the  cylinder  is  filled  with  steam,  the  valve  is  closed,  the  connecting-pipe 
detached,  and  the  wagon  drives  to  its  destination.     During  the  transit  the 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


519 


steam  condenses,  leaving  a  perfect  vacuum  above  a  little  vpater  collecting 
in  the  bottom.  To  empty  a  cesspool  it  is  then  only  necessary  to  fasten 
one  end  of  a  hose  to  a  coupling  socket  on  the  cylinder,  and  lower  the 
other  end  into  the  pool.  The  moment  the  valve  in  the  socket  is  opened, 
the  air  forces  the  sewage  matter  into  the  cylinder,  until  the  gases  collect- 
ing in  the  upper  part  balance  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  re- 
sistance of  these  gases  prevents  the  filling  of  the  cylinder  to  more  than 
about  three-quarters  of  its  capacity,  the  suction  being  very  powerful  in 
the  start,  but  gradually  slackening  olf  until  brought  to  a  dead  stop  by  the 
above  cause."  ^ 

Witjiin  the  last  few  years  several  highly-improved  forms  of  apparatus 
have  been  brought  forward,  which,  having  won  merited  favor,  are  being 
rapidly  introduced  throughout  the  country. 

An  excellent  form  of  "  odorless  apparatus  "  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  85. 


Fig.  85. — Odorless  Excavating  Apparatus  {Tank  System)."^ 

It  consists  of  a  pump,  hose,  a  tank,  and  a  charcoal  deodorizing  furnace 
for  consuming  the  gases.  The  tank,  having  a  capacity  of  about  500 
gallons,  is  made  of  wood  well-braced  with  iron  hoops  to  add  to  its  strength. 
It  is  permanently  attached  to  a  truck  which  is  drawn  by  two  horses.  At 
one  end  of  the  tank  is  placed  a  gauge  which  is  self-acting,  and  indicates 
the  level  of  the  sewage  and  the  quantity  of  this  material  contained  in  the 
receiver.  A  small  charcoal  furnace  is  placed  over  a  vent  hole  upon  the 
top  of  the  tank,  and  this  opening  is  screened  by  a  wire  gauze  to  prevent 
ignition  of  the  gases  in  the  receptacle.     During  the  pumping,  the  foul 


'  Krepp  :  The  Sewage  Question,  1867,  p.  83. 

^  The  apparatus  used  by  "  The  Odorless  Excavating  Apparatus  Company.' 


520  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

air  displaced  by  the  entrance  of  the  sewage  is  compelled  to  pass  through 
the  burning  charcoal,  and  is  thus  consumed  without  causing  any  offense. 
The  pump,  which  is  the  invention  of  Messrs.  Painter  &  Keizer  of  Balti- 
more, has  great  merit  on  account  of  the  simplicity  and  efficiency  of  its 
valves.  The  valves,  which  are  of  vulcanized  rubber,  are  not  easily  disar- 
ranged, and  they  are  so  combined  as  to  give  free  passage  to  whatever 
material  is  drawn  up  into  the  hose.  The  pump  is  worked  by  hand.  At 
one  end  of  it,  a  four-inch  hose  is  attached  and  carried  into  the  well.  At 
the  other  end  is  attached  another  section  of  hose,  of  the  same  diameter, 
which  is  then  connected  with  the  top  of  the  air-tight  tank  by  a  patent 
coupling  arrangement  which  can  be  quickly  and  tightly  adjusted.  When 
all  is  in  readiness  the  pump  is  set  in  motion,  and  the  contents  of  the 
vault  are  rapidly  delivered  into  the  receiving  tank  without  any  exposure 
to  the  air,  and  consequently  without  creating  any  offensive  smells.  When 
the  operation  is  over,  the  end  of  the  hose  withdrawn  from  the  well  is 
cleaned  in  a  barrel  provided  for  the  purpose,  and  the  soiled  water  is 
pumped  into  the  tank.  The  hose  are  disconnected  and  all  the  openings  in 
tank,  pump  and  hose  are  quickly  covered  with  tightly-fitting  cajDS,  without 
the  escape  of  any  of  the  sewage.  The  whole  jorocess  from  beginning  to 
end  is  thoroughly,  inoffensively,  and  quickly  performed. 

There  is  another  descrijotion  of  "  odorless  apparatus,"  which  is  some- 
times called  the  "  barrel "  system,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  method  just 
described,  to  which  the  name  of  "  tank  "  system  has  usually  been  ap- 
plied.    It  consists  of  the  following  parts : 

The  pump,  A. 

Pump-receiver,  JB. 

Suction-hose  and  connections,  C. 

Leading-hose  and  connections,  ^. 

Air-hose  and  connections,   G. 

Barrels  and  fittings,  O. 

Furnace  deodorizer  and  connections,  ITl^. 

The  pump  is  placed  upon  wheels  to  render  its  movements  more  easy. 
It  is  used  simply  as^an  air-pump,  no  sewage  ever  passing  through  it.  Its 
uses  are,  first,  to  create  a  vacuum  in  the  j^ump-receiver,  and  pass  the  ex- 
hausted foul  air  into  the  furnace-fire  to  be  consumed;  and,  second,  to  com- 
press air  upon  the  contents  of  the  pump- receiver,  and  force  them  through 
the  large  hose  into  the  barrels  upon  the  truck.  The  foul  air  displaced 
in  the  barrels  is  deodorized  by  being  passed  through  a  furnace  similar  to 
that  connected  with  the  air-pumjj. 

The  pump-receiver  (^)  is  a  strong  oak  barrel,  having  a  capacity  of 
about  forty-five  gallons.  It  is  provided  with  two  valves  or  gates,  one 
near  the  tojD  and  the  other  near  the  bottom.  The  suction-hose  which  con- 
nects the  receiver  with  the  vault  is  attached  to  the  upper  one,  and  the 
hose  leading  to  the  wagon  to  the  lower  one.  The  head  of  the  receiver  is 
provided  with  a  coupling-spud  for  the  attachment  of  the  air-hose. 

The  barrels  ( 0)  are  strong,  forty-five-gallon  oak  barrels,  which  have 
two  coupling-sjDuds  in  the  head — one  for  the  attachment  of  the  leading- 


SOIL    AND    WATEK. 


521 


hose,  and  the  other  for  either  the  air-hose  connection  or  the  attachment 
of  the  furnace  deodorizer,  according  as  the  barrel  is  being  filled  directly  or 
indirectly.  Sealing-caps  are  fitted  to  these  openings  when  the  barrels  are 
full.  The  suction-hose  ( C)  and  leading-hose  (£)  are  made  of  rubber,  and 
have  an  inside  diameter  of  three  incheSo  The  former  is  lined  with  spiral, 
galvanized  flat  iron  or  brass  wire  to  prevent  collapse.  The  couplings 
are  simple  and  readily  adjusted.      In  operating  the  apparatus,  the  pump, 


Fig.  86. — Odorless  Excavating  Apparatus  {Barrel  System).^ 

pump-receiver,  deodorizer,  and  fittings  are  brought  close  to  the  vault.  If 
the  material  is  to  be  transferred  from  the  pump-receiver  to  barrels,  these 
are  in  readiness  upon  a  truck  in  the  street,  and  are  connected,  one  after 
another,  with  the  receiver  by  means  of  the  leading-hose. 

When  all  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  are  properly  arranged,  and  all  the 
couplings  and  connections  have  been  made  air-tight,  the  manner  of  work- 
ing the  apparatus  is  as  follows: 

"  Lift  the  gate,  a,  on  pump-receiver,  J3  y  see  that  the  lower  gate,  h,  is 
shut  tight.  Work  the  brakes,  when  the  air  will  be  exhausted  from  the 
receiver  via  the  float-valve  opening  and  air-hose,/" v.  The  contents  of  the 
vault  will  at  once  rise  through  the  suction-hose,  C,  into  the  receiver,  till 
the  material  lifts  the  cork  float-valve  and  stops  the  pump,  the  receiver 
being  full.  Instantly  shut  the  upper  gate,  a.  The  foul  air  exhausted 
from  S  has  passed  through  the  pump  and  short  air-hose,  k,  under  the  fire 
in  the  deodorizer,  H,  and  is  consumed. 

"  To  transfer  the  material  to  the  barrels  or  tank  on  the  wagon,  uncou- 
ple the  end  of  air-hose,  G,  from  the  suction-spud  of  the  pump.  Re- 
move the  free  end  of  air-hose,  Jc,  from  the  throat  of  the  deodorizer,  and 
couple  the  ends  of  Jc  and  G  together. 

"  Have  goose-neck  valve,  V,  on  the  Avagon-barrel  lifted.     Lift  lower 


'  The  apparatus  used  by  "The  Ames  Eagle  Odorless  Excavating  Apparatus  Com- 
pany." 


522  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

gate,  h,  on  receiver,  and  work  tPie  brakes,  when  the  compressed  air,  driven 
in  at  the  top  of  the  receiver,  will  rapidly  force  the  contents  through 
the  leading  hose  into  the  wagon-barrel.  When  the  wagon-barrel  is  full, 
its  float-valve  will  be  lifted,  and  the  roar  of  the  wagon-deodorizer,  L 
(which  has  consumed  the  foul  air  forced  from  the  barrel),  will  cease. 

"  The  goose-neck  valve,  T^  and  deodorizer,  i,  may  now  be  coupled 
with  the  next  wagon-barrel,  and  the  process  resumed  as  described.  If  a 
long  line  of  leading  hose  is  used,  it  will  be  necessary  to  reserve  one  wagon- 
barrel  for  its  contents,  or  it  may  be  returned  on  itself,  and  the  contents 
discharged  into  the  vault."  ' 

By  this  method  the  barrels  may  be  filled  either  at  the  vault  or  at  some 
distant  point,  whichever  may  be  more  convenient.  There  is  another 
advantage  which  this  method  has  over  the  "  tank "  system  ;  namely, 
the  facility  with  which  the  sewage  can  be  transported  by  wagon,  boat, 
or  rail  without  causing  any  offense,  and  delivered  to  farmers  at  a  dis- 
tance in  convenient  quantities  for  immediate  application  to  the  land. 
This  method  is  likewise  neat,  inoffensive,  ready  and  efficient,  and  com- 
mends itself  to  the  favor  of  the  authorities  where  vault  emptying  is  still 
practised. 

These  two  examples  represent  two  styles  of  apparatus  now  in  practical 
operation  in  many  cities.  There  ai'e  differences  in  the  mechanism  of  the 
pumps,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  apparatus,  and  in  the 
kind  of  receptacle  and  deodorizer,  but  the  same  general  principles  are 
applied  in  all  the  different  apparatuses. 

The  privy-vault  system  is  an  exceedingly  objectionable  one,  unless 
made  to  conform  absolutely  to  the  most  stringent  regulations  which,  in 
practice,  it  is  found  almost  impossible  to  carry  out.  But  where  the  use  of 
privy-vaults  and  cesspools  is  still  persisted  in,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  sanita- 
rian to  indicate,  and  of  the  public  authorities  to  put  into  operation,  the 
very  best  appliances  that  can  be  devised  for  mitigating  or  preventing  the 
annoyances  and  dangers  which  attend  the  revolting  practice  of  emptying 
these  receptacles  by  hand,  shovel,  and  bucket. 

Some  of  the  objections  to  the  vault-system  are — that  the  walls  of  the 
receptacles,  however  well  built  and  tightly  cemented  in  the  first  place,  are 
liable  to  become  deteriorated  either  from  the  action  of  the  sewage,  the 
settling  of  the  ground,  or  by  the  influence  of  frost,  and  allow  more  or  less 
of  the  sewage  to  escape  into  the  soil  and  into  wells  used  for  water-supply, 
to  the  detriment  of  the  public  health.  The  pollution  of  the  air  of  dwell? 
ings  by  the  evolution  of  noxious  gases  resulting  from  the  decomposition 
and  putrefaction  of  the  sewage  matter,  especially  when  accumulated  in 
large  volumes  and  retained  for  a  long  time,  is  another  serious  objection  to 
this  system. 

From  an  agricultural  view-point,  the  value  of  excremental  matter  after 
fermentation  and  putrefaction  has  taken  place,  which  is  invariably  the 
case  when  the  retention  is  of  long  continuance,  is  greatly  diminished, 

'  Ames  :  Eagle  Odorless  Excavating'  Apparatus,  Boston,  1878,  p.  30. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  523 

and  the  material  is  rendei"ed  almost  worthless  for  fertilizing  purposes 
(Krepp). 

The  emptying  process  need  not  be  offensive  if  the  vaults  are  used  for 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended.  But  if  ashes,  garbage,  crock- 
ery, and  refuse  of  every  description  are  tlirown  into  them,  resort  must  be 
had  to  '■'■  pitting^''  which,  even  in  its  best  form,  is  an  exceedingly  offen- 
sive and  objectionable  operation. 

Tlie  Liernur  2:>neumatic  system. — This  ingenious  and  novel  plan  has  re- 
cently been  brought  to  public  attention  as  a  solution  of  the  great  problem 
of  town  sewerage.  It  consists  in  the  provision  of  air-tight  tanks  which 
are  placed  at  convenient  distances,  under  the  street  crossings,  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  closets  of  houses  by  means  of  air-tight  pipes.  These  dis- 
trict reservoirs  are  again  connected  with  other  reservoirs,  located  at  a 
central  station,  by  a  separate  system  of  air-tight  pipes.  By  means  of 
these  pipes  the  air  is  exhausted  from  the  local  reservoirs  by  an  air-pump 
worked  by  a  steam-engine,  and  the  sewage  is  drawn  along  the  pipes  to 
the  central  reservoir,  and  is  then  converted  into  a  fertilizing  powder,  or 
transferred  to  barrels  for  transportation  to  the  country. 

The  following  description  of  the  plan  and  the  details  of  its  operation 
by  Mr.  Adam  Scott,  is  taken  from  a  paper  on  "  The  Disposal  of  Sewage  " 
by  Dr.  Folsom:  ' 

"  In  a  building,  in  any  convenient  part  of  the  town,  is  placed  a  steam- 
engine,  which  drives  an  air-pump,  so  as  to  maintain  about  three-fourths 
vacuum  in  certain  cast-iron  hermetically- closed  reservoirs  sunk  below  the 
floor.  From  these  reservoirs  central  pipes  radiate  in  all  directions,  follow- 
ing the  main  streets.  On  these  central  pipes  are  laid,  from  distance  to 
distance,  street  reservoirs  sunk  below  the  pavement.  From  the  street 
reservoirs,  up  and  down  the  street,  are  main  pipes  communicating  by 
short  branch-pipes  with  the  closets  of  each  house. 

"  All  the  junctions  of  pipes  with  reservoirs  are  furnished  with  cocks, 
so  that  they  can  be  shut  off  or  turned  on  at  pleasure,  like  water- 
mains,  and  are  got  at  by  cock-boxes,  and  turned  by  keys  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  vacuum  created  in  the  central  building  reservoirs  can  thus  be 
communicated  to  any  given  street  reservoir,  so  as  to  furnish  the  motive- 
power  by  which,  when  the  connections  with  the  houses  are  opened,  all  the 
closets  are  simultaneously  emptied. 

"  AVhen  their  contents  reach  the  central  reservoir,  they  are  in  like 
manner  forced  through  the  central  tubes  to  the  reservoirs  under  the 
central  building,  and  thence  transferred,  by  means  of  vacuum-power, 
to  hermetically-closed  tanks  above  the  floor  of  the  building.  From 
these  retorts  the  matter  is  again  decanted  in  a  fluid  form  in  barrels, 
for  immediate  transport  to  the  country,  by  means  of  hermetically-closed 
apparatus. 

"  During  the  construction  of  this  system,  and  before  connections  are 
made  with  the  central  building,  a  locomotive  engine  empties  the  different 

'  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health,  p.  313. 


524  SOIL    AND    WATEK. 

street  reservoirs,  and  the  closets  connected  therewith,  by  means  of  a  hose 
from  the  tender  to  the  reservoir. 

"  Closets  of  the  simplest  possible  character  are  all  that  are  required, 
and  no  water  whatever  is  needed.  The  funnel  is  made  double,  the  space 
between  the  two  communicating  by  a  joipe  with  the  outside  air. 

"  The  excrement  falls  into  a  sort  of  hydraulic  trap,  capable  of  holding- 
the  fecal  products  of  but  one  person,  and  compelling  thus  what  it  held 
before  to  fall  into  a  larger  trap  of  four  times  greater  capacity.  This  latter 
discharges  in  the  branch  tube,  which  is  connected  with  the  main  tube, 
and  empties  into  the  street  reservoir. 

"  The  branch  tubes  from  the  houses  are  laid  with  a  succession  of 
gi'ades,  not  less  than  one  in  ten,  rising  at  every  twenty  feet  by  a  short 
syphon-tube,  two  feet  high,  to  the  beginning  of  a  new  grade,  until  it  falls 
into  the  main  tube.  It  is  by  means  of  these  continually  repeated  short 
bends  that  the  removal  of  the  contents  of  so  many  privies,  by  turning  only 
one  cock  on  a  main  jiipe,  is  possible,  w^hether  or  not  any  are  emj)ty  on 
account  of  the  house  being  uninhabited.  The  fecal  mass  itself  practically 
forms  the  required  temporary  closure  from  the  main  pipe,  allowing,  through 
its  inertia,  all  the  branch  pipes  to  be  simultaneously  and  equally  acted 
upon  under  all  circumstances.  All  metal  valves  formerly  employed  for 
this  purpose,  and  likely  to  get  out  of  order,  are  now  done  away  with. 

"  The  main  pipes,  into  which  the  branch  pipes  discharge,  are  laid 
with  a  fall  of  one  in  seventy-five,  without  any  break  until  near  the  lower 
end,  when  they  are  suddenly  bent  upward  by  a  syphon-pipe,  so  as  to 
reach  the  upper  j^art  of  the  reservoir.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  sjqDhou 
is  placed  the  cock  which  connects  or  disconnects  the  main  tube  with  the 
reservoir. 

"  The  central  tubes,  which  lead  directly  from  the  reservoirs  to  the  cen- 
tral building  reservoirs,  communicate  with  the  lower  part  of  the  former 
by  means  of  short  pipes,  and  proceed  in  grades  of  one  in  a  hundred, 
broken  every  hundred  metres  by  a  syphon  rise." 

This  system  has  never  been  tried  in  England,  nor  has  it  met  with  an}'- 
favor  in  the  United  States,  although  it  has  been  widely  heralded.  On 
the  continent  partial  experiments  have  been  made,  but  no  town  or  city 
has  applied  the  method  on  a  very  large  scale. 

Both  in  Prague  (1868)  and  Hanau,  where  it  has  been  tried  on  a 
small  scale,  the  judgment  was  unfavorable,  though  Capt.  Liernur  has 
stated  that  the  objectionable  jDarts  have  since  been  remedied  by  improve- 
ments in  the  system. 

In  Leyden  a  portion  of  the  city  inhabited  by  the  poorer  classes  was 
supplied  with  this  system.  It  was  found  to  be  an  improvement  upon  the 
old  plan  of  throwing  the  filth  into  the  canals,  but  it  has  not  been  further 
extended. 

In  Amsterdam  it  was  likewise  introduced  in  the  poorer  parts  of  the 
city,  where  no  provision  for  sewage  had  ever  been  made,  the  canals  having 
been  used  for  all  refuse  which  could  not  escape  by  surface-drainage.  Here 
the  results  are  said  to  have  been  satisfactory^,  though  no  steps  have  been 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  525 

taken  toward  the  general  introduction  of  the  works.  The  better  classes 
are  said  to  prefer  water-closets  and  cesspools  (Folsom). 

Other  places  on  the  continent  have  experimented  with  the  method; 
among  the  number  are  Brilnn,  Olmiltz,  and  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  re- 
sults of  the  trials  have  been  variously  reported  on. 

It  is  objected  to  the  system  that  the  pipes  are  apt  to  become  clogged 
with  fecal  matter,  and  that  the  closets  are  often  very  offensive.  Some- 
times the  closets  become  completely  obstructed,  when  the  stench  is  intol- 
erable. To  overcome  this  annoyance  flushing  is  resorted  to,  and  among 
the  better  classes  water  is  very  freely  used,  though  only  a  limited  quan- 
tity is  allowable;  the  result  is  a  deterioration  in  the  strength  of  the  sew- 
age and  an  increase  in  the  cost  of  disposal.  Dr.  Folsom  states  that  Capt, 
Liernur  purposes  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by  providing  automatic  water- 
closets,  allowing  one  litre  of  water  at  each  use. 

With  the  Liernur  system,  sewers  for  rain-water,  street  drainage,  house 
slops,  etc.,  ai'e  still  necessary. 

The  system  certainly  possesses  considerable  merit,  and  might  be  ad- 
vantageously used  in  localities  where  the  disposal  of  excreta  by  water- 
carriage  is  impracticable.  It  is  perhaps  too  soon  to  pronounce  decidedly 
upon  the  practical  working  of  the  scheme,  since  many  of  the  objections 
urged  against  it  may  in  time  be  remedied  by  mechanical  improvements 
which  might  place  it  in  a  very  different  light.' 

The  different  systems  compared. — The  question  of  the  best  method  of 
disposal  of  sewage,  abstractly  considered,  is  not  a  difficult  one  to  solve. 
But  when  all  the  circumstances  of  place  are  taken  into  consideration,  it  is 
evident  that  no  one  system  can  be  singled  out  as  applicable  in  all  cases. 
Local  conditions  must  necessarily  be  consulted  before  determining  the 
best  method  to  be  adopted.  The  best  method  for  one  locality  may  be 
altogether  impracticable  for  another  locality. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out,  that  where  all  the  circumstances  are 
favorable  the  water-carriage  sj^stem,  by  which  a  neat,  ready,  and  quick 
disposal  of  the  sewage  is  ensured,  is  unmistakably  the  best  adapted  for 
large  towns.  It  will  be  generally  admitted,  that,  for  such  places,  the  pro- 
vision of  sewers  to  carry  off  the  waste  fluids  from  dwellings,  the  refuse 
from  trades,  and  street- washings,  etc.,  is  an  absolute  necessity.  The  only 
point  of  dispute  is  whether  the  excreta  shall  also  be  added.  It  has  been 
seen,  that,  even  without  the  admixture  of  solid  excreta,  sewage  is  an  exceed- 
ingly impure  substance,  and  must  needs  be  purified  before  being  admitted 
into  streams.  The  difficulty  i-eally  resolves  itself  into  the  treatment  of  an 
increased  volume  of  sewage  required  where  water-closets  are  in  use.  It 
is  simply  a  question  of  additional  expense,  which,  as  an  objection,  falls, 

^  See  Krepp  :  The  Sewage  Question,  1867. 

Die  pneumatische  Canalisation  in  der  Praxis,  von  Capitain  Liernur,  Frankfurt, 
1870. 

Seventh  Annual  Report  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  p.  311. 

Waring  :  Sanitary  Drainage,  p.  284. 

Deutsche  Viertelj.  fiir.  oif.  Gesundheitspfl.,  Bd.  iv.,  S.  316  u.  486. 


526  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

when  the  cost  of  a  separate  system  for  excrement  removal  is  taken  into 
consideration. 

The  main  objections  to  sewers  are  founded  upon  faults  in  their  con- 
struction. But  the  objections  are  not  valid.  A  faulty  piece  of  mechanism 
is  never  taken  as  a  standard  by  which  to  judge  of  the  efficiency  of  a  more 
perfect  example.  It  speaks  only  for  itself.  If  sewers  are  constructed  in 
the  best  possible  manner,  if  the  outfalls  are  carefully  selected,  if  the 
house  arrangements  comport  with  standard  regulations,  if  the  water- 
supply  is  ample ;  and  if  all  the  details  of  the  system  are  thoroughly  carried 
out  under  the  best  engineering  skill,  sewers  cannot  be  hurtful  even  with 
the  addition  of  the  solid  excreta  which  do  not  materially  increase  the 
impurity  of  the  sewage. 

Small  towns  and  villages  cannot  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  of  the 
sewerage  system,  on  account  of  the  expense  of  constructing  the  works  and 
of  providing  the  necessary  water-supply.  In  such  cases  the  dry  conserv- 
ancy system,  invariably  combined  with  frequent  removals,  should  have  the 
preference.  Some  form  of  dry-earth  closet  or  charcoal  closet  will  meet  the 
wants  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  In  rural  districts  the  dry-earth  system, 
if  properly  carried  out,  will  meet  every  requirement.  In  sea-side  towns, 
where  the  proper  kind  of  earth  cannot  be  cheaply  obtained  (sand  cannot 
be  used  as  a  substitute),  some  other  form  of  dry  removal  may  be  re- 
sorted to.  The  simple  pail-system  would  certainly  be  a  great  improve- 
ment upon  the  pits  in  general  use,  which  are  purposely  constructed  to 
allow  the  liquid  filth  to  drain  away  into  the  soil  to  save  the  expense  of 
removal.  Small  cast-iron  reservoirs  might  be  provided  in  the  place  of 
cemented  brick-vaults  (which  cannot  be  depended  on  as  being  water-tight), 
from  which  everything  except  solid  and  liquid  excreta  should  be  excluded. 
The  reservoir  should  be  placed  under  a  well-ventilated  privy-house.  If 
it  is  desired  to  connect  it  with  a  closet  projecting  from  the  house,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  well- ventilated  space,  the  descent-pipe  should  be  as 
direct  as  possible,  and  the  basin  should  be  of  plain  glazed  earthenware  of 
the  hopper  joattern.  This  could  be  kept  clean  by  the  use  of  the  chamber- 
water.  The  connection  between  the  reservoir  and  the  pipe  might  be 
hermetically  sealed  by  a  valve,  to  be  opened  by  a  lever  once  a  day.  When 
full,  the  reservoir  should  be  emptied  by  means  of  the  "odorless  appa- 
ratus "  already  described. 

The  Disposal  of  Seicage. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  water-carriage  system  is,  as  a  rule, 
the  best  method  for  getting  rid  of  excreta  and  other  refuse  matters.  The 
question  of  the  ultimate  disposal  of  the  sewer-water  is  yet  to  be  considered. 

The  most  natural  mode  of  getting  rid  of  this  material  is  by  discharg- 
ing it  directly  into  the  ocean  or  into  the  nearest  watercourse;  and  this  is 
the  disposition  almost  invariably  made  of  it  in  this  country,  and,  with 
some  exceptions,  in  other  countries.  In  England,  under  the  Rivers'  Pol- 
lution Act,  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  any  river  or  stream,  without  pre- 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  527 

vious  purification,  is  now  prohibited  so  far  as  relates  to  all  new  drainage- 
works. 

There  are  several  objections  to  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  allowing  it 
to  flow  directly  into  rivers  or  streams.  There  is  the  danger  of  silting  up 
the  beds  of  streams  by  the  deposit  of  substances  suspended  in  the  sewage. 
This  has  actually  occurred  in  the  river  Thames,  where  extensive  shoals 
were  formed  below  the  outfall.  Before  the  present  sewerage  works  were 
constructed,  the  accumulations  were  so  rapidly  forming  as  to  seriously 
threaten  the  safety  of  navigation.  In  small  streams,  though  not  naviga- 
ble, this  danger  may  prove  to  be  a  most  serious  one.  In  tidal  rivers  the 
suspended  matters  are  carried  up  stream  as  well  as  down  stream,  unless 
the  outflow  is  regulated  so  that  the  discharge  takes  place  only  with  the 
descending  current.  Even  with  this  precaution  it  is  shown,  by  Mr.  Bazal- 
gette,  that  a  portion  of  the  solid  matters  contained  in  the  sewage,  and 
carried  down  to  a  certain  point  by  the  ebbing  tide,  is  returned  again  by 
the  ascending  tide  and  deposited  above  the  point  of  discharge.  Large 
sums  of  money  are  annually  expended  for  dredging  out  deposits  from 
sewers  along  our  city  fronts.  This  is  the  constant  result  of  the  exceed- 
ingly bad  practice  of  thus  improperly  locating  the  sewer  outlets.  By  the 
use  of  intercepting  sewers,  having  an  outfall  at  a  distance  below  the  town, 
this  inconvenience  and  expense  could  be  avoided. 

Another  objection  is  that  valuable  stocks  of  fish  are  destroyed  by  dis- 
charging sewage  into  streams.  Sewage  in  the  fresh  state,  or  when  very 
much  diluted,  as  is  the  case  in  our  large  rivers,  is  probably  not  hurtful. 
It  is  the  gases  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  deposits,  particularly 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  that  are  said  to  be  the  hurtful  agents.  The  agricul- 
turist opposes  the  plan  on  the  ground  that  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  fer- 
tilizing material  is  thus  turned  to  waste.  If  the  cost  of  reclaiming  the  fer- 
tilizing ingredients  of  sewage  is  greater  than  the  value  of  the  material 
recovered,  "  then  the  true  economy  is  found  in  the  apparent  waste." 
The  exhalation  from  streams  overcharged  with  sewage  may  become  a 
nuisance,  and  the  deposit  of  organic  matters  upon  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  their  exposure  by  the  receding  tide,  may  be  a  source  of  annoyance, 
if  not  of  positive  danger. 

But  the  most  serious  objection  arises  from  the  contamination  of  the 
drinking-water  of  towns  located  further  down  the  streams.  Corfield 
mentions  cases  in  England  where  towns  actually  turn  their  own  sewage 
into  rivers  only  a  short  distance  above  the  point  from  which  the  water 
supply  is  taken.     This  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  in  the  United  States. 

Generally  speaking,  in  this  country  the  instances  are  rare  where  any 
towns  have  seriously  suffered  from  the  effects  of  this  mode  of  sewage 
disposal.  Most  of  our  cities  and  large  towns  are  situated  either  along  the 
seaboard  or  upon  great  rivers  or  lakes,  where  large  volumes  of  water  are 
always  available.  But  as  the  country  develops  other  places  not  so  favor- 
ably situated  will  be  obliged,  for  self -protection,  to  solve  this  most  impor- 
tant problem  by  the  adoption  of  some  plan  for  the  purification  of  sewage. 
Already  one  of   our   States,   recognizing  the  great    importance   of  pro- 


528  SOIL    AISTD    A\^ATEE. 

tecting  the  health  of  its  citizens,  has,  by  "  an  act  to  provide  for  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  question  of  the  use  of  running  streams  as  common 
sewers  in  its  relation  to  public  health,"  set  on  foot  an  inquiry  which  has 
produced  highly  interesting  and  most  valuable  reports  covering  this  entire 
subject,  to  which  reference  may  be  made  with  advantage.' 

The  methods  of  disposal  of  sewer-water  are  various.  They  may  be 
briefly  alluded  to  as  follows: 

1.  Discharge  directly  into  running  streams. — This  is  the  j^lan  resorted 
to  in  the  United  States,  and  it  will  probably  be  permitted  for  some  time  to 
come  where  the  volume  of  water  is  large,  and  where  it  is  not  immediately 
used  for  drinking  purposes.  In  all  other  cases  there  is  good  and  sufficient 
reason  for  the  adoption  of  some  j^lan  for  the  purification  of  sewer-water 
before  it  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the  stream.  In  England  no  new  sewage- 
works  are  permitted  to  discharge  directly  into  running  water,  and  works 
in  existence  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  act  will  eventually  come 
under  the  same  stringent  regulation.  These  regulations  are  based  upon 
the  results  of  extensive  and  varied  experiments  carried  on  for  many  years, 
which  have  demonstrated  the  feasibility  of  plans  for  depriving  sewage  of 
its  foul  and  noxious  matters,  so  that  it  may  be  discharged  into  rivers 
without  causing  a  nuisance,  "  without  making  the  water  too  impure 
for  use  in  manufacturing  operations;  without  killing  or  driving  away 
the  fish  which  may  inhabit  them;  in  short,  without  materially  injuring 
them  for  any  purpose,  except  as  sources  of  water-supply  for  cities  or 
towns." 

2.  Discharge  into  the  sea. — This  mode  of  disposal  may  be  adopted 
with  safety,  provided  that  the  sewage  can  be  delivered  in  deep  currents 
or  that  the  outfall  can  be  carried  far  out  to  sea,  so  that  the  sedimentary 
matters  and  floating  bodies  shall  not  return  again  to  pollute  the  shores  or 
form  deposits  of  an  objectionable  character.  In  sea-bathing  towns  it  may 
be  necessary  to  clarify  the  sewer-water  before  allowing  it  to  flow  into  the 
sea. 

The  impounding  of  sewage  within  the  outfall  sewers  during  each  tide 
is  an  objectionable  feature  in  the  sewage-works  of  seaboard  towns.  There 
is  a  liability  to  the  formation  of  deposits  in  the  sewers  on  account  of  the 
frequent  checking  of  the  discharge,  and  from  this  same  cause  there  is 
greater  danger  of  the  formation  and  escape  of  noxious  gases  than  when 
the  outflow  is  constant.  A  constant  outflow,  whereby  these  evils  will 
be  avoided,  may  be  secured  by  the  application  of  steam  power  to  raise 
the  sewage  and  dispose  of  it  independently  of  the  state  of  the  tide.  The 
outlets  should  be  protected  by  flap  valves,  in  order  to  regulate  the  action 
of  the  winds. 

The  disposal  of  sewage  by  allowing  it  to  run  as  mere  waste  into  river 
estuaries  and  into  the  sea  is  certainly  the  most  convenient,  the  cheapest, 
and,  generally,  a  perfectly  safe  method  of  riddance.  Should  this  j^lan  give 
rise  to  a   nuisance  in  spite  of  the  best  engineering   arrangements,  the 

'  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  1876. 


SOIL    AND    WATEE.  529 

sewage  may  require  to  be  dealt  with  by  some  simple  plan  of  purification 
before  its  discharge. 

3.  Precipitation. — There  are  several  plans  for  separating  a  portion  of 
the  suspended  matters  from  the  liquid  sewage  before  applying  it  to  land 
or  allowing  it  to  flow  into  the  river.  One  of  these  is  by  mechanical  sub- 
sidence, the  sewage  being  collected  in  tanks,  or  reservoirs,  where  the  sus- 
pended matters  are  intercepted  and  deposited  by  the  aid  of  strainers  to 
impede  the  flow.  The  matter  thus  collected  is  treated  with  various  kinds 
of  refuse  to  form  a  manure.  This  is  an  unsatisfactory  plan,  inasmuch  as 
the  sewer-water  is  still  highly  impure,  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  permit- 
ted to  flow  into  rivers  from  which  untreated  sewage  is  excluded.  A  more 
effectual  purification  may  be  secured  by  means  of  chemical  agents.  By 
these  processes,  not  only  are  the  suspended  matters  separated,  but  also  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  substances  held  in  solution.  The  material 
thus  obtained  is  manipulated  into  a  solid  manure,  but  thus  far  without 
financial  success.  It  is  also  a  question  whether  the  effluent  liquid  is  suffi- 
ciently purified  to  be  allowed  to  flow  into  a  stream  or  river,  the  waters  of 
which  are  used  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  methods  which  have  been  suggested  at  different  times  are  very 
numerous.     Those  of  most  importance  are  as  follows: 

a.  The  lime  2^'>'0Gess. — This  process  consists  in  adding  lime  —  in  a 
creamy  condition — to  the  sewage,  in  the  proportion  of  from  three  to  six- 
teen grains  of  lime  to  a  gallon  of  sewage.  A  flocculent  precipitate  is  thus 
formed,  which  in  the  course  of  an  hour  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
leaving  a  tolerably  clear,  supernatant  liquor,  which  is  said  to  be  compara- 
tively inoffensive.  The  precipitate  is  sold  as  a  manure,  or  is  converted 
into  bricks.  By  this  process  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  dissolved  organic 
matter  contained  in  the  sewage  is  removed.  The  process  of  drying  the 
precipitate  is  said  to  be  very  offensive,  on  account  of  the  escape  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  The  deffecated  sewer-water  also  becomes  offensive 
if  allowed  to  stand  for  any  length  of  time ;  and,  therefore,  to  prevent 
secondary  putrefactive  change,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  it  with  a  large  vol- 
ume of  flowing  water.  Various  substances  have  been  added  to  delay 
putrefaction,  such  as  charcoal,  chloride  of  lime,  and  carbolates  of  lime  and 
magnesia  ;  but  their  use  is  expensive  and  only  of  temporary  value.  This 
process  was  carried  out  on  an  extensive  scale  at  Tottenham  and  Leicester; 
but,  as  the  product  had  but  very  little  agricultural  value,  the  works  were 
soon  abandoned  by  the  patentees  and  transferred  to  the  town  authorities, 
who,  by  neglect,  brought  the  method  into  disrepute. 

It  is  said  that  the  river  Soar,  at  Leicester,  which  had  become  a  foul  and 
pestilential  stream,  presented  an  entirely  different  character  after  the  lime 
process  had  been  adopted,  "for  aquatic  plants  had  begun  to  flourish,  the 
fish  had  returned,  the  black  mud  had  ceased  to  accumulate,  and  the  mill- 
dam  was  no  longer  offensive." '  This  indicates  a  great  improvement  in 
the  character  of  the  sewage,  which  is  an  invariable  result  whenever  the 

J  Letheby :  The  Sewage  Question,  1873,  p.  46. 
Vol.  I. —34 


530  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

method  has  been  well  conducted.  But  as  so  large  a  proportion  of  organic 
matter  still  remains  even  after  the  most  careful  treatment,  it  is  evident 
that  the  liquid  sewage  is  not  sufficiently  purified  to  be  admissible  into  a 
river.  The  Rivers'  Pollution  Commission  have  declared  the  plan  to  be 
a  failure,  "  whether  as  regards  the  manufacture  of  valuable  manure,  or  the 
purification  of  the  offensive  liquid." 

b.  The  almnina  processes. — The  salts  of  alumina  have  been  used  for  the 
purification  of  sewage,  the  different  processes  which  have  been  invented 
depending  on  the  well-known  property  of  alumina  to  combine  with  or- 
ganic matters,  with  which  it  forms  insoluble  compounds.  The  results  of 
this  method  are  not  unlike  those  obtained  from  the  lime  process.  The 
effluent  water  is  clarified  and  deodorized,  but  only  partly  deprived  of  its 
dissolved  organic  matter.  The  process  is  a  more  costly  one,  while  the  pre- 
cipitate possesses  less  manurial  value. 

c.  BlytKs  process. — A  solution  of  phosphate  of  magnesia,  in  combina- 
tion with  lime  or  some  other  precipitating  agent,  is  added  to  the  sewage, 
with  the  view  of  precipitating  the  ammonia-phosphate  of  magnesia,  which 
carries  with  it  the  matters  suspended  in  the  liquid.  This  method  is  said 
to  be  a  costly  one,  and  there  is  doubt  as  to  its  efficiency. 

d.  The  ^'A  B  f "  process. — This  process,  patented  by  the  Messrs. 
Sillar,  takes  its  name  from  the  initial  letters  of  the  substances  mainly 
used  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage — namely,  ^41um,  ^lood,  and  Clay. 
The  proportions  of  the  agents  used  are:  "Alum,  600  parts;  clay, 
1,900  parts;  magnesia,  5  parts;  permanganate  of  potash,  10  parts;  animal 
charcoal,  15  parts;  vegetable  charcoal,  20  parts;  and  magnesian  lime- 
stone, 2  parts."  These  materials  are  thoroughly  mixed  together,  and 
are  added  to  the  sewage  to  be  treated  until  no  further  precipitation 
can  be  produced.  The  quantity  usually  required  is  about  four  pounds 
of  the  mixture  to  one  thousand  gallons  of  sewage.  The  effluent  water 
is  said  to  be  clear  and  quite  inodorous;  but  it  contains,  according  to  the 
results  of  a  series  of  chemical  examinations,  on  an  average  9.17  grains 
of  dissolved  organic  matter  per  gallon  of  sewage,  the  average  quantity 
per  gallon  of  raw  sewage  being  16.21.' 

Dr.  Folsom  gives"  the  results  of  the  examination  of  the  Sillar  process 
by  the  Rivers'  Pollution  Commission  as  follows: 

"  1.  The  process  precipitates  the  greater  part  of  the  solid  particles  of 
the  sewage,  but  in  no  case  to  such  an  extent  as  to  allow  the  superincum- 
bent waters  to  run  into  a  river. 

"  2.  The  process  produces  no  clearer  water  than  what  would  have  re- 
sulted if  the  sewage  were  allowed  to  settle  by  itself. 

"  3.  The  sewage  is  considerably  reduced  in  value  by  it. 

"  4.   Bad  smells  are  always  perceptible." 

e.  Holden^s  process. — In  this  process  sulphate  of  iron,  lime,  coal-dust, 
and  clay  are  added  to  the  sewage,  with  the  effect  of  precipitating  nearly 

'  Letheby  :  The  Sewage  Question,  p.  88. 

•^  Seventh  Annual  Eeporfc  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  p.  332. 


SOIL    AND    WATEE.  531 

all  of  the  suspended  matters  and  at  least  half  of  the  dissolved  organic 
matter.  The  supernatant  liquor  is  quite  clear  and  inoffensive.  "  The 
precipitate,  when  dried  in  the  air,  contains  about  43  per  cent,  of  organic 
matter,  and  rather  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime.  The  or- 
ganic matter  is  not  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  and,  therefore,  the  manure  is 
not  of  much  value." 

f.  Anderson'' s  2^^'ocess. — Crude  sulphate  of  alumina  and  lime  are  used 
in  this  process.  The  sulphate  is  formed  by  adding  one  part  of  sulphuric 
acid  to  two  parts  of  clay,  then  mixing  the  materials  with  an  equal  bulk  of 
water.  After  standing  for  some  time,  the  mixture  is  added  to  the  sewage 
in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  the  former  to  one  hundred  gallons  of 
the  latter.  The  liquid  is  then  thoroughly  agitated,  after  which  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  slaked  lime  is  added,  and  precipitation  takes  place.  Dr. 
Voelcker  analyzed  the  effluent  water  after  being  treated  in  this  manner, 
and  says  of  it,  that  "  it  is  so  thoroughly  deprived  of  obnoxious  impurities 
that,  in  my  opinion,  it  may  be  discharged  into  a  running  stream  or  water- 
course without  risk  of  creating  a  nuisance."  JiircVs  jorocess  is  very  simi- 
lar to  the  above.  Stotherfs  consists  in  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  zinc 
and  charcoal  to  the  sulphate  of  alumina. 

g.  JPrecijyitation  hy  the  perchloride  of  iron. — This  method  has  been 
reported  on  favorably  by  Drs.  Hofmann,  Frankland,  and  Miller.  It  is 
said  to  have  a  marked  superiority  over  caustic  lime  and  chloride  of  lime — 
the  deodorizing  effect  being  in  the  order  named.  In  all  cases,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  suspended  matters  precipitated  by  these  agents  should 
be  promptly  removed,  as  no  doubt  the  chief  cause  of  the  offensive  odor  of 
the  sewage,  some  days  after  it  has  been  deodorized,  is  due  to  decomposition 
of  the  organic  matter  contained  in  the  precipitate.  The  solution  of  per- 
chloride of  iron  generally  used  is  called  Dale's  liquid. 

h.  The  phosphate  process. — The  sewage  is  treated  with  an  acid  solu- 
tion of  the  phosphates  of  alumina,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
lime  or  carbonate  of  lime.  The  result  is  the  precipitation  of  the  suspended 
matters  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  soluble  organic  matter.  The 
value  of  the  precipitate  has  not  been  determined.  This  process,  like  many 
of  the  others,  may  be  used  where  the  effluent  water  is  intended  to  be  dis- 
charged into  the  sea  or  tidal  estuaries,  or  as  a  preliminary  to  irrigation. 

i.  General  Scotfs  pjrocess. — The  chemicals,  such  as  lime  and  pulverized 
clay,  are  introduced  into  the  sewers  some  distance  from  the  outfall.  By 
the  time  the  sewage  reaches  the  tanks  it  is  found  to  be  deodorized.  The 
■suspended  matters  are  collected  at  these  depositories,  and  are  subsequently 
dried  and  burned  without  offence,  and  the  product  is  converted  into  a 
cement  of  good  quality.  The  effluent  water  is  not  sufficiently  pure  to  be 
discharged  into  streams,  and  must  be  used  for  irrigation,  or  be  filtered 
before  discharge. 

The  clarified  sewer-water  obtained  by  all  these  processes  contains  am- 
monia and  dissolved  organic  matters,  as  well  as  potash,  and,  in  most  cases, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  it  therefore  possesses  considerable  fertilizing  power. 
The  purified  effluent  water  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  land.     It  is 


532  SOIL    AND    AVATEK. 

IDarticularly  well  adapted  for  the  irrigation  of  market  gardens.  Clarified 
sewage  may  be  discharged  at  once  into  the  sea  or  into  tidal  estuaries.  It 
is  safer  to  keep  it  out  of  rivers  or  streams  from  which  the  water-supply 
for  domestic  purposes  is  taken,  at  least  until  after  it  has  been  subjected 
to  filtration. 

4.  J^iltratioj'i.—FiltTSitioTi  is  the  mechanical  separation  of  the  liquid 
from  the  undissolved  particles  of  the  sewage,  by  passing  it  through  beds 
of  porous  earth,  sand,  gravel,  charcoal,  etc.  In  its  simplest  form,  the 
sewage  is  merely  strained,  so  as  to  remove  most  of  the  susjDended  matters; 
but  the  effluent  sewer-water  is  not  purified  to  any  extent. 

Filtration  may  be  both  upward  and  downward.  Upward  filtration  is 
not  at  all  satisfactory,  for  the  reason  that  the  filter-bed  is  always  charged 
with  water  and  is  therefore  incapable  of  aerating  the  sewage.  It  is  now 
seldom  resorted  to.  Downward  filtration,  provided  that  the  process  is  in- 
termittent, is  capable  of  effecting  a  very  satisfactor}^  purification  of  sewer- 
water. 

Oxidation  of  the  organic  matters  contained  in  sewage  takes  place  by 
virtue  of  the  jjresence  of  air  in  the  filter;  hence  it  is  necessary  that  the 
ground  be  alternately  exposed  to  the  air  and  the  sewage. 

The  experiments  conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  Rivers'  Pollu- 
tion Commission  led  to  the  following  conclusions: 

"  Sewage,  traversing  a  porous  and  finely-divided  soil,  undergoes  a  pro- 
cess to  some  extent  analogous  to  that  experienced  by  blood  in  passing 
through  the  lungs  in  the  act  of  breathing.  A  field  of  porous  soil,  irri- 
gated intermittently,  virtualh^  performs  an  act  of  respiration,  copying  on 
an  enormous  scale  the  lung-action  of  a  breathing  animal;  for  it  is  alter- 
nately receiving  and  expiring  air,  and  thus  dealing,  as  an  oxidizing  agent, 
with  the  filtliy  fluid  passing  through  it.  The  action  of  the  earth  as  a 
means  of  filtration  must  not  be  regarded  as  simply  mechanical;  it  is  chemi- 
cal, for  the  results  of  filtration,  properly  conducted,  are  the  oxidation,  and 
thereby  the  transformation,  of  the  offensive  organic  substances,  in  solution 
in  the  sewage  stream,  into  fertilizing  matters  which  remain  in  the  soil, 
and  into  certain  harmless  inorganic  salts  which  pass  off  in  the  effluent 
water." 

And  again:  "These  experiments  also  show  that  the  process  of  purifi- 
cation is  essentially  one  of  oxidation,  the  organic  matter  being  to  a  large 
extent  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  nitric  acid;  hence  the 
necessity  for  the  continued  aeration  of  the  filtering  medium,  which  is 
secured  by  intermittent  downward  filtration,  but  entirely  prevented  by 
upward  filtration." 

From  his  experience  gained  at  Merthyr  Tydfil,  Dr.  Dyke  lays  down 
the  following  necessary  conditions: 

1.  The  soil  must  be  porous. 

2.  A  main  effluent  drain,  not  less  than  six  feet  from  the  surface,  must 
be  provided. 

3.  The  inclination  of  the  ground  should  be  such  as  to  allow  the  sewage 
to  flow  over  its  entire  surface. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  533 

■4.  The  division  of  the  filtering  area  into  four  equal  parts,  each  part  to 
receive  the  sewage  for  six  hours,  and  then  an  interval  of  eighteen  hours 
to  elapse  before  the  second  irrigation  takes  place.  An  acre  of  land  thus 
prepared  would  dispose  of  100,000  gallons  of  sewage  per  day. 

The  process  is  more  successful  when  the  sewage  has  been  screened, 
so  as  to  arrest  the  coarser  matters  before  the  water  is  applied  to  the  filter- 
ing area.  It  is  also  necessary  that  the  filtering  material  should  be  large. 
Parkes  says  that  it  must  not  be  less  than  one  cubic  yard  for  eight  gallons 
of  sewage  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  Rivers'  Pollution  Commissioners 
make  the  proportions  somewhat  less  (1  cubic  yard  to  5.6  gallons).  In 
proportion  as  the  rate  of  filtration  is  increased,  the  purification  becomes 
unsatisfactory  and  uncertain. 

Small  filters  are  iiselesS;,  and  this  may  account  for  the  failure  of  filtration 
through  charcoal.  This  material  has  never  been  employed  on  a  large  scale. 
Soils  containing  oxide  of  iron  and  silica  are  considered  the  best  for  filtering- 
purposes.     Sand  or  a  mixture  of  sand  and  chalk  are  also  very  effectual. 

5.  Irrigation. — The  distribution  of  sewage  over  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  with  the  view  of  bringing  it  speedily  under  the  influence  of  plants,  is 
a  method  often  resorted  to  for  its  utilization  and  purification.  The  sewage 
is  applied  directly  to  the  unprepared  land,  without  any  provision  having 
been  made  for  underground  drainage,  or  it  is  made  to  pass  through  the 
soil,  and  the  effluent  water  is  carried  off  by  deep  drains.  The  former  plan 
cannot  be  said  to  be  satisfactory,  especially  in  seasons  when  vegetation  is 
inactive,  the  effluent  water  passing  from  the  surface  of  the  land  thus  irri- 
gated often  being  only  little  better  than  diluted  sewage,  and,  in  some  cases, 
highly  impure.  In  the  Third  Report  of  the  British  Association,  mention 
is  made  of  an  instance  (at  Reigate  Farm)  where  the  sewage  which  had 
passed  over  one  field  was  actually  rendered  more  impure  in  several  ways 
by  passage  over  a  second  field.  The  saturation  plan  depends  entirely 
upon  the  purifying  action  of  luxurious  vegetation.  In  winter  this  action 
is  suspended  or  only  partially  effected. 

By  the  other  plan,  in  '^\\\c^  filtration  is  combined  with  irrigation,  the 
sewage  can  be  satisfactorily  purified  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  during 
winter  as  well  as  in  summer.  Unless  the  ground  is  naturally  porous,  it 
must  be  made  so  by  artificial  means.  Recourse  must  be  had  to  deep 
drainage,  and,  where  the  soil  is  stiff'  and  clayey,  it  may  require  the  addi- 
tion of  ashes,  sand,  or  lime.  "  Irrigation  farms  are  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  filter-beds  on  a  very  large  scale."  Irrigation  must  be  intermittent, 
in  order  to  insure  proper  aeration  of  the  soil  and  purification  of  the  sewer- 
water.  It  is  evident  that  vegetation  does  not  prosper  in  a  water-logged 
soil,  and  it  has  been  shown,  on  the  other  hand,  that  purification  by  filtra- 
tion is  very  imperfectly  performed,  unless  frequent  and  free  access  of  air 
to  the  surface  of  the  filtering  area  is  permitted. 

The  British  Association  Committee,  in  the  report  already  alluded  to, 
express  their  opinion  of  the  value  of  subsoil  drainage,  in  connection  with 
irrigation,  in  the  following  words: 

"  It  may  seem  almost  superfluous  for  the  committee,  after  so  many 


534  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

years  of  general  experience  throughout  the  country,  to  argue  in  favor  of 
the  subsoil-drainage  of  naturally  heavy  or  naturally  vret  land,  with  im- 
pervious subsoil,  for  the  purposes  of  ordinary  agriculture;  but  some  per- 
sons have  strongly  and  repeatedly  called  in  question  the  necessity  of 
draining  land  when  irrigated  with  sewage;  and  the  two  farms  at  Tun- 
bridge  Wells,  to  a  great  extent,  and  more  especially  the  Reigate  Farm  at 
Earlswood,  have  been  actually  laid  out  for  sewage  irrigation  on  what 
may  be  called  the  'saturation'  principle;  so  that  it  appears  to  the  com- 
mittee desirable  to  call  attention  to  tlie  fact,  that  if  drainage  is  necessary 
where  no  water  is  artificially  applied  to  the  soil,  it  cannot  be  less  necessary 
after  an  addition  to  the  rainfall  of  one  hundred  or  two  hundred  per  cent. 
But  a  comparison  of  the  analyses  of  different  samples  of  effluent  waters, 
which  have  been  taken  by  the  committee  from  open  ditches  into  which 
effluent  water  was  overflowing  off  saturated  land,  and  from  subsoil  drains 
into  which  effluent  water  was  intermittently  percolating  through  several 
feet  of  soil,  suggests  grave  doubts  whether  effluent  water  ought  ever  to  be 
permitted  to  escape  before  it  has  percolated  through  the  soil." 

The  effect  of  passing  sewer- water  through  the  soil  is  stated  by  Parkes  ' 
to  be  as  follows  :  "1,  A  mechanical  arrest  of  suspended  matters.  2.  An 
oxidation  producing  nitrification,  both  of  which  results  depend  on  the 
porosity  and  physical  attraction  of  the  soil.  3.  Chemical  interchanges. 
The  last  action  is  important  in  agriculture,  and  has  been  examined  by 
Bischof,  Liebig,  Way,"  Henneberg,  Warrington,  and  others.  Hydrated 
ferric  oxide  a^nd  alumina  absorb  phosphoric  acid  from  its  salts,  and  a 
highly  basic  compound  of  the  acid  and  metallic  oxide  is  formed.  They 
act  more  powerfully  than  the  silicates  in  this  way.  The  hydrated  double 
silicates  absorb  bases.  Silicates  of  aluminium  and  calcium  absorb  ammo- 
nia and  potassium  from  all  the  salts  of  those  bases,  and  a  new  hydrated 
double  silicate  is  formed,  in  which  calcium  is  more  or  less  perfectly  re- 
placed by  potassium  or  ammonium.  Humus  also  forms  insoluble  com- 
pounds with  these  bases.  Absorption  of  potash  or  ammonia  is  usually 
attended  with  separation  of  lime,  which  then  takes  carbonic  acid." 

The  sewage  is  brought  to  the  land  to  be  irrigated  either  by  gravita- 
tion or  by  pumj)ing.  It  should  be  in  as  fresh  ^  a  state  as  possible,  and, 
before  its  application,  should  be  freed  from  its  scum  and  its  grosser  sus- 
pended matters.  This  may  be  effected  in  tanks  by  simple  filtration  or 
screening,  or  by  one  of  the  simpler  processes  of  precipitation.  The 
sewage  is  conveyed  from  the  tanks  to  the  land,  or,  when  it  has  to  be 
pumped,  from  the  pumping-well,  in  "  carriers,"  which  are  either  simple 
trenches,  or  channels  made  of  concrete,  brick-work,  or  earthenware.  Ac- 
cording to  Corfield,  where  the  sewer-water  has  to  be  lifted  up  by  pumping, 
sheet-iron  carriers,  supported  on  wooden  tressels,  are  the  best.  The  carriers 
are  provided  with  dams  and  gates  to  regulate  the  direction  and  flow  of  the 
sewage,  and  with  simple  taps,  which  may  be  opened  by  taking  out  a  plug. 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  383. 

^  Journal  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Vol.  XI. 

^  Carbolic  acid  is  sometimes  added  to  prevent  decomposition. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  535 

Flat  land,  or  land  wliicli  gently  slopes,  is  the  best  for  irrigation.  It 
should  be  laid  out  in  broad  ridges  and  furrows.  The  sewage  is  conveyed 
along  the  crests  of  the  ridges  in  open  carriers,  which  are  supplied  by  the 
main  carriers  from  which  they  branch  off  at  right  angles.  When  the 
small  open  carriers  are  full,  the  sewage  overflows  and  runs  gently  down 
the  slopes,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  soil  and  carried  off  into  the  nearest 
watercourse  by  drains  placed  about  six  feet  beneath  the  surface. 

The  amount  of  sewage  disposed  of  in  this  way  by  a  given  quantity  of 
land,  will  depend  upon  the  porosity  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  rain-fall, 
and  the  time  of  the  year.  The  amount  of  land  set  apart  for  sewage  irri- 
gation ^should  not  be  less  than  one  acre  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  inhabi- 
tants; if  the  land  is  of  a  retentive  character,  even  though  there  may  be 
good  underground  drainage,  it  would  be  better  to  provide  one  acre  to 
every  one  hundred  of  population. 

Other  plans  have  been  suggested  for  the  distribution  of  sewage.  One 
of  these  is  by  the  use  of  hose  to  sprinkle  the  land.  It  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. Another  plan  is  by  the  use  of  pipes  placed  under  the  ground. 
Corfield  says  of  this  plan,  that  "  it  is  obviously  perfectly  absurd.  It  is  im- 
possible to  imagine  that  sewage  could  be  purified  by  tui'ning  it  into  agri- 
cultural drains  below  the  roots  of  the  plants."  It  can  only  be  applied  on 
a  very  small  scale.  Open-jointed  pipes  are  placed  about  one  foot  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  another  series  of  subsoil  pipes  are  laid  three 
feet  deeper  to  carry  off  the  purified  liquids.  To  secure  the  regular  dis- 
tribution of  the  sewage,  Field's  automatic-flush  tank  may  be  used.  Col- 
onel Waring,  who  has  used  this  method  at  Newport,  thus  describes  it  : ' 

"  The  house-drainage  is  discharged  into  a  tightly  cemented  tank,  four 
feet  deep  and  four  feet  in  diameter,  entering  near  its  top,  which  is  arched 
over  and  closed  by  a  tightly  fitting  stone  cap,  and  thoroughly  ventilated. 
Its  outlet  pipe,  starting  from  a  point  one  foot  below  the  surface  of  the 
water  and  about  two  feet  below  the  cap-stone,  passes  out  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  and  is  continued  by  a  cemented  vitrified  pipe  to  a 
point  about  twenty-five  feet  farther  away.  Here  it  connects  with  a  sys- 
tem of  open-jointed  drain-tiles,  consisting  of  one  main,  fifty  feet  long,  and 
ten  lateral  drains,  six  feet  apart,  and  each  about  twenty  feet  long.  These 
drains  underlie  a  part  of  the  lawn,  and  are  only  about  ten  inches  below 
the  surface.  During  the  whole  growing  season  their  course  is  very  dis- 
tinctly marked  by  the  rank  growth  of  grass  over  and  near  to  them." 
"  The  slope  of  the  ground  is  very  slight,  probably  not  more 
than  fifteen  inches  between  the  extreme  ends  of  the  system."  He  subse- 
quently substituted  Field's  flush-tank  for  the  cemented  tank,  in  order  that 
the  discharge  might  be  made  intermittent  ;  the  flow  of  sewage,  being  more 
copious,  would  saturate  the  soil  for  a  greater  distance,  and  after  subsiding 
would  allow  the  atmospheric  air  to  enter  the  soil,  and  aid,  by  its  oxidizing 
power,  in  the  work  of  purification. 

This  system  of  sxib-irrigation  might  be  adopted  with  good  results  for 

'  The  Sanitary  Drainage  of  Houses  and  Towns,  p.  196. 


536 


SOIL    AI^D    WATER. 


the  disposal  of  house-slops  of  separate  houses  or  groups  of  houses,  where 
land  is  available. 

Various  kinds  of  plants  have  been  grown  upon  sewage-farms.  The 
Italian  rye-grass  is  perhaps  the  most  suitable  crop;  but  other  kinds  of 
grass  yield  a  good  return.  Cereals  have  been  grown  with  favorable  re- 
sults. The  beet-root  raised  on  sewage  has  been  found  to  contain  a  much 
larger  per  cent,  of  sugar  than  the  plants  from  Holland,  Suffolk,  and  Scot- 
land. Clarified  sewage  is  well  adapted  for  market  vegetables,  the  plants 
thriving  on  it  ;  but  raw  sewage  is  sometimes  found  to  be  injurious. 

Sewage-irrigation  in  some  cases  has  been  remunerative,  but  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  it  will  ever  become  a  valuable  source  of  revenue  to  any 
town,  however  favorably  situated.  The  question  of  expense  is  a  very 
important  one,  and  the  system  should  be  made  profitable  or  at  least  self- 
sustaining,  if  possible  ;  but  if  this  cannot  be  brought  about,  the  pecu- 
niary sacrifice  should  be  endured,  in  view  of  the  great  sanitary  advantages 
of  the  plan. 

The  comparative  results  of  the  different  methods  of  purification  of 
sewage  are  thus  stated  by  the  Rivers'  Pollution  Commission  : 


AVERAGE  RESULTS. 


Processes. 

Percentage  of  dissolved  or- 
ganic pollution  removed. 

Percentage    of 
suspended  or- 
ganic  impur- 
ity removed. 

Organic  car-         Organic 
bon.                nitrogen. 

Chemical  processes 

28.4 
26.3 

72.  S 
68.6 

36.0               89.8 

Upward  filtration 

43.7             100.0 

Downward  filtration.          

87.6 
81.7 

100.0 

Irrigation 

97.7 

The  best  results  are  obtained  by  combining  irrigation  with  intermit- 
tent downward  filtration.  Where  land  is  not  available,  recourse  must  be 
had  to  some  one  of  the  chemical  processes,  by  which  the  character  of  the 
sewage  may  be  greatly  improved,  though  not  sufficiently  to  permit  the 
effluent  liquid  to  be  discharged  with  safety  into  streams  from  which  po- 
table water  is  directly  obtained,  unless  the  volume  of  water  is  very  great, 
and  the  point  of  discharge  and  the  point  whence  the  supply  is  taken  are 
widely  separated. 

It  is  alleged  that  sewage-irrigation  farms  are  dangerous  to  the  public 
health  and  interfere  with  public  comfort.  If  badly  managed,  they  may 
occasionally  be  offensive  to  those  living  in  their  immediate  neighborhood. 
Sewage-tanks  may  become  a  nuisance,  if  the  sludge  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late or  is  not  properly  disinfected  before  removal.  These  disadvantages 
are  owing  to  mismanagement,  and  can  be  easily  remedied. 

If  sewage-farms  are  turned  into  marshes,  after  the  manner  of  the  plan 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  537 

pursued  at  Milan,  miasmatic  fevers  may  be  expected  to  arise.  Such  dis- 
eases as  are  common  near  rice  and  maize  plantations,  which  are  irrigated 
with  river  water,  may  be  looked  for,  but  the  peculiar  constituents  of  sew- 
age, which  give  it  a  distinctive  character,  have  nothing  to  do  with  their 
causation.  The  sewage  commissioners  reported,  that  near  Milan  "the 
population  who  lived  in  the  midst  of  and  close  upon  irrigated  lands  are 
subject  to  the  same  diseased  as  are  common  wherever  extensive  tracts  of 
vegetation  are  alternately  covered  with  water,  and  then  exposed,  when 
comparatively  dry,  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  under  a  hot  sun."  '  No 
such  diseases  need  occur,  and  will  not  occur,  if  sewage-farms  are  managed 
in  the  proper  manner.  And  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  allegation  that 
wells  are  poisoned  and  the  public  health  is  thereby  affected.  If  the  farms 
are  properly  arranged,  no  such  danger  need  be  feared.  It  is  perfectly 
true  that  sewer  water,  that  has  flowed  over  the  land  and  that  has  not 
been  filtered  through  the  ground,  may  be  poisonous  if  drunk,  but  there  is 
not  the  slightest  possibility  of  well-water  being  contaminated,  except  by 
the  grossest  mismanagement. 

As  to  the  allegation  that  diseases  usually  conveyed  by  means  of  the 
intestinal  discharges,  such  as  cholera,  enteric  fever,  dysentery,  and  allied 
affections,  are  produced  by  effluvia  from  these  farms,  little  need  be  said, 
as  it  is  not  borne  out  by  well-substantiated  proof.  It  is  true  that  Dr. 
Clouston  reported  several  severe  and  some  fatal  cases  of  dysentery  in  the 
Cumberland  Asylum,  supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  emanations  from 
a  sewage-irrigated  plot  of  ground  less  than  400  feet  distant;  but  the 
method  was  defective,  the  soil  being  composed  of  stiff  clay  and  not  un- 
derdrained.  Letheby  attributed  the  outbreak  of  enteric  fever  at  Copley 
Village  to  the  irrigation  of  a  meadow  with  water  containing  the  sewage 
of  Halifax.  At  Eton,  enteric  fever  was  supposed  to  have  been  caused 
by  sewage  effluvia;  but  it  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Buchanan  that  the  sewer- 
water  had  been  drunk. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  found  that  these  diseases  are  no  more  preva- 
lent at  the  sewage-farms  near  Milan  than  elsewhere,  and  even  during  the 
prevalence  of  cholera  in  the  town  and  neighborhood,  no  case  occurred 
upon  the  irrigated  meadows.      (Hart.) 

At  Croydon,  Aldershot,  Rugby,  Worthing,  and  other  places  where 
sewage-farms  are  well  managed,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  typhoid 
fever  is  caused  by  emanations  from  these  farms.  Even  in  Edinburgh,  at 
the  Craigentinny  sewage-meadows,  which  have  been  notorious  as  most 
filthy  and  offensive  plots  of  ground,  no  cases  of  enteric  fever  have  been 
traced  to  the  effluvia  from  the  irrigated  meadows.      (Folsom.) 

In  the  light  of  present  experience  it  may  be  asserted,  "  that  the  effluvia 
from  a  icell-onayiaged  sewage-farm  do  not  produce  typhoid  fever  or  dysen- 
tery or  any  affection  of  the  kind." 

There  is  still  another  point  to  be  considered,  namely,  the  alleged  dan- 
ger of  the  spread  of  entozoic  diseases  by  means  of  sewage  irrigation.     It 

1  Hart :  Manual  of  Public  Health,  1874,  p.  245. 


538  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

was  supposed  by  Dr.  Cobbold  that  the  risk  of  parasitic  disease  in  cattle 
would  be  very  great,  if  they  were  allowed  to  graze  upon  sewage-farms. 
And  as  farms  increased,  entozoic  diseases  would  become  more  common, 
and  deaths  from  these  causes  would  be  frequent.  But  these  fears  were  not 
well  founded.  No  such  results  have  occurred,  at  least  there  is  no  evi- 
dence to  prove  that  these  results  are  more  likely  to  occur  from  the  em- 
ployment of  liquid  manure  than  from  the  use  of  solid  excreta  in  the 
manner  so  common  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns.  Recent  investiga- 
tions have  induced  Dr.  Cobbold  to  withdraw  this  objection  to  sewage- 
farms. 

To  sum  up,  in  the  language  of  Prof.  Corfield:^  "Intermittent  down- 
ward filtration  through  soil,  and  irrigation  farming,  with  passage  of  the 
liquid  through  the  soil,  are  the  only  means  at  present  known  for  purifying 
sewage,  and  these  may  be  well  continued  with  some  deodorizing  process, 
which  will  prevent  the  sludge  in  the  tanks  from  being  offensive,  except 
where  the  tanks  are  in  the  open  country,  where  this  is  hardly  necessary; 
and  these  processes  in  themselves  are  in  no  way  injurious  to  the  health  of 
the  neighborhood  where  they  are  carried  on;  one  of  them,  irrigation 
farming,  with  the  condition  mentioned  above,  also  affords  the  only  method 
known  by  which  the  valuable  manurial  ingredients  dissolved  in  sewage 
can  be  utilized — can  be  turned  into  wholesome  food  for  man  and  beast. 

.  .  The  removal  of  waste  matters  is  the  first  thing  to  consider,  their 
utilization  the  second;  where  you  have  both,  there  you  are  best  able  to 
compete  with  disease  and  death." 

II. — Pollution  of  the  Soil  by  Interments. 

The  burial  of  human  remains  in  the  ground,  a  practice  universally  ob- 
served by  Christian  peoples,  seems  to  be  the  most  natural  mode  of  the 
disposal  of  the  dead.  Whether  it  is  the  best  plan  from  a  sanitary  point 
of  view  is  a  question  which  has,  during  recent  years,  excited  a  very  gen- 
eral and  thorough  discussion.  Various  substitutes  have  been  proposed, 
such  as  aquation  or  burial  at  sea,  chemical  destruction  of  the  body,  its 
preservation  by  embalming,  and  cremation.  Burning  the  dead  is  the 
only  innovation  seriously  proposed,  and  the  advocates  of  the  revival  of  this 
ancient  custom  have  supported  their  arguments  by  the  practical  demon- 
stration of  the  feasibility  of  the  scheme.  The  experiments  made  by  Dr. 
Polli,  at  Milan,  by  Prof.  Gorini,  at  Lodi,  by  Prof.  Brunetti,  Sir  Henry 
Thompson,  Prof.  Reclam,  and  others,  show  how  quickly,  thoroughly,  and 
inoffensively  the  destruction  of  human  remains  can  be  effected  by  means 
of  combustion."  The  occasion  for  this  discussion  arises  from  the  fact, 
that  the  present  mode  of  disposing  of  the  dead,  by  burial,  is  objectionable, 
on  account   of  dangers  to  the  public  health.     By  the  decomposition  of 


'  Sewage  and  Sewage  Utilization,  1875,  p.  127. 

-  The  subject  of  the  disposal  of  the  dead  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Public 
Nuisances. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  539 

human  remains  the  soil  becomes  polluted,  and  there  is  consequent  con- 
tamination of  the  air  and  water.  Hence  persons  living  in  the  vicinity  of 
grave-yards  may  suffer  in  their  health  by  breathing  vitiated  air  or  from 
drinking  impure  water. 

Where  the  population  is  scattered,  danger  to  health  from  these  sources 
is  hardly  to  be  apprehended;  but  where  people  are  collected  together  in 
great  masses,  as  in  large  cities,  provision  must  necessarily  be  made  for  the 
disposition  of  a  vast  number  of  bodies,  and  if  great  care  is  not  taken,  the 
public  health  is  apt  to  suffer  from  the  effects  of  close  proximity  of  crowded 
cemeteries  to  the  abodes  of  the  living. 

In  London,  for  example,  where  over  80,000  persons  die  annually,  the 
proper  disposal  of  the  dead  is  a  very  serious  question.  Before  interments 
in  grounds  within  the  city  were  forbidden,  numerous  instances  occurred 
where  the  public  health  was  affected  by  these  pestiferous  spots.  As  the 
population  increases,  grave-yards  now  suburban,  unless  very  distantly 
located,  will  be  encroached  upon  and  the  evils  of  intramural  interment 
will  again  arise.  This  has  happened  in  Philadelphia.  Cemeteries  which 
were  formerly  beyond  the  city  limits  are  now  surrounded  by  populous 
neighborhoods,  and  though  their  use  is  discouraged  by  the  health  au- 
thorities, it  is  not  prohibited  by  law,  and  is,  therefore,  to  some  extent, 
still  continued.  While  there  is  no  danger  of  contamination  of  drinking- 
water — this  being  supplied  by  the  public  works — and  while  the  air  from 
these  places  is  probably  too  much  diluted  to  be  injurious,  there  is  a  possi- 
bility of  the  health  of  persons  living  in  the  immediate  proximity  of  the 
grave-yards  suffering  from  the  effects  of  noxious  gases,  which  may  be 
drawn  into  houses  through  the  basement,  especially  in  the  winter  season, 
when  the  air  inside  is  artificially  heated  and  has  a  suction  power. 

The  processes  of  decomposition  and  decay  commence  soon  after  death, 
and  are  continued  more  or  less  rapidly  according  to  climate,  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  and  the  activity  of  certain  lower  organisms  which  prey  upon 
the  dead.  These  low  forms  of  life  are  always  richer  where  there  is  free 
access  of  air.  A  porous  soil,  through  which  there  is  an  active  change  of 
air  and  water,  hastens  the  return  of  the  body  to  its  natural  elements. 
The  products  of  decomposition  are  carbonic  acid,  carburetted  and  sulphur 
retted  hydrogen,  ammonia,  nitrous  and  nitric  acids,  and  various  more 
complex  gaseous  compounds  and  offensive  organic  vapors,  which  are  re- 
solved into  simpler  combinations  by  the  oxidizing  power  of  the  soil.  The 
non-volatile  substances  remain  in  the  ground,  are  taken  up  by  the  roots 
of  plants,  or  are  washed  away  by  water  passing  through  the  pores  of  the 
soil.  The  osseous  framework,  which  is  the  least  destructible  part  of 
the  body,  relinquishes  its  animal  constituents  rather  slowly,  and,  on  ac- 
count of  its  composition  being  largely  of  mineral  substances,  may  resist 
disintegration  for  an  unlimited  period.' 

Soils  differ  very  much  in  the  manner  in  which  they  effect  these  destruc- 
tive changes.     There  are  grounds  in  which  a  corpse  may  be  completely 

'  Parkes :  Op.  cit. ,  p.  472. 


540  SOIL   AjSTD   watek. 

destroyed  in  three  or  four  years/  and  others  in  which  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years  will  be  required  for  the  effectual  decomposition  of  the  body. 
If  there  be  a  proper  selection  of  the  ground,  with  especial  reference  to  the 
facility  of  constant  change  of  air,  and  if  its  powers  be  not  overtaxed,  the 
powerful  absorbent  and  oxidizing  qualities  of  the  soil,  aided  by  the  action 
of  growing  plants,  may  be  depended  on  to  dispose  of,  in  a  harmless  man- 
ner, the  gases  and  vapors  evolved  during  decomposition.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  these  precautions  are  not  observed;  if  a  soil  be  chosen  in  which 
there  is  stagnation  of  air  and  water;  if  the  bodies  are  buried  in  close  con- 
tact and  with  an  insufficient  covering  of  earth, — the  offensive  gases  and 
putrid  vapors  evolved  in  the  process  of  decomposition  will  accumulate 
and  assume  dangerous  proportions.  The  ground  becomes  saturated  with 
these  foul  products  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  incapable  of  further  absorb- 
ing them,  and  the  air  and  water  of  the  locality  are  poisoned  by  the  nox- 
ious matters  emitted  from  the  surcharged  soil.  Such  burial-grounds  are 
an  evil,  no  matter  where  located;  but  when  situated  in  close  proximity  to 
dwellings,  they  are  undoubtedly  most  detrimental  to  health. 

The  practice  of  interment  in  cities  and  towns  in  vaults,  church-yards, 
and  in  small  and  confined  spaces  surrounded  by  habitations,  has  been  ob- 
served until  within  comparatively  recent  times.  The  pernicious  effects  of 
this  custom  became  so  evident  that  its  further  continuance  has  been  for- 
bidden by  legislative  enactments.  In  Europe  most  of  the  governments 
have  prohibited  intramural  interments  absolutely.  But  in  America  the 
government  has  done  nothing  in  this  matter,  the  regulation  of  burial- 
grounds  being  controlled  by  municipal  and  State  authority.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  the  change  in  this  most  insanitary  practice  has  not  been  so 
general  and  thorough  as  might  be  desired.  The  improvement,  however, 
has  been  very  marked,  and  it  is  due  not  so  much  to  stringent  municipal 
or  State  regulation,  as  to  private  enterprise  and  enlightened  public  sen- 
timent. 

Spacious  and  attractive  cemeteries  situated  beyond  the  city  limits  are 
rapidly  superseding  the  old  burial-grounds  located  in  the  midst  of  habita- 
tions. And  as  most  of  these  rural  burial-places  are  managed  by  private 
corporations,  that  have  a  pecuniary  interest  in  their  success,  great  care  is 
exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  site,  not  only  to  avoid  the  encroachments  of 
the  population  and  future  interference  from  this  source,  but  also  with  re- 
spect to  the  natural  fitness  of  the  soil,  the  picturesqueness  of  the  location, 
the  object  being  to  offer  to  the  public  a  spot  naturally  attractive,  adorned 
with  trees  and  herbage,  isolated  yet  easily  accessible,  and  otherwise  desir- 
able on  account  of  the  care  with  which  interments  are  conducted,  the  ob- 
servance of  strict  sanitary  regulations,  and  the  general  good  management 
of  the  grounds.  Such  cemeteries  are  Mount  Auburn,  Laurel  Hill,  and 
Greenwood,  which  are  celebrated  throughout  the  country.  These  beauti- 
ful spots  the  traveller  never  visits  without  satisfaction. 

^  Orfila  and  Lesueur,  in  experiments  made  to  determine  the  time  required  for  the 
destruction  of  bodies  buried  in  the  ground,  found  nothing  but  the  skeletons  after  14, 
15,  and  18  months ;  but  this  is  very  unusual. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  541 

But  in  many  places  the  old,  crowded  intramural  church-yards  and 
burial-grounds  are  still  in  use.  That  this  practice  is  attended  with  injury 
to  the  public  health,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  nearer  places  of  sepul- 
ture are  to  the  abodes  of  the  living,  the  greater  will  be  the  dangers  arising 
from  contaminated  air  and  water.  The  evidence  on  this  point  is  incon- 
testable, Mr.  Chadwick  says,  in  his  able  report  on  the  Practice  of  Inter- 
ment in  Towns,  "  that,  inasmuch  as  there  appear  to  be  no  cases  in  which 
the  emanations  from  human  remains  in  an  advanced  stage  of  decomposi- 
tion are  not  of  a  deleterious  nature,  so  there  is  no  case  in  which  the 
liability  to  danger  should  be  incurred,  either  by  interment  or  by  entomb- 
ment in  vaults,  which  is  the  most  dangerous,  amidst  the  dwellings  of  the 
living, — it  being  established,  as  a  general  conclusion,  in  respect  to  the 
physical  circumstances  of  interment,  from  which  no  adequate  grounds  of 
exception  have  been  established,  that  all  interments  in  towns,  where  bodies 
decompose,  contribute  to  the  mass  of  atmospheric  impurity,  which  is  in- 
jurious to  the  public  health." 

In  the  same  report  he  further  remarks:  "I  have  no  doubt  whatever 
that  the  burial-grounds,  as  at  present  constituted  [intramural  burial- 
grounds],  are  a  continual  source  of  pestilence,  slow  perhaps  in  its  opera- 
tion, and  hence  overlooked  by  ordinary  observers.  They  are  undermining 
the  constitutional  stamina  of  thousands  of  our  town  populations,  while 
people  are  denying  that  they  have  any  injurious  tendency;  and  it  is  only 
when  some  epidemic  comes  to  try  it,  like  a  touchstone,  that  the  conse- 
quences of  long  antecedent  neglect  become  so  apparent  as  to  rivet  and 
excite  alarm,"     .... 

"  The  grave-yards  of  London  are  still  the  plague-spots  of  its  popula- 
tion-. The  putrid  drainage  from  them  pollutes  its  wells,  seethes  beneath 
its  dwellings,  and  poisons  its  atmosphere.  Some  parts  of  the  metropolis 
are  still  honey-combed  with  deposits  of  the  putrescent  remains  of  millions 
of  its  citizens,  just  as  with  cesspools  and  other  abominations.  The  vaults 
of  many  churches  are  still  little  better  than  charnel-houses, which  it  is  ab- 
solutely dangerous  to  enter,  or,  if  they  have  been  ventilated,  the  noxious 
effluvia  which  they  ceaselessly  generate  have  been  poured  forth  to  con- 
taminate the  atmosphere  without."  These  are  some  of  the  reasons  which 
led  to  the  final  abolition  of  intramural  interments  in  London  and  other 
English  cities,  and  they  are  still  applicable  to  all  places  where  the  practice 
is  still  continued. 

Intramural  interment  was  seldom  practised  in  ancient  times.  The  old 
Roman  law  forbade  it.  This  law  was  occasionally  infracted  in  the  early 
days  of  Christianity,  and  at  one  time  the  privilege  of  burial  within 
cities  was  accorded  in  special  cases  as  a  mark  of  distinction.  Between 
the  years  381  and  509  the  law  was  again  stringently  enforced,  with  the 
object  of  preventing  infection,  and  the  remains  of  the  dead  which  had 
been  previously  buried  within  the  cities  were  directed  to  be  removed.  In 
this  latter  year,  the  first  Christian  cemetery  was  established  in  Rome. 
This  was  the  commencement  of  the  practice  of  burial  in  church-yards  and 
small  enclosed  places  within  the  inhabited  parts  of  cities,  which  was  con- 


542  SOIL    AND    "WATEE. 

tinued,  with  occasional  restrictions  and  modifications,  until  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  the  evils  of  the  practice  had  become  so  monstrous  that  the 
governments  of  Europe,  under  the  advice  of  learned  men,  began  to  enact 
laws  prohibiting  or  restricting  this  mode  of  sepulture.  Since  that  period 
the  reform  in  this  practice  has  been  progressive. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  grave-yards  in  Paris 
were  closed,  iand  rural  cemeteries  substituted  for  them.  Subsequently  the 
law  was  made  more  general.  The  disinterment  of  bodies  in  the  old  ceme- 
tery of  the  Innocents  in  Paris,  in  1785,  was  directed  on  account  of  the 
sickliness  of  the  neighborhood.  So  impure  was  the  air  in  the  adjoining 
cellars,  that  candles  were  quickly  extinguished  by  it.  Although  the  winter 
season  had  been  selected,  and  every  precaution  was  observed  in  conduct- 
ing the  work,  a  number  of  grave-diggers  were  suffocated  on  the  spot  by 
the  escape  of  poisonous  gases.  After  the  removal  of  the  remains,  the 
neighborhood  became  healthy. 

Typhus  and  other  fevers  were  prevalent  in  the  immediate  locality  of 
the  London  grave-yards,  when  it  was  a  common  practice  to  use  the  same 
grounds  over  and  over  again  without  any  reference  to  the  number  of  pre- 
vious interments.  The  soil  became  saturated  with  the  products  of  putrid 
remains,  and  the  offensive  effluvia  arising  from  its  surface  were  believed 
to  be  the  cause  of  these  fevers. 

Dr.  Allen  mentions  an  instance  where  sickness  was  caused  by  breath- 
ing the  vitiated  air  emitted  from  a  grave-yard.  In  1814:,  soldiers  stationed 
near  the  Potter's-field,  in  New  York,  which  was  most  offensive,  were  at- 
tacked with  diarrhoea  and  fever.  After  removal, — which  was  j)romptly 
after  the  commencement  of  the  sicknesSj — one  of  the  sick  died,  and  the 
others  recovered.  Dr.  Barton  is  authority  for  the  statement,  that  the  yel- 
low fever  was  greatly  aggravated,  in  the  epidemic  of  1853,  in  New  Orleans, 
by  the  exhalations  from  the  overcrowded  intramural  tombs.'  Norfolk 
and  Portsmouth  suffered  in  the  same  way  during  the  memorable  epidemic 
of  yellow  fever  in  1855,  which  nearly  depopulated  those  towns.  Most  of 
the  interments  were  made  within  the  towns,  and  under  most  unfavorable 
circumstances  as  to  soil.  The  water-level  was  only  six  feet  from  the  sur- 
face, and  the  graves  were  made  about  four  feet  deep,  and  frequently  con- 
tained as  many  as  two  or  three  bodies.' 

Dr.  Rauch '  attributes  the  spread  of  the  cholera  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
cemetery  in  Burlington,  Iowa,  in  1850,  to  effluvia  generated  by  the  decom- 
position of  bodies  recently  buried.  No  cases  occurred  in  this  neighbor- 
hood until  after  twenty  bodies  had  been  interred,  and,  then,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  from  the  cemetery. 

Dr.  Reed  detected  the  escape  of  deleterious  miasma  from  graves 
twenty  feet  deep.  He  says:  "In  some  church-yards  I  have  noticed  the 
ground  to  be  absolutely  saturated  with  carbonic-acid  gas,  so  that  when- 
ever a  deep  grave  was  dug,  it  was  filled,  some  hours  afterward,  with 
such  an  amount  of  carbonic-acid  gas  that  workmen  could  not  descend 


Rauch  :  Intramural  Interments  in  Populous  Cities,  1866. 


SOIL    ATrD    WATER.  543 

without  danger.  Deaths  have  indeed  occurred  in  some  church-yards  from 
this  cause." ' 

Mr. Walker,  in  "  Gatherings  from  Church-yards,"  has  given  many  cases, 
some  of  which  were  fatal,  to  show  how  malignant  is  the  influence  of 
crowded  grave-yards  in  confined  places. 

In  the  early  part  of  1874  there  was  a  great  amount  of  sickness  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Battersea  Cemetery,  London,  which,  on  account  of  the 
dangerous  and  alarming  proportions  it  assumed,  was  made  the  subject 
of  investigation.  The  general  belief  that  the  sickness  was  caused  by 
emanations  from  the  crowded  cemetery,  though  not  positively  confirmed, 
was  not  disproved  by  the  investigation.^  Numerous  other  instances  might 
be  given  to  show  the  injurious  effects  of  breathing  the  air  of  burial- 
grounds. 

The  gases  and  offensive  organic  matters  given  off  from  bodies  during 
the  process  of  decomposition  are  found  in  the  air  of  vaults  in  concentrated 
form,  and  can  be  traced  in  the  air  of  church-yards.  According  to  Parkes, 
"the  air  of  church-yards  is  richer  in  carbonic  acid  (.7  to  .9  per  1,000:  Ra- 
mon da  Luna),  and  the  organic  matter  is  perceptibly  large  when  tested  by 
potassium  permanganate.  In  vaults,  the  air  contains  much  carbonic  acid, 
carbonate  or  sulphide  of  ammonium,  nitrogen,  hydrosulphuric  acid,  and 
organic  matter.     Fungi  and  germs  of  infusoria  abound." 

The  influence  of  these  emanations  on  health  is  manifest  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  concentration.  It  is  evident  that,  in  very  concentrated 
form,  they  may  cause  asphyxia  '  and  sudden  and  complete  extinction  of 
life.  In  less  concentrated  form,  the  result  may  be  a  depression  of  the 
vital  powers,  and  a  disturbance  of  the  healthy  functions  of  the  system. 
If  these  effects  are  often  repeated  and  the  putrefactive  emanations  long 
applied,  they  may  produce  fevers,^  or  impart  to  fevers  due  to  other  causes 
a  typhoid  or  low  putrid  character.  Contagious  material  may  also  be 
present  in  the  effluvia  from  dead  bodies.  The  putrefactive  exhalations 
may  cause  the  most  developed  form  of  typhus  fever.* 

The  contamination  of  drinking-water  is  sometimes  caused  by  the  too 
close  proximity  of  burial-grounds  to  the  sources  of  supply  (wells  and 
rivers). 

Professor  Brande  mentions  an  instance  of  a  well  near  a  church-yard, 
"  the  water  of  which  had  not  only  acquired  odor,  but  color  from  the  soil; " 
and  he  is  of  the  opinion,  that  the  superficial  springs  adjacent  to  burial- 
grounds  must  be  more  or  less  affected  by  the  products  of  decomposing 
bodies  accumulated  in  the  soil. 

Eassie  states,  that  during  the  Peninsular  war  the  English  troops  suf- 
fered greatly  from  low  fevers  and  dysentery,  caused  by  being  obliged  to 


'  Bulletin  of  Med.  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  1845,  p.  135. 
'  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  Nov.,  1874,  p.  579. 
3  Tardieu  :  Diet,  d'hygiene,  1863,  T.  III.,  p.  463  et  seq. 

■*  Dr.  Riecke's  Report  on  the  Influence  of  Putrefactive  Emanations  on  Health, 
quoted  by  Chadwick  :  The  Practice  of  Interment  in  Towns,  Philadelphia,  1845. 


544  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

drink  water  drawn  from  wells  located  close  to  grounds  in  which  the  bodies 
of  their  deceased  comrades  had  been  buried.' 

Another  instance  of  water-contamination  is  that  reported  by  Dr.  De 
Pietra  Santa,  as  having  occurred  at  the  villages  of  Rotondella  and  Bollita, 
in  Italy.  The  cemeteries  of  these  villages  were  located  upon  the  summit 
of  a  wooded  height  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  houses.  The 
springs  from  which  the  water-supply  was  obtained  were  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  and  as  they  were  fed  by  water  which  had  filtered  through  soil  pol- 
luted by  decomposing  bodies,  they  became  highly  contaminated,  and 
eventually  caused  a  severe  epidemic* 

A  similar  case  occurred  recently  in  Barbary,  at  a  time  when  the  plague 
prevailed.  The  inhabitants  of  a  small  village,  who  lived  in  excavations 
in  the  rocks,  obtained  their  water-supply  from  wells  which  received  the 
drainage  of  a  cemetery  where  bodies  were  covered  with  gravel  only  one 
foot  in  depth.  Those  only  who  drank  of  this  polluted  water  suffered  from 
the  plague.^  Rheinhard  relates,  that,  during  the  prevalence  of  the  cattle- 
plague,  in  Dresden,  a  number  of  victims  were  buried  at  a  depth  of  ten 
or  twelve  feet,  and,  during  the  following  year,  it  was  found  "  that  the 
water  from  a  well  situate  one  hundred  feet  from  the  pit  in  which  they 
were  buried  had  a  fetid  odor  and  contained  butyrate  of  lime.  At  a  dis- 
tance of  twenty  feet,  it  had  the  disgusting  taste  of  butyric  acid,  and  each 
quart  contained  about  thirty  grains  of  this  substance.  The  bodies  were 
subsequently  disinterred  and  burned."  * 

Recent  investigations,  made  by  Prof.  Fleck,  into  the  condition  of  the 
well-water  in  the  cemeteries  of  Dresden,  show  that,  with  one  or  two  ex- 
ceptions, it  contains  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter.*  This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  in  the  well-waters  of  three  of  the  oldest  cemeteries,  "where, 
besides  notable  quantities  of  nitrates,  'there  was  found  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  unoxidized  organic  matter."  *  It  is  remarked  that  "  the  com- 
position of  the  cemetery- water  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  the 
average  well-water  in  Dresden  in  respect  to  the  decomposing  organic 
matter;"  but  this  is  constantly  exposed  to  the  danger  of  contamination 
from  decomposing  and  putrefying  organic  substances  escaping  from  cess- 
pools and  privy-vaults,  and  from  drain-pipes  and  sewers,  and  is  more  or 
less  impure.  That  injurious  effects  have  not  been  observed  to  follow  the 
limited  use  of  the  cemetery-water  by  the  grave-diggers  and  their  families, 
does  not  justify  a  conclusion  that  such  waters  are  safe  to  drink.  The 
water  of   wells   located  in  grave-yards,  or  in  close    proximity  to  grave- 


'  Cremation  of  the  Dead,  London,  1875,  p.  62. 
'-'  Eassie  :  Op.  cit. ,  p.  64. 

^  Adams  :  Cremation  and  Burial,  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  Mass.  State  Board  of 
Health,  1875,  p.  379. 

*  Chicago  Med.  Examiner,  Aug.  1,  1874. 

*  The  exceptions  are  the  water   from  the  Trinity  and  Eliaa  cemeteries,  which  are 
situated  in  clean  coarse  gravel. 

*  Adams  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  282. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  545 

yards,  should   always  be  looked  upon  with    suspicion,  and   its  use  pro- 
hibited.' 

Abandoned  burial-grounds  ^  should  not  be  disturbed  for  the  purpose 
of  removing  the  bodies,  until  the  lapse  of  a  number  of  years  after  the  last 
interment  has  taken  place.  Bodies  decay  in  very  various  times,  and  there- 
fore the  proper  period  at  which  to  perform  this  work  cannot  be  definitely 
fixed.  Wherever  undertaken,  proper  precautions  should  be  observed.  In 
no  case  should  a  general  disinterment  of  bodies  take  place  in  warm  weather. 
It  would  be  better  if  disused  grave-yards  were  converted  into  parks,  and 
planted  with  rapidly  growing  trees  and  herbage  to  absorb  the  organic 
substances  contained  in  the  soil. 

Cemeteries  should  be  located  at  convenient  distances  from  towns.  In 
selecting  the  site,  particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  character 
of  the  soil.  This  should  be  dry,  well-aerated  and  well-drained;  the  ground- 
water shpuld  never  reach  the  lowest  grave,  nor  rise  into  the  vaults.  The 
drainage  should  never  have  access  to  wells  or  rivers  from  which  drinking- 
water  is  taken.  Rapidly  growing  trees  and  shrubs  should  be  planted. 
It  would  be  a  wise  precaution  to  surround  every  cemetery  with  a  belt  of 
trees,  as  suggested  by  Dr.  Adams,  to  act  as  a  barrier  to  the  escape  of 
deleterious  miasmata.  If  there  be  a  choice,  a  porous,  coarse-grained 
gravelly  soil,  or  a  light  marly  soil,  should  be  selected.  In  all  cases  it 
should  allow  of  a  free  movement  of  air  and  water  through  its  pores  and 
interspaces.  A  vegetable  mould  covering  the  formation  will  assist  in 
neutralizing  the  noxious  exhalations,  and  will  favor  the  growth  of  plants. 
Lime  and  chalk  soils  have  advantages.  Stiff  marly  soils,  and  especially 
stiff  clays,  preserve  bodies  for  a  long  time,  and  hence  they  are  to  be 
avoided  if  possible.  The  selection  of  a  declivity  has  the  advantage  of 
facilitating  the  drainage  of  the  ground.  Underground  drainage  \\  ill  be 
necessary  where  the  soil  is  damp.  In  all  well-regulated  cemeteries  this  is 
always  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  securing  a  proper  condition  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  and  of  insuring  a  dry  state  of  the  subsoil. 

Bodies  should  always  be  buried  at  a  depth  of  at  least  six  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  ground  to  prevent  air-contamination,  though,  if  nearer  the 
surface,  the  decomposition  would  be  more  rapid.  But  one  body  should  be 
buried  in  a  grave  at  one  time,  and  the  same  grave  should  not  be  used  a 
second  time,  until  after  the  complete  decomposition  of  the  body  previously 
interred  has  taken  place.  The  graves  should  not  be  walled  up,  but  the  earth 
should  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  coffin.  Mr.  Haden  has  called  at- 
tention to  the  advantages  of  perishable  coffins,  such  as  might  be  formed 
from  wicker-work,   the  object  being  to  let  the  earth  come    in  contact 


'  The  water  from  grave-yards  contains  "ammonium  and  calcium,  nitrites  and 
nitrates,  and  sometimes  fatty  acids,  and  much  organic  matter.  Lefort  found  a  well 
of  water  at  St.  Didier,  more  than  330  feet  from  a  cemetery,  to  be  highly  contaminated 
with  ammoniacal  salts,  and  an  organic  matter  which  was  left  on  evaporation.  The 
water  was  clear  at  first,  but  had  a  vapid  taste,  and  speedily  became  putrid."  Parkes: 
Op.  cit. ,  p.  25. 

"  Tardieu  :  Diet,  d'hygiene,  1863,  T.  III. ,  p.  468  et  seq. 
Vol.  I.— 35 


546  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

with  the  body  as  speedily  as  possible,  so   as  to  hasten  the  putrefactive 
changes. 

Houses  used  as  habitations  should  be  at  least  500  yards  distant  from 
any  cemetery,  to  prevent  the  influence  of  contaminated  air.  The  greatest 
caution  should  be  had  with  regard  to  the  water-supply.  It  should  never 
be  taken  from  a  well  situated  in  a  cemetery  or  close  to  one.  In  this  con- 
nection great  care  should  be  taken  of  the  drainage. 

In  "air-tight"  vaults  the  process  of  decay  is  slow,  and  the  escape  of 
gases  is  likewise  slow,  and  hence  there  is  less  danger  of  pollution  of  soil, 
air,  and  water,  when  this  plan  of  disposal  is  adopted.  This  method,  how- 
ever, will  never  be  practised  to  any  great  extent,  as  it  is  too  expensive  ; 
nor  is  it  desirable  that  it  should. 

Various  means  have  been  made  use  of  to  prevent  offensive  decomposi- 
tion. Quicklime  is  sometimes  used,  but  charcoal  is  preferable,  as  its 
powerful  absorbent  and  oxidizing  qualities  prevent,  in  a  measure,  putre- 
faction and  the  evolution  of  foul-smelling  gases.  In  special  cases  this 
substance  may  be  heaped  in  graves  ;  and,  if  not  procurable,  a  g'ood  sub- 
stitute will  be  found  in  sawdust  and  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  carbolic  acid. 
(Parkes.) 

Lime,  charcoal,  and  sulphate  of  iron  were  used  to  disinfect  the  graves 
of  men,  horses,  and  cattle,  around  the  town  of  Metz.  Grain  was  sown 
wherever  practicable,  and  the  mounds  over  the  trenches  were  planted 
with  trees.  Bodies  which  had  been  superficially  buried  were  disinterred 
with  the  greatest  precaution,  disinfectants  being  applied  to  the  whole 
earth  around  each  body  before  its  removal. 

Louis  Creteur,  to  whom  was  entrusted  the  work  of  disinfecting  the 
dead-pits  near  Sedan,  made  use  of  nitric  acid,  sulphate  of  iron,  chloride 
of  lime,  and  chlorine  gas,  with  satisfactory  results.  Carbolic  acid  proved 
to  be  less  efficacious. 

Baron  Larrey  recommends  the  use  of  deep-dug  ditches — in  permeable 
soil,  if  it  can  be  selected — and  the  free  use  of  quicklime,  which  will  give 
rise  to  slow  combustion.  The  lime  will  absorb  the  carbonic  acid  and  con- 
vert the  sulphur  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  into  sulphuret  of  calcium.  It 
is  very  important  that  the  lime  should  be  freely  strewn  upon  the  bodies, 
and  that  they  be  covered  with  a  deep  layer  of  earth  to  absorb  impure 
emanations. 

Cremation  has  been  advocated  as  the  safest  mode  of  disposal  of  the 
dead  in  war,  and  Mr.  Eassie  has  recommended  the  use  of  "ambulatory 
furnaces  "  for  this  purpose. 

When  the  number  of  interments  is  excessive,  especially  in  times  of 
epidemic,  the  same  precautions  must  be  observed  as  indicated  above. 
The  liberal  use  of  disinfectants  will  be  required,  and  even  more  than 
usual  care  should  be  taken  in  the  final  disposition  of  the  bodies,  that  they 
shall  at  no  time  thereafter  exert  a  malign  influence. 

Cemeteries  should  be  regulated  by  State  laws,  which  ought  to  include 
a  provision  for  minute  and  active  supervision.  It  might  be  a  part  of  the 
duty  of  State  boards  of  health  to  receive  periodical  reports  of  the  sanitary 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  547 

condition  of  all  burial-places,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  regu- 
lated. The  exact  condition  of  every  such  place  would  be  a  matter  of 
record,  and  among  the  advantages  resulting  from  this  plan  of  central 
supervision  would  be  the  prevention  of  overcrowding  and  the  continued 
infringement  of  any  of  the  regulations. 

III. — Pollution  op  the  Soil  by  Coal-gas. 

The  pollution  of  the  soil  by  coal-gas  is  not  an  infrequent  occurrence  in 
large  towns,  where  miles  upon  miles  of  gas-pipes  are  laid  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  streets,  in  which  position  they  are  exposed  to  the  risk  of 
fracture  or  of  injury  to  their  joints  from  various  causes.'  The  metal  may 
be  weakened  by  corrosion,  and  give  way  under  too  great  super-imposed 
weight.  This  is  a  rare  accident,  and,  when  it  does  happen,  it  is  quickly 
discovered.  Leakage  at  the  joints  is,  however,  a  more  common  occur- 
rence, and  it  is  often  a  difficult  matter  to  detect  the  precise  point  at  which 
the  escape  of  gas  takes  place.  Gas-pipes  are  sometimes  exposed  in 
making  excavations  for  building  new  sewers  or  for  reiDairing  old  ones, 
and,  if  not  properly  supported,  they  may  be  strained  at  their  joints  by 
the  subsequent  subsidence  of  the  earth  carelessly  thrown  into  the  trenches. 
However  produced,  a  leak  in  the  gas-main  or  connecting-pipe,  even 
though  it  be  a  small  one,  will  speedily  result  in  impregnating  the  soil  with 
a  most  deleterious  compound,  which  exerts  its  injurious  influence  upon  the 
human  system  through  the  medium  of  well-water  or  by  poisoning  the  air 
of  dwellings. 

The  gas  may  pass  into  the  sewers,  and  be  drawn  into  houses  through 
trapless  or  badly  trapped  drain-pipes.  Its  escape  at  the  street-surface 
or  at  the  sewer-openings  may  cause  annoyance  by  the  unpleasant 
odor  ;  but  dilution  by  atmospheric  air  lessens  its  hurtful  influence.  The 
more  common  and  most  dangerous  channel  of  entrance  into  houses  is  by 
the  pores  of  the  soil  under  the  basement-floors.  This  is  more  liable  to 
occur  in  the  winter  season,  for  reasons  which  will  be  explained.  Ill  health 
and  even  death  has  been  caused  by  coal-gas  escaping  into  houses  in  this 
manner. 

All  soils  are  porous  and  contain  air  in  more  or  less  active  circulation. 
The  "  ground-air,"  as  it  has  been  called,  is  in  continual  intercourse  with 
our  houses.  Whenever, the  air  inside  is  warmer  than  the  external  air,  an 
upward  current  will  be  established  through  the  foundations.  Heated 
houses,  therefore,  "ventilate  themselves  not  only  through  the  walls,  but 
also  through  the  ground  on  which  the  house  stands."  The  penetration  of 
coal-gas  into  houses  is  thus  aided  by  the  upward  current  of  the  "  ground- 
air,"  caused  by  the  heated  house.     The  suction-power  created  by  the  fires 

'  The  soil  in  which  pipes  containing  illuminating  gas  are  embedded  has  often  a 
powerful  odor  of  it,  and  is  frequently  much  discolored.  This  is,  without  doubt,  partly 
occasioned  by  loss  through  the  walls  of  the  pipes,  to  guard  against  which,  so  far  as  is 
practicable,  gas  companies  test  their  pipes  by  subjecting  them  to  a  powerful  pressure. 
Fox:   San.  Examinations  of  Water,  Air,  and  Food,  1878,  p.  213. 


548  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

within  doors  in  the  winter  will  serve  as  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
these  accidents  from  coal-gas  have  happened  only  at  that  season  of  the 
year.  This  latter  circumstance  has  been  made  use  of  to  prove  that  the 
frozen  soil  does  not  allow  the  gas  to  escape  in  an  upward  direction,  but 
diverts  it  in  another  direction.  But  this  is  a  mistaken  idea,  as  the  frozen 
soil  is  not  more  air-tight  than  when  not  frozen.  (Pettenkofer.) 

A  number  of  instances  are  on  record  where  persons  have  been  fatally 
poisoned  by  the  entrance  of  gas  through  the  foundation-floors.  Says  Prof. 
Pettenkofer:  "I  know  cases  where  persons  were  poisoned  and  killed  by 
gas,  which  had  to  travel  for  twenty  feet  under  the  street,  and  then  through 
the  foundations,  cellar- vaults,  and  flooring  of  the  ground-floor  rooms."  In 
one  of  these  cases  there  was  not  the  least  smell  of  gas  noticeable  in  the 
street,  the  gas  being  diverted  with  the  current  of  ground-air  toward  the 
house.  In  another  case  the  gas  always  found  its  way  into  the  best 
heated  room  and  produced  an  illness  of  its  inmates,  which  was  at  first 
thought  to  be  typhoid  fever.  Dr.  De  Chaumont  has  reported  an  instance, 
in  his  own  observation,  of  fatal  poisoning  by  coal-gas,  which  gained  ad- 
mission to  the  house  through  the  foundations. 

Dr.  Emil  Rochelt  has  reported  ^  a  recent  case  of  poisoning  by  coal-gas, 
which  occurred  in  Innsbruck,  in  March,  1875.  Three  persons,  a  man,  his 
wife,  and  daughter,  were  poisoned  in  the  night,  the  latter  two  fatally,  by 
the  escape  of  illuminating  gas  from  a  leak  in  the  street-pijDe,  which  had 
from  some  cause  or  other  become  broken.  As  the  ground  was  frozen  and 
covered  with  snow,  the  escaping  gas  could  not  find  a  passage  upward 
through  the  street  surface;  it  therefore  forced  its  way  horizontally  through 
the  less-resisting  earth  (?)  into  the  house  and  into  the  rooms,  where  these 
persons  were  lying  unconscious  of  its  presence.  Passers-by,  noticing  the 
smell  of  gas  and  seeing  the  house  closed,  which  was  unusual  at  this  hour 
of  the  day  (8|-  a.m.).  broke  open  the  door  and  found  the  wife  and  daughter 
dead,  and  the  man  in  a  cyanotic  condition.  From  the  effects  of  the  poison 
he  made  a  very  slow  recovery,  but  with  impaired  mind.^ 

Drinking-water  is  sometimes  contaminated  by  coal-gas,  which  finds  its 
way  into  wells  and  water-mains  from  the  impregnated  soil.  This  latter  case 
is  rather  rare.  It  is  more  likely  to  occur  when  the  water-supply  is  inter- 
mittent. Parkes  says,  that  in  Berlin,  in  1864,  out  of  940  public  wells,  39 
were  contaminated  by  admixture  with  coal-gas.  An  instance  is  mentioned 
by  Mr.  Harvey  where  coal-gas  entered  the  water-mains,  which  were  often 
only  filled  with  air.^  Coal-gas,  in  limited  quantity  in  water,  is  not  easily 
detected,  but  by  warming  the  water  to  110°  F.  it  will  be  perceptible  to 
the  smell.  (Tiemann.) 

^  Wien.  med.  Presse,  XVI.,  49,  1875. 

"^  The  cause  of  the  direction  taken  by  the  liberated  gas  does  not  depend  so  much 
upon  the  frozen  condition  of  the  ground  as  upon  the  aspiratory  power  of  the  heated  air 
of  the  house,  which  has  the  effect  of  establishing  a  current  in  the  surrounding  "  ground - 
air  "  toward  the  house.     Any  gas  in  the  "  ground-air  "  will  enter  this  current. 

^Harvey:  Food,  Water,  and  Air,  February,  1872,  p.  68;  and  Parkes:  Op.  cit., 
p.  28. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  549 

Coal-gas  sometimes  finds  its  way  into  sewers,  and  thence  into  houses 
through  the  channel  of  the  communicating  drain.  Serious  explosions  have 
been  known  to  occur  from  the  accumulation  of  large  volumes  of  gas  in  the 
sewers.  An  instance  of  this  kind  occurred  in  Philadelphia  several  years 
ago.  A  sewer  near  the  gas-works  became  filled  with  gas  from  a  leak  in  a 
neighboring  pipe.  The  strong  odor  of  gas  had  been  noticed,  but  it  was 
supposed  to  have  come  from  the  adjoining  works.  From  some  cause  un- 
explained, the  gas  exploded  with  terrific  noise,  rending  the  sewer  and 
tearing  up  the  street  for  a  considerable  distance,  but  fortunately  with  no 
loss  of  life. 

The  means  of  preventing  the  pollution  of  the  soil  by  coal-gas  are, 
primarily,  the  selection  of  the  best  material  for  the  pipes  and  joints,  the 
employment  of  skilled  workmen,  and  the  careful  supervision  of  the  work 
of  laying  and  joining  the  pipes  by  engineers  of  ability;,  and,  secondarily, 
the  prpvision  of  means  of  access  to  the  pipes,  so  that  they  may  be  in- 
spected at  frequent  intervals  Avithout  tearing  up  the  street.  Subways  for 
the  pipes  might  be  constructed.  By  their  use,  a  leak  could  be  easily  de- 
tected, and  the  expense  and  inconvenience  of  tearing  up  the  streets, 
which  is  often  a  fruitless  operation,  would  be  avoided. 

IV. — Pollution  of  the  Soil  by  Surface  Defilement. 

The  presence  of  foul  refuse-matters,  solid  and  liquid,  upon  the  surface 
is  another  source  of  soil-pollution.  Slovenliness  and  neglect  in  the  re- 
moval of  putrescent  refuse-matters,  which  are  the  product  of  every-day 
life,  are  the  cause  of  nuisances  which  afflict  most  communities.  The  waste 
materials  produced  by  the  activities  of  domestic  life,  offal  from  kitchens, 
house-slops,  the  dung  and  urine  of  animals,  and  even  human  excreta, 
sometimes  lie  exposed  upon  the  surface  or  are  stored  in  receptacles,  un- 
dergoing decomposition,  and  causing  a  nuisance  by  offensive  exhalation 
or  by  soakage  into  the  ground.  From  these  sources  the  surrounding  air 
becomes  contaminated  and  the  soil  polluted.  As  the  result  of  the  infil- 
tration of  the  soil  with  the  liquid  parts  of  refuse,  there  is  often  pollution 
of  the  water  of  wells  and  springs  and  of  the  air  of  houses. 

House-slops,  including  kitchen-water,  if  not  disposed  of  promptly,  or  if 
allowed  to  flow  over  the  surface,  will  speedily  give  rise  to  a  nuisance. 
Where  sewers  exist,  these  liquids  may  be  gotten  rid  of  by  means  of  un- 
derground pipes  connected  with  the  sewer,  and  in  small  places  by  adopt- 
ing a  plan  similar  to  Field's  flush-tank  system.  Chamber-slops  may  be 
disposed  of  in  the  same  way,  or,  where  the  earth-closet  system  is  in  use,  by 
the  means  provided  by  that  system.  These  liquids  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  flow  over  the  surface  or  in  open  channels  or  public  gutters. 

Kitchen-garbage  or  kitchen-waste — that  is,  the  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  discarded  in  the  preparation  of  food — and  the  waste  bits  from 
the  table,  if  not  immediately  utilized  or  burned  in  the  furnace  or  kitchen 
fire,  should  be  placed  in  small  receptacles  made  of  non-absorbing  material. 
These  receptacles  should  only  be  large  enough  to  hold  the  accumulations 


550  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

of  one  or  two  days  at  the  most.  This  kind  of  refuse  rapidly  decomposes, 
and,  therefore,  in  order  that  no  nuisance  arise,  it  is  of  first  importance 
that  the  removal  should  be  regular  and  frequent.  In  summer  time,  the 
daily  removal  vrill  be  required.  But  in  the  winter  season,  every  other  day 
may  suffice.  In  populous  places,  the  removal  must  take  place  under  the 
direction  of  the  local  authority.  The  so-called  dry-refuse  of  houses  is  a 
very  heterogeneous  mixture.  It  is  principally  composed  of  ashes,  house- 
sweepings,  rubbish,  and  bits  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  It  may 
contain,  and  often  does  contain,  kitchen-garbage,  and  even  liquid  and 
solid  excreta.  The  addition  of  these  substances  gives  an  extremely  offen- 
sive character  to  the  refuse.  Among  certain  classes  of  the  population  it 
is  found  impossible,  in  practice,  to  prevent  this  breach  of  sanitary  pro- 
priety, and,  therefore,  the  regulations  relating  to  the  removal  of  house- 
refuse  in  towns  must  be  framed  purposely  to  meet  this  defect  in  domestic 
management.  A  daily  removal  of  this  material  may  be  required  in  some 
cases — in  fact,  will  be  absolutely  necessary,  to  prevent  it  from  becoming 
highly  offensive.  "When  the  refuse-receptacle  is  used  for  its  legitimate 
purposes,  and  is  properly  managed,  a  bi-weekly  or  even  weekly  removal 
of  its  contents  will  fulfil  all  the  requirements  of  cleanliness  and  decency. 

House-slops  should  never  be  thrown  into  the  rubbish-receptacle,  and 
the  latter  should  be  protected  from  rain  by  a  proper  covering,  as  the 
admixture  of  liquids  with  refuse  tends  to  promote  decomposition,  and 
the  formation  of  offensive  odors.  A  movable  receptacle  should  always 
be  preferred  for  convenience  in  cleansing  and  in  handling.  It  may  be 
made  of  galvanized  iron,  or  of  wood  coated  with  non-absorbent  material. 
It  should  not  be  unnecessarily  large,  being  restricted  in  size  to  a  capacity 
for  accumulations  of  a  very  limited  period.  A  half  petroleum-barrel  will 
form  a  very  convenient  ash-tub  for  general  use  in  populous  districts. 

The  storage  of  refuse  on  the  premises  should  be  avoided,  if  possible, 
as  the  practice,  if  not  regulated  with  the  greatest  care,  is  liable  to  cause  a 
nuisance  by  the  production  of  effluvia  and  by  soakage  of  offensive  liquids 
into  the  ground.  If  a  fixed  dust-bin  be  used,  it  should  be  well  made  of  im- 
permeable material,  to  prevent  soakage,  well-covered  so  as  to  be  kept  dry, 
and  well-located  so  as  to  be  convenient  of  access,  both  for  the  house  and 
for  the  removal  of  its  contents  by  the  scavenger.  In  small  places  the  dry 
refuse  may  be  disposed  of  advantageously  by  burning,  but  in  towns  there 
is  not  space  sufficient  for  this  mode  of  disposal,  and  the  smoke  and  smell 
created  by  the  act  would  cause  a  serious  annoyance.  In  such  places  its 
eventual  utilization  lies  within  the  domain  of  the  authorities.  It  is  gen- 
erally carted  outside  the  town,  where  it  is  picked  over  and  sorted,  and 
the  discarded  portions  used  for  "  filling  in." 

The  various  kinds  of  trades  and  businesses  which  give  rise  to  animal 
or  vegetable  refuse,  may  contribute  to  the  defilement  of  the  surface  and 
to  the  pollution  of  the  soil  by  soakage.  The  want  of  proper  receptacles  for 
these  waste  matters,  the  neglect  of  their  prompt  removal,  and  the  absence 
of  underground  drainage,  lead  to  the  soakage  of  the  putrescent  liquid 
substances,  both  within  and  beyond  the  premises,  and  thereby  cause  an 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  551 

offensive  nuisance.  Places  for  the  slaughtering  of  cattle  frequently  give 
rise  to  these  evils.  The  washings  mixed  with  blood  and  particles  of  ani- 
mal matter,  and  the  oozings  from  badly-kept  manure-heaps,  so  common 
about  slaughter-houses,  when  exposed  upon  the  surface  or  imbibed  by  the 
soil,  rapidly  undergo  decomposition  and  give  off  deleterious  products. 
Businesses  which  handle  all  sorts  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances, 
such  as  bone-boiling,  fat-rendering,  meat-packing,  vegetable-canning 
establishments,  and  the  like,  always  require  the  most  particular  attention, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  insanitary  disposition  of  the  putrescent  refuse. 

Market-houses  also  require  careful  supervision,  as  these  places  are  liable 
to  cause  a  nuisance  by  accumulating  refuse,  and  by  careless  disposal  of 
surface-washings. 

The  keeping  of  horses  and  cattle  in  populous  places,  unless  care  is 
taken  to  have  the  floors  of  the  enclosures  paved  with  impermeable  material 
and  well  drained,  the  temporary  receptacles  for  refuse  well-cemented  and 
frequently  cleaned  out,  and  the  liquid  refuse  conducted  away  by  proper 
underground  conduits,  will  create  a  nuisance  by  soakage  within  the  prem- 
ises, or  defilement  of  the  surface  beyond  their  limits  by  the  offensive  out- 
flow. It  is  needless  to  further  enlarge  upon  this  subject,  as  it  has  been 
treated  elsewhere  in  the  chapter  on  Public  Nuisances,  under  the  head  of 
Offensive  Trades. 

The  deposit  of  refuse-matter  upon  the  surface  of  the  public  ways,  if 
not  promptly  removed,  will  give  rise  to  the  contamination  of  the  air  by 
the  decomposition  of  the  organic  substances  of  which  it  is  largely  com- 
posed, and  to  the  pollution  of  the  soil  beneath  the  pavements  by  soakage 
of  liquid  impurities.  This  is  more  apparent  when  we  inquire  into  the 
composition  of  street-dirt.  In  addition  to  the  inorganic  detritus  of  the 
road,  it  consists  of  the  dung  and  urine  of  horses,  and  sometimes  of  cattle, 
of  vegetable  matter  from  trees,  of  refuse  from  houses,  sweepings  from 
yards,  kitchen-garbage,  kitchen-water,  and  house-slops,  containing  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  and,  in  poorer  neighborhoods,  these  are  sometimes 
mixed  even  with  human  excrement,  both  solid  and  liquid.  This  mixture 
of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  when  wetted  by  rain,  soon  decora- 
poses  on  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  develops  foul  effluvia  which 
must  be  detrimental  to  health,  especially  in  crowded  and  ill-ventilated  lo- 
calities. And  further,  unless  the  pavement  is  composed  of  impervious 
materials,  the  liquid  filth  penetrates  the  surface  and  soaks  into  the  soil, 
and  from  this  storehouse  of  putrescible  matter,  the  water  of  wells  is  ex- 
posed to  the  danger  of  pollution,  and  the  air  of  houses  to  contamination 
through  the  medium  of  intercourse  with  the  "  ground-air."  These  evils 
depend  upon  imperfect  drainage,  a  bad  system  of  scavenging  and 
refuse-removal,  and,  very  materially,  upon  badly  constructed  pavements. 
The  fundamental  fault  lies  in  the  defectiveness  of  the  street-pavement. 
Inequality  of  surface  favors  accumulations,  and  thwarts  the  best-directed 
effort  at  cleansing.  Gutters  are  often  unevenly  laid,  so  that  stagnant 
pools  of  water  are  always  present.  This  fault  is  especially  glaring  where 
the  practice  of  draining  house-slops  on  the  public  ways  is  permitted. 


552  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

The  sanitary  importance  of  a  thorough  cleansing  of  the  public  ways 
is  plainly  to  be  seen.  And  this  cannot  be  accomplished  without  the  pro- 
vision of  a  suitable  surface — such  an  one  as  will  prevent  the  retention  of 
filth,  and  the  penetration  of  its  liquid  portions  downward  into  the  soil. 
It  is  especially  important  that  this  provision  should  be  extended  to  all 
small  streets,  courts,  alley-ways,  and*  all  crowded  and  badly  ventilated 
localities,  where  the  poor  are  packed  together,  as  it  is  in  such  places  that 
the  street  is  apt  to  be  used  as  a  common  receptacle  for  all  sorts  of  refuse- 
matter;  and  it  is  therefore  all  the  more  necessary  that  such  a  surface 
shall  be  furnished  as  will  jDrevent  the  retention  and  imbibition  of  filth. 

Street- Pa  v  ernents. 

At  the  present  day  street-pavements  are  included  among  the  more 
important  sanitary  works,  and  properly  so,  since  it  is  an  essential  condi- 
tion of  public  health,  that  all  town  roadways,  of  whatever  description, 
should  be  well  drained,  non-retentive  of  filth,  and  as  noiseless  as  possible, 
A  thoroughly  well-paved  town,  other  things  being  equal,  must  of  necessity 
have  a  lower  death-rate  than  one  with  the  opposite  condition  of  its  streets 
and  alleys.     Evidence  could  be  cited  confirmatory  of  this  statement. 

In  the  construction  of  street-pavements,  it  is  of  primary  importance 
that  every  sanitary  advantage  should  be  secured.  Until  recently  this 
phase  of  the  subject  has  been  pretty  generally  ignored.  The  question  of 
the  kind  of  pavement  best  adapted  for  ordinary  traffic,  and  best  suited  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  public  hygiene,  is  not  so  easily  determined. 
The  principal  kinds,  at  present  in  use,  are  the  cobble-stone,  the  macada- 
mized, the  granite-block,  the  wood,  and  the  asphalt  pavement.  The  two 
last  are  probably  preferable,  from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 

The  cobble-stone  pavement  has  been  much  used  in  the  United  States. 
The  stones  being  easily  procurable  from  the  gravel  of  the  diluvium,  or 
along  the  sea-shore  or  river-beaches,  have  been  very  generally  resorted  to 
as  an  economical  and  durable  material  for  covering  street-surfaces.  If 
stones  of  the  harder  variety,  and  of  nearly  equal  size,  are  selected,  and  if 
they  are  closely  set  and  well  laid  upon  a  good  bed  of  gravel  and  sand, 
they  make  a  cheap  and  substantial  j^avement,  which  affords  a  secure 
footing  to  horses,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  repaired.  But 
there  are  serious  objections  to  this  kind  of  pavement,  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view.  The  most  prominent  of  these  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
the  most  difficult  pavement  to  keep  clean.  From  the  shape  of  the  stones  it 
is  impossible  to  fit  them  to  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  perfectly  smooth 
surface;  and,  therefore,  the  spaces  left  between  them,  at  first  covered 
up  with  clean  gravel,  soon  become  filled  with  filth,  which  it  is  found  im- 
practicable to  remove.  Through  these  interstices  the  liquid  filth  perme- 
ates the  underlying  earth,  so  that  in  time  the  bed  of  the  street  becomes 
saturated  with  impurities  in  the  most  concentrated  form.  Every  one  is, 
perhaps,  familiar  with  the  very  offensive  black  earth  uncovered  by  the 
removal   of  an   old   and  worn-out  cobble-stone  pavement.     The  effluvia 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  553 

arising  from  the  surface  of  tliis  filth-sodden  soil  exert  a  baneful  influence 
upon  the  health  of  those  who  are  compelled  to  breathe  an  atmosphere 
thus  vitiated  with  impurities.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  in  narrow, 
crowded  streets,  where  the  evil  is  intensified  b}'  the  want  of  proper  ven- 
tilation. 

Another  objection  to  this  kind  of  pavement — and  in  fact  to  most  stone 
pavements — is  the  noise  created  by  the  rattling  of  vehicles  over  the  rough 
surface.  To  persons  in  sound  health  and  of  strong  constitution,  it  may 
be  a  matter  of  trivial  concern;  they  become  accustomed  to  it,  and,  ap- 
parently, in  no  wise  suffer  from  its  effects.  But  to  persons  of  a  delicate, 
nervous  temperament,  and  to  the  sick,  this  nuisance  is  particularly  dis- 
tressing. The  tan-covered  pavement  tells  the  tale  of  the  aggravated  and 
intolerable  suffering  to  which  the  sick  have  been  subjected.  The  inces- 
sant din  of  constant  traffic  is  bad  enough  in  the  daytime;  but  when  it  is 
prolonged  into  the  hours  commonly  allotted  for  rest,  it  interferes  with 
the  healthy  condition  of  sleep.  The  constant  noise  by  day,  and  the  inter- 
ference with  sleep  at  night,  annoy  the  nervous  system,  and  tend  to  render 
it  morbid. 

The  macadamized  roadway  has  certain  well- recognized  advantages, 
such  as  smooth  surface,  comparative  noiselessness,  and  compactness  of 
structure;  but  it  is  by  no  means  suitable  for  the  public  ways  of  a  large 
town.  It  soon  becomes  ground  into  fine  mud,  which  is  composed  of 
finely  pulverized  stone  mixed  with  horse-dung,  sand,  and  other  materials. 
In  moderately  wet  weather  it  is  converted  into  a  slush,  which  coats  the 
surface,  rendering  it  very  slippery,  and  otherwise  objectionable.  By  heavy 
rains  this  mud  is  washed  into  the  sewers,  which  it  obstructs,  and  into 
the  rivers,  where  it  renders  heavy  dredging  operations  necessary.  "  The 
deposit  of  detritus  of  the  roads  of  London  in  the  Thames  will  cause  a 
serious  and  irreparable  injury  to  the  port  of  London,  which  no  amount  of 
dredging  will  be  able  altogether  to  remove  after  some  more  years  of  con- 
tinuance." (Denton.)  This  is  largely  due  to  the  wear  of  macadamized 
roads.  Very  active  dredging  is  required  to  prevent  the  blocking  up  of 
the  Seine  by  such  detritus  at  the  mouths  of  the  outfall-sewers.  About 
150,000  tons  of  solid  matter  are  annually  discharged  into  the  Seine  from 
these  sewers.  In  1874  about  180,000  francs  were  expended  for  dredging 
operations  near  the  sewer-outlets. 

In  dry  weather  the  mud  upon  the  streets. becomes  converted  into  dust, 
which  is  wafted  about  in  every  direction  to  the  annoyance  of  the  people, 
and  possibly  to  the  injury  of  their  health.  Other  objections  are  the  ex- 
pense of  construction  and  repairs,  and  of  frequent  sprinkling  to  allay  the 
dust,  and  the  great  difficulty  of  keeping  the  surface  clean. 

Granite-block  pavements  also  become  pulverized  under  heavy  traffic, 
but  to  a  less  extent.  They  are  open  to  the  objection  that  their  interstices 
collect  filth  which  it  is  impossible  to  remove,  even  by  the  best  managed 
plan  of  cleansing.  "  The  cubical  stone  blocks  are  displaced  under  the  pro- 
digious traffic,  the  corners  and  edges  are  worn  away,  the  surface  gets  to 
be  irregular,  the  joints  are  widened.     The  filth  of  the  streets  gathers  in 


554  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

ruts  and  joints,  is  recruited  constantly  hj  new  accessions  of  urine,  horse- 
dung,  and  silt,  and,  diluted  by  rain,  it  ferments,  and  forms  a  putrescent 
organic  mire,  becoming,  in  course  of  time,  a  source  of  noxious  miasmas. 
In  hot  and  dry  weather  these  nauseating  deposits  pass  into  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  form  of  unhealthy  vapors,  or,  pulverized  and  drifted  by  the 
wind,  cause  inconvenience  and  poison  our  lungs.  Indeed,  in  repairing 
old  pavements,  a  black  layer  of  ground,  saturated  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  is  found  below  the  stone  blocks,  and  bears  witness  to  the  in- 
fection of  the  subsoil  by  the  soakage  of  contaminated  water.  Prof.  Tyn- 
dall  has  established  by  experiments  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  particles 
of  dust  in  the  rooms  of  London  houses  is  of  organic  origin,  and  other  ex- 
periments have  demonstrated  that  horse-manure,  in  a  state  of  decomposi- 
tion, is  a  permanent  ingredient. 

"  Vapors  still  more  noxious  than  those  from  the  road-bed  of  the  streets 
rise  from  the  gutters,  the  subsoil  of  which  is  saturated  to  a  considerable 
depth  by  more  concentrated  matter  of  the  described  composition,  and 
also  from  the  surface  of  alle\'s  on  which  are  the  houses  of  great  numbers 
of  people  of  limited  means.  Crowds  of  dirty  children,  whose  tender  lungs 
breathe  the  air  immediately  over  this  miasmatic  soil,  here  contract  con- 
stitutional predispositions,  which  doom  them  to  a  languishing  and  miser- 
able life,  and  render  them  an  easy  prey  to  epidemics.  This  infection  of 
the  subsoil  has  been  prevented,  with  a  certain  degree  of  success,  by 
foundations  of  concrete.  There  is  still  another  feature  of  stone  pavements 
in  the  heart  of  cities,  which  affects  the  inner  man  more  than  the  physical 
frame,  viz.,  the  rattling  and  noise,  under  heavy  traffic,  accompanied,  in 
alluvial  soil,  by  vibrations  of  the  adjoining  houses.  People  with  strong 
nerves,  and  accustomed  to  this  rattle  from  early  youth,  may,  to  some  ex- 
tent, become  hardened,  but  they  will  never  get  to  be  insensible  to  it; 
any  indisposition  is  aggravated  by  the  nuisance,  and  for  recovery  they 
hurry  to  the  countr}'.  People  with  weak  nerves,  especially  delicately 
organized  women,  suffer  great  and  permanent  injury  to  the  health. 
Nothing  but  the  constant  torment  has  partially  dulled  us  to  this  evil.  If 
cities  had  never  been  afflicted  with  this  noise,  and  if,  in  a  competition 
with  other  more  suitable  materials,  stone  pavements  were  adopted,  a 
storm  of  opposition  would  soon  sweep  them  out  of  existence  again.  Some 
of  these  diflBculties  have  been  obviated  by  using  smaller  and  harder  stones; 
but  the  objection  to  the  improved  Belgian  pavement  in  general  use,  on 
account  of  the  germs  of  disease  stored  in  the  wide  joints  and  under  the 
blocks,  still  remains." ' 

The  wooden  pavement  has  been  brought  forward  within  recent  years 
as  a  substitute  for  cobble  stones  and  granite  blocks.  It  is  claimed  for  it 
that  it  meets  the  objections  encountered  in  stone  pavements.  It  has  been 
extensively  used  in  the  United  States,  and  at  one  time  stood,  in  good 
repute,  but  it  has  been  generally  abandoned,  the  main  reason  for  its  disuse 
being  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  decay.     In  England  there  has  been  a 

1  Cluss:  Modem  Street  Pavements,  The  Pop.  Science  Monthly.  1875.  p.  82. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  000 

sharp  contest  between  various  kinds  of  pavements,  particularly  those 
made  of  granite,  asphalt,  and  wood,  which  has  been  decided,  after  a  pro- 
longed comparative  trial,  in  favor  of  the  last;  and  the  corporation  of  Lon- 
don has  confirmed  the  decision  and  recommended  the  adoption  of  this 
style  of  pavement  for  the  thoroughfares  of  that  great  city.  Mr.  Hay- 
wood, the  engineer  and  surveyor  to  the  commissioners  of  sewers  of  the 
city,  has  shown  that  horses  travelling  on  the  wooden  pavement  are,  on 
the  whole,  liable  to  falls  of  a  character  less  inconvenient  to  the  general 
traffic  in  the  street,  and  also  less  likely  to  be  injurious  to  the  horses  than 
those  which  occur  from  travelling  on  the  other  pavements.  The  wooden 
pavement  is  rather  more  expensive  than  the  asphalt,  but  this  is  counter- 
balanced in  other  ways.  "In  easy  traction  and  the  absence  of  noise  there 
is  no  comparison  between  wood  and  granite,  and  since  the  surface-water 
has  been  kept  out  by  means  of  asphalt,  wood  has  become  one  of  the  most 
durable  of  pavements.  The  rapidity  with  which  it  can  be  laid,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  repaired  are  not  the  least  of  its  merits,  while 
the  flooring  of  planks,  which  is  now  laid  as  a  substructure,  gives  great 
elasticity,  and  by  distributing  the  weight  equally  over  the  whole  pave- 
ment adds  to  its  power  of  endurance."  ^ 

Although  this  experience  does  not  correspond  with  the  results  of  ex- 
tended experiments  made  in  this  country,  particularly  as  to  the  quality 
of  durability,  the  disagreement  may  be  explained  by  the  fact,  that  an  im- 
proved preliminary  treatment  of  the  material  and  a  better  plan  of  con- 
structing the  pavement,  have  overcome  the  defects  which  caused  it 
to  be  generally  discarded  in  the  United  States.  If  the  proper  kind  and 
quality  of  wood  be  selected,  and  the  blocks  and  foundation  boards  be 
thoroughly  kyanized  and  boiled  in  asphalt  until  the  material  becomes 
completely  saturated,  and  if  a  solid  and  impervious  foundation  of  concrete 
be  first  laid,  this  pavement  will  undoubtedly  be  rendered  very  durable. 
This  quality,  in  addition  to  those  of  smoothness  of  surface,  noiselesness,  and 
impermeability  to  moisture,  will  supply  the  essential  conditions  of  a  pave- 
ment considered  satisfactory  from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 

The  asphalt  pavement,  when  properly  made,  is  probably  the  very  best 
pavement  that  has  ever  been  devised.  It  is  smooth,  noiseless,  advanta- 
geous for  traction,  thoroughly  impervious  to  moisture,  and  is  very  durable. 
It  prevents  the  soakage  of  filth  into  the  subsoil;  it  has  no  cracks  or 
crevices  to  harbor  impurities,  nor  unevenness  of  surface  to  retain  waste 
matter  and  retard  drainage.  It  is  easily  washed,  and  this  is  an  important 
advantage  for  a  pavement  in  alleys  and  courts  where  the  application  of 
the  hose  is  often  required.  It  is  elastic  in  summer  without  being  soft, 
and  hard  in  winter  without  being  brittle.  "  Not  affording  any  escape  to 
the  terrestrial  heat  through  joints,  they  [the  pavements]  are  kept  warm 
and  open  from  below  in  most  cases  when  block-pavements  present  an  icy 
surface.  Their  smooth,  seamless  face,  being  almost  entirely  free  from 
abrasion  by  attrition  or  atmospheric  action,  meets  the  mechanical  and 

'  The  Year-book  of  Facts  in  Science  and  the  Arts,  1876,  p.  195. 


556  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

hygienic  objections  to  block  pavements,  both  of  stone  and  wood,  as  well 
as  of  macadamized  roads.  The  asphaltum  pavement  is  clean,  and  fit  for 
traffic  a  few  hours  after  being  laid,  while  new  or  repaired  stone  roadways 
must  be  covered  for  months  with  heavy  layers  of  sand,  to  be  drifted  by 
the  breeze  in  dry  weather  and  added  to  the  mud  in  rainy  spells.  Repairs 
can  be  made  to  the  asphaltum  pavement  in  dry  days  of  a  cold  winter,  while 
with  stone  pavements  any  defects  must  be  endured  until  spring. 
The  popularity  of  this  pavement  in  the  two  largest  cities  of  Europe, 
where,  with  immense  traffic  and  most  extensive  experience  on  the  rela- 
tive value  of  pavements,  the  demands  on  the  municipal  authorities  are 
inexorable,  serves  as  a  proof  that  smoothness  of  surface  does  not  cause  any 
danger  with  this  material."  ^ 

The  kind  of  pavement  here  alluded  to  is  made  of  the  mineral  asphal- 
tum, a  porous  limestone  found  in  the  Val  de  Travers,  Switzerland,  and 
known  as  the  Seyssel  or  Neufchatel  asphaltic  rock.  It  is  a  very  different 
thing  from  the  asphalt  concrete  which  is  made  by  mixing  bitumen  with 
sand,  cinders,  coarse  gravel,  or  broken  stones.  These  concrete  pavements, 
as  at  first  made,  were  a  complete  failure,  their  composition  being  such  as 
would  not  withstand  the  influence  of  the  heat  of  summer.  During  this 
season  of  the  year  they  become  soft  and  sticky,  and  hence  the  name 
"poultice"  pavement.  A  great  improvement,  however,  has  been  made 
in  this  kind  of  pavement,  so  that  now  a  very  good  article  can  be  procured 
at  comparatively  small  cost,  which  is  especially  applicable  to  back-courts, 
alley-ways,  and  small  streets  upon  which  the  traffic  is  light.  It  is  quite 
durable,  non-absorbent,  and  can  be  cleansed  with  the  least  difficulty. 

A  great  many  kinds  of  patent  concrete  pavements  have  been  intro- 
duced in  the  United  States,  and  as  most  of  them  were  worthless,  the  rejD- 
utation  of  the  genuine  asj^halt  pavement  has  suffered  in  consequence. 

The  asphaltic  rock  is  a  native  limestone,  composed  of  pure  carbona,te 
of  lime  in  combination  with  more  or  less  tough  bitumen.  The  Tyrimont- 
Seyssel  rock  contains  from  6  to  8  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  and  that  known  as 
the  Neufchatel  asphalt  as  much  as  from  11  to  12  per  cent.,  a  proportion 
considered  very  favorable. 

"When  the  rock  is  heated  to  near  300°  F.,  it  crumbles  into  a  mass  of 
brown  powder,  which,  when  compressed  in  a  mould  and  allowed  to  cool, 
recovers  its  original  hardness  and  appearance.  If  the  hot  powder,  instead 
of  being  placed  in  a  mould,  be  spread  about  two  inches  thick  on  a  hard 
foundation,  and  pressed  or  packed  by  a  hard  pestle  or  roller,  and  allowed 
to  cool,  the  surface  will  immediately  solidify,  forming  a  crust  identical  with 
the  original  rock."  The  foundation  should  be  a  substantial  one,  made  of 
ordinary  concrete,  which  is  com.posed  of  crushed  stone  and  cement.  It 
should  be  perfectly  dry  before  the  hot  powdered  rock  is  placed  upon  it. 

A  fair  substitute  is  made  by  mixing  Grahamite,  a  solid  hydrocarbon, 
found  in  West  Virginia,  with  the  so-called  Trinidad  asphalt,  and  combin- 
ing this  compound  with  calcareous  sand  or  carbonate  of  lime.     This  sub- 

'  Cluss  :  Loc.  cit. ,  p.  87. 


SOIL    XND    WATER.  557 

stitute  for  the  Seyssel  or  Neufchatel  rock  is  greatly  inferior  to  it,  but  it 
has  advantages  which  will  make  it  serviceable  for  roadways,  providerd  it  is 
always  placed  upon  a  good  concrete  foundation  capable  of  resisting-  the 
pressure  of  heavy  vehicles. 

The  waste-waters  from  houses  are  frequently  discharged  into  the 
street-gutters,  and  left  there  to  create  a  nuisance  or  to  find  their  way  into 
the  nearest  sewer-opening.  This  liquid  refuse  is  composed  of  animal  and 
vegetable  substances,  which  rapidly  putrefy  under  favorable  circum- 
stances. In  courts  and  back  streets,  where  the  dwellings  are  frequently 
unprovided  with  underground  drainage,  chamber-slops  often  form  an  in- 
gredient of  this  mixture.  Says  Dr.  Simon:  "  Such  refuse,  at  its  worst,  is 
a  very  condensed  form  of  sewage,  and,  even  at  its  best,  is  such  as  cannot, 
without  nuisance,  be  let  loiter  and  soak  by  the  wayside."  It  is  therefore 
of  the  highest  importance  that  street-gutters  should  be  constructed  with 
a  view  of  ^providing  rapid  and  thorough  drainage,  and  be  made  of  imper- 
vious material,  so  that  during  the  passage  of  the  liquid  filth  or  the 
obstruction  of  its  flow,  not  a  particle  of  it  shall  soak  into  the  underlying 
soil. 

Street  inlets  should  be  placed  at  frequent  intervals  to  carry  off  the 
rainfall  and  surface-drainage  before  any  accumulation  can  take  place. 
These  openings  to  the  sewers  should  be  provided  with  catch -basins  to 
intercept  mud  and  road  detritus,  which  must  otherwise  pass  into  the 
sewer  and  cause  obstructions.  The  inlets  should  be  trapped  with  a  good 
water-seal,  and  their  mouths  should  be  protected  with  a  substantial  iron 
grating,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  any  foreign  substances  other  than 
those  suspended  or  held  in  solution  in  the  surface-water. 

jStreet  Cleaning,  etc. 

The  cleansing  of  the  public  ways  has  an  importance  which  cannot  be 
too  highly  estimated.  It  affects  the  comfort  of  every  individual,  and  ex- 
ercises an  important  influence  upon  the  public  health. 

The  work  of  street- cleaning  is  performed  either  by  contract  under  the 
direction  and  supervision  of  the  town  officials,  or  by  persons  in  the  direct 
employ  of  the  local  government,  in  which  case  it  is  conducted  as  a  special 
service  or  department,  the  "plant,"  horses,  storehouses,  etc.,  being  the 
property  of  the  town.  Both  plans  may  be  united,  as  is  the  case  in  Paris, 
where  the  removal  of  the  dirt  and  the  furnishing  of  the  horses  and  drivers 
for  the  sweeping-machines  are  stipulated  for  under  contract,  and  the  rest 
of  the  work  is  done  by  the  department  itself.  Either  of  these  latter  plans 
is  to  be  preferred  to  the  contract  system,  as  experience  has  proved  that 
they  insure  more  thorough  and  reliable  work.  They  may  appear  to  be 
more  expensive,  but  this  can  hardly  be  the  case  if  the  amount  and  quality 
of  the  work  are  taken  into  consideration.  The  city  ought  to  save  the 
profits  of  the  contractors.  An  honest,  rigid,  and  intelligent  conduct  of 
the  work  ought  to  secure  economy,  besides  other  advantages. 

All  the  public  ways  should  be  maintained  in  a  thoroughly  clean  con- 


558  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

dition  at  all  times.  To  this  end  a  daily  cleansing  may  be  necessary, 
especially  in  localities  teeming  with  population  or  where  traffic  is  heavy. 
In  less  populated  localities,  and  in  parts  of  the  town  where  the  streets  are 
not  much  used,  a  less  frequent  cleansing  may  suffice.  This  must  be  de- 
termined by  local  circumstances. 

The  time  at  which  the  work  should  be  performed  will  also  be  influenced 
bj'  conditions  of  place.  In  large  towns  a  certain  portion  of  the  work 
should  be  done  outside  of  the  ordinary  business  hours  of  the  day.  In  all 
localities  where  the  streets  are  occupied  by  traffic  and  are  much  frequented 
by  the  inhabitants,  not  only  the  comfort  of  citizens,  but  also  the  necessities 
of  the  case  demand  that  all  cleansing  operations  shall  not  be  commenced 
until  the  daily  activities  have  ceased,  and  that  they  shall  be  completed 
early  in  the  morning,  not  later  than  9  o'clock.  In  Paris,  under  the  new 
regime,  the  general  sweeping  of  the  entire  city  is  effected  between  the 
hours  of  3  A.M.  and  6  a.m.  in  the  summer,  and  between  4  a.m.  and  7  a.m. 
in  winter.  The  wagons  for  removing  the  products  of  the  sweeping,  and 
for  collecting  the  household  refuse,  are  brought  upon  the  ground  at  the 
termination  of  the  sweeping,  and  remove  all  accumulated  material  be- 
tween the  hours  of  6  a.m.  and  8  a.m.  in  summer,  and  between  7  a.m.  and 
9  A.M.  in  winter.  The  workmen  employed  during  these  early  morning 
hours  are  engaged  during  the  rest  of  the  day  in  making  supplementary 
sweepings,  wherever  needed,  and  in  cleansing  the  gutters  (repeated  twice 
a  day),  in  washing  out  the  public  urinals,  in  disinfecting  and  sprinkling 
the  streets,  and  in  cleansing  the  cells  of  the  police  stations,  etc.  This 
supplementary  work  should  be  completed  by  4  p.m.,  but  it  is  sometimes 
prolonged  later  in  the  day,  principally  in  bad  seasons,  on  account  of  the 
extra  work  required,  such  as  the  spreading  of  sand  or  gravel  on  steep  and 
slippery  streets,  and  the  special  sweej)ings  in  front  of  certain  public 
buildings. 

In  parts  of  the  town  devoted  to  business,  the  sweeping  operations  may 
be  advantageously  conducted  during  the  night,  but  in  sections  where  the 
people  reside,  no  work  of  this  kind  should  be  permitted  during  hours 
allotted  to  rest  and  sleep.  The  noise  created  by  the  operations  is  a  suffi- 
cient reason  for  strictly  prohibiting  all  such  work.  The  early  hours  of 
the  morning  may  be  suitably  selected  for  the  performance  of  the  work  in 
the  populous  parts  of  the  town.  In  other  localities,  such  as  the  outskirts 
of  the  city,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  sweeping  operations  being  con- 
ducted during  the  entire  day,  the  force  and  apparatus  employed  in  the 
central  parts  of  the  town  in  the  early  morning  being  transferred  to  these 
sections  during  the  remainder  of  the  day. 

Street-sweejnng  Machines. 

To  secure  systematic,  regular,  and  efficient  work,  the  whole  town 
should  be  divided  into  sections,  and  a  given  number  of  laborers,  sweep- 
ing-machines, and  carts  for  removing  the  products  of  sweeping,  should  be 
assigned  to  each  section;  the  number  required  for  doing  the  work  prop- 


SOIL    AXD    ^VATEE.  559 

erly  within  the  given  hours  being  easily  and  accurately  determined  after 
a  little  experience.  The  streets  should  be  divided  into  routes,  and  a 
cart  assigned  to  each  route,  so  that  the  removal  of  the  collected  dirt  of 
the  entire  town  may  take  place  within  the  prescribed  hours.  All  these 
details  can  be  arranged  with  the  greatest  precision,  if  the  work  is  regularly 
prosecuted  under  intelligent  supervision. 

The  employment  of  machinery  for  sweeping  the  streets  is  no  longer  a 
matter  of  experiment.  The  great  value  of  these  accessary  appliances  has 
been  fully  and  satisfactorily  demonstrated.  No  city  can  afford  to  dis- 
pense with  their  services.  With  their  aid,  the  frequent  cleansing  of  a 
large  city  is  no  longer  considered  impracticable.  The  two  principal  kinds 
of  apparatus  in  use  are  the  sweeping  and  loading  machine,  and  the  sim- 
ple side-sweeper.  The  former  sweeps  the  dirt  into  a  box,  or  receptacle, 
connected  with  the  apparatus,  which,  when  full,  can  be  emptied  and  re- 
placed by  the  use  of  a  simple  contrivance,  without  the  driver  getting  off 
the  machine.  The  latter  sweeps  the  dirt  into  a  winrow,  which  at  each 
subsequent  passage  of  the  machine  is  pushed  further  to  one  side,  and  is 
thus  progressively  swept  to  the  gutter  of  the  street,  where  it  is  made  up 
into  heaps  to  be  carted  away.  In  Paris  the  systems  of  M.  Blot  and  M. 
Sohy  are  in  use,  both  one-horse  side-sweeping  machines.  They  are  sim- 
ple in  their  construction  and  in  their  functions.  They  are  composed  of 
a  framework  upon  two  wheels  drawn  by  a  single  horse,  and  having  a  seat 
for  the  driver.  On  the  rear  of  the  machine  is  found  the  sweeping  appa- 
ratus, which  is  composed  of  an  inclined  roller  armed  with  bristles  of  pias- 
sava  set  in  a  spiral  form.  The  brush  receives  its  rotary  movement  by  a 
series  of  gears  in  communication  with  one  of  the  wheels  of  the  frame. 
By  means  of  a  system  of  levers  the  driver,  from  his  seat,  puts  the  sweep- 
ing-brush in  operation,  or  stops  it,  at  will. 

The  machines  are  employed  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  and  as  well  upon 
ordinary  stone  pavements  as  upon  the  macadamized  roads  and  asphalted 
areas.  The  cost  of  one  of  these  mechanical  sweepers  is  two  hundred  dol- 
lars. The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  is  about  forty  dollars,  independent 
of  the  removal  of  the  piassava  brushes.  A  brush  will  do  constant  work 
for  a  period  varying  from  160  to  180  hours.  Each  renewal  costs  about 
fourteen  dollars.  The  weight  of  either  of  these  machines  is  about  1,650 
pounds,  which  can  be  drawn  by  one  horse  with  ease.  At  the  speed  of  a 
horse's  pace,  a  machine  is  capable  of  sweeping  5,500  square  metres  per 
hour,  which  corresponds  to  the  work  of  ten  ordinary  laborers.^ 

A  somewhat  similar  sweeper,  patented  by  Mr.  Edson,  has  been  used  in 
Boston  and  Philadelphia,  with  good  results. 

Smith's  sweepers,  both  the  sweeping  and  self-loading  machine  and 
the  simple  sweeping  machine,  have  also  been  in  use  in  the  latter  city. 
They  are  serviceable  and  e£B.cient,  and  have  proved  satisfactory  after  a 
trial  of  several  years.  The  two-horse  "  side-sweeper,"  represented  by  Fig- 
87,  is  the  most  effective  apparatus.     It  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  brooms 

^  Notice  sur  le  nettoiement  de  la  voie  publique.  Paris,  1876. 


560 


SOIL    AND    WATER. 


placed  diagonally  across  and  under  the  truck.  Gearing  connected  with 
the  driving-wheel  gives  motion  to  the  broom-cylinder,  so  that  the  latter 
revolves  as  the  truck  advances,  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  according  to 


Fig.  87. — Smith's  two-horse  "side-sweeper." 


the  speed  of  the  horses.  The  oblique  action  of  the  broom  throws  the  dirt 
to  one  side  in  the  form  of  a  winrow.  When  this  machine  is  operated 
alone,  the  dirt  thus  collected  in  rows  at  the  sides  of  the  street  or  in  the 
centre  must  be  heaped  up  and  thrown  into  carts  by  manual  labor.  It 
may  be  worked  with  great  advantage  in  connection  with  the  "  sweeping 
and  loading  machine,"  represented  at  Fig.  88.     The  construction  of  this 


Fig. 


-Smith's  com.biiied  street- sweeping  and  loading  machine. 


apparatus  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  87,  ex- 
cept that  there  is  added  a  dirt-box,  or  receiver,  into  which  the  dirt  is  de- 
posited as  it  is  swept  from  the  surface  of  the  street. 

By  the  use  of  this  complete  appliance,  or  rather  combination  of  appli- 
ances, the  dirt  can  be  swept  and  collected  from  the  street  surface  simul- 
taneously, and  by  this  rneans  the  objectionable  small  heaps  are  avoided. 
The  receivers  are  emptied  at  convenient  places,  more  or  less  distant,  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  soil  on  the  streets,  and  from  these  places  of 
general  deposit  it  is  removed  in  ordinary  carts.     By  avoiding  the  small 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  561 

heaps  there  is  a  saving  of  time  and  labor,  and  the  result  of  the  work  is 
more  complete  and  satisfactory. 

There  are  single-horse  machines  of  both  descriptions,  but  those  shown 
in  Figs.  87  and  88  are  decidedly  the  most  efficient  for  ordinary  stone  pave- 
ments, especially  the  cobble-stone  pavement.  Split  rattan  or  piassava 
are  the  materials  of  which  the  brooms  are  composed. 

The  sweeping  in  dry  weather  should  be  preceded  by  sprinkling  of  the 
surface  of  the  streets  with  plain  water,  or  with  water  impregnated  with 
disinfectants,  when  required.  This  is  done  either  by  hand  watering-pots, 
or  by  watering-carts  provided  with  a  distributing-pipe  perforated  with 
very  small  openings,  from  which  fine  jets  of  water  are  scattered  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  allay  the  dust.  This  act  is  immediately  followed  by  the 
sweeping,  and  the  dirt,  when  collected,  should  be  immediately  removed 
while  in  the  moist  state,  to  prevent  it  from  being  scattered  by  the  wind  or 
by  passiri/g  vehicles.  The  carts  in  which  the  street  dust  is  removed — if  in 
the  daytime — should  be  provided  with  tightly-fitting  covers  of  wood  or 
canvas.  The  thorough  washing  of  the  gutters  every  day,  and  the  frequent 
cleaning  out  of  ther  basins  of  the  sewer-inlets,  should  be  enjoined  as  an 
important  part  of  the  service  of  town-cleansing. 

The  removal  of  ice  and  snoto,  particularly  the  latter,  is  a  difficult,  labo- 
rious, and  expensive,  but  very  important,  branch  of  the  public  service.  In 
this  country  it  is  almost  totally  ignored,  but  in  large  European  cities  this 
work  is  considered  necessary  for  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  citizens, 
and  is  accordingly  required  to  be  performed.  Besides  the  interference 
with  traffic,  and  the  inconvenience  and  discomfort  to  pedestrians,  there  is 
the  impediment  offered  to  the  regular  cleaning  of  the  streets.  Hence, 
filth  collects  and  becomes  mixed  with  snow,  and  at  every  thaw  the  street 
surface  is  covered  with  filthy  slush.  At  the  final  melting  of  the  snow  and 
ice  in  the  spring,  the  mixed  accumulations  of  weeks,  perhaps  of  months, 
are  exposed  to  view.  It  may  be  weeks  before  this  offensive  matter, 
already  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  is  entirely  removed  and  the  streets 
are  again  restored  to  a  condition  of  cleanliness.  In  the  meantime  the 
convenience,  comfort,  and  even  health  of  citizens  have  been  seriously 
compromised. 

The  very  busy  streets  require  the  removal  of  the  snow  as  much  to 
facilitate  traffic  and  aid  locomotion  as  for  any  other  reason;  but  there  are 
other  localities  which  demand  it  on  the  ground  of  the  preservation  of  the 
public  health.  In  many  of  our  northern  cities  there  are  small  streets, 
densely  populated,  which  serve  as  the  channels  of  drainage  for  the  houses 
located  upon  them.  The  liquid  refuse  discharged  into  the  street-gutters 
is  often  a  condensed  form  of  sewage.  After  the  opening  of  winter,  a  mass 
of  snow  and  ice  soon  accumulates  in  these  narrow  passages,  and  its  bulk 
is  increased,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  addition  of  rubbish  and  of  snow  from 
sidewalks  and  yards.  A  ridge,  several  feet  high,  is  soon  formed  from  curb 
to  curb,  rendering  the  street  impassable  to  the  ash-  and  garbage- carts, 
and  hence  the  refuse  of  the  houses  is  soon  deposited  upon  the  icy  mass 
outside.  The  only  passage  for  the  house -water  is  along  the  sidewalks, 
Vol.  I.— 86 


562  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

over  which  it  occasionally  flows  into  the  basements  of  the  adjoining' 
houses,  and  defiles  the  interior  air.  The  cleansing  of  these  streets  is  not 
effected  until  the  mass  of  ice  and  snow  has  thawed,  which  is  not  until  the 
spring  has  well  advanced,  and  until  after  the  perpetuation  of  a  nuisance, 
rendered  almost  intolerable  at  each  recurring  thaw.  These  small  streets, 
though  obscurely  located,  are  the  very  ones  from  which  the  snow  and  ice 
should  be  kept  removed,  on  the  score  of  public  health.  These  instances 
show  the  importance  of  incorporating  in  the  street-cleaning  regulations, 
provisions  for  the  removal  of  snow  and  ice,  at  least  from  some  localities. 

In  Paris  the  snow  is  removed  from  the  principal  streets  by  the  use  of 
the  wagons  employed  in  the  street-cleaning  service,  and,  in  addition,  by 
the  employment  of  the  large  two-horse  wagons  belonging  to  the  omnibus 
companies,  which  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  city  by  special  agree- 
ment. There  are  also  other  wagons  employed,  for  which  special  contracts 
are  made  with  the  rubbish-carters  at  the  beginning  of  each  winter.  The 
preparation  for  removal  is  made  by  the  forces  employed  in  the  street- 
cleaning  service,  aided  by  the  citizens,  who  are  obliged  to  clean  their  side- 
walks, to  free  the  gutters  from  snow  and  ice,  and  to  heap  up  the  snow 
upon  the  street  immediately  in  front  of  their  respective  premises  for  a 
short  distance  from  the  curb  line. 

When  the  snow  commences  to  thaw,  the  process  of  melting  is  facilitated 
by  turning  on  the  public  hydrants.  The  street-sweepers  are  then  put  in 
operation,  and  the  slush  is  rapidly  swept  into  the  inlets,  whence  it  passes 
into  the  sewers,  the  temperature  of  the  sewage  favoring  the  further  trans- 
formation of  the  melting  snow  into  water.  Steam  has  been  tried  as  an 
auxiliary;  but  it  has  proved  to  be  impracticable,  and,  therefore,  its  use 
has  been  given  up. 

.   The  annual  cost  of  removing   snow  from  the  city  of  Paris  is  about 
$35,000,  but  in  some  years  it  is  double  this  amount. 

Street  Sprinkling. 

The  sprinkling  of  the  surface  of  the  streets  in  the  warm  and  dry  sea- 
son conduces  both  to  comfort  and  to  health.  It  has  the  effect  of  cooling 
the  atmosphere,  but  its  main  advantage  is  recognized  in  settling  the  dust, 
and  in  preventing  it  from  being  wafted  about  by  the  action  of  the  wind. 
It  is  rarely  the  case  that  this  work  is  performed  by  the  municipal  authori- 
ties, though  properly  belonging  to  the  public  service.  It  is  most  com- 
monly undertaken  by  private  parties,  under  the  sanction  of  the  town 
administration,  and  the  expense  is  defrayed  by  the  occupants  of  premises 
specially  benefited  by  the  enterprise,  by  subscriptions  at  so  much  for  the 
season.  The  use  of  the  public  hydrants  is  granted  free  of  cost.  Addi- 
tional sprinkling  is  also  done  by  individuals  in  front  of  their  respective 
premises,  by  the  use  of  hose  and  sprinklers;  but  this  is  very  irregular  and 
inconsiderable.  The  regular  sprinkling  is  performed  by  means  of  large 
casks  or  wooden  reservoirs  mounted  upon  wheels,  to  which  is  attached  a 
distributing-pipe — usually   placed   at   the    rear  end    of   the    apparatus — 


SOIL    AND    ^VATEE.  563 

perforated  with  small  openings,  from  which  the  water  is  ejected  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  The  discharge  of  water  is  regulated  by  a  lever  under 
the  control  of  the  driver.  The  service  of  street-sprinkling  should  be 
regulated  by  strict  municipal  ordinance,  in  order  to  prevent  abuses.  One 
of  these  is  the  constant  wetting  of  the  flag-stone  crossings  ;  another  and 
more  serious  one  is  the  application  of  water  in  inordinate  quantities, 
whereby  the  street-surface  is  made  muddy,  and  is  disfigured  with  puddles 
of  dirty  water,  especially  wherever  the  surface  drainage  is  defective. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  method  of  sprinkling — so  as 
to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  inconvenience  which  the  act  frequently 
occasions — by  the  employment  of  deliquescent  salts.  These  salts,  applied 
directly  or  in  solution,  tend  to  keep  the  surface  in  a  moist  state,  and 
therefore  a  less  frequent  sprinkling  is  required.  Mr.  Darcel,  chief  engineer 
of  the  city  of  Paris,  first  experimented  with  the  refined  chloride  of  cal- 
cium. Not  being  sufficiently  soluble  for  use  in  the  sprinkling-carts,  it 
was  applied  by  hand.  The  effect  lasted  for  five  or  six  days.  This  article 
being  very  expensive,  the  unrefined  chloride  of  calcium,  which  contains 
some  chloride  of  manganese  and  is  only  half  as  costly,  was  substituted  in 
its  place.  It  was  applied  in  the  same  manner.  Although  double  the 
quantity  was  used,  the  effect  lasted  only  three  days,  and  even  then  it  was 
necessary  that  the  air  should  be  moist;  on  the  failure  of  this  condition  of 
the  atmosphere,  a  light  sprinkling  with  plain  water  was  necessary.  ^Ir. 
Darcel  therefore  gave  preference  to  the  pure  chloride,  but  he  remarks 
that  its  use  would  be  very  expensive. 

Mr.  Hornberg,  engineer-in-chief  of  the  public  streets  of  Paris,  also 
made  experiments  with  deliquescent  salts.  He  employed  the  pure  chlo- 
ride of  magnesium,  which  is  very  soluble  in  water.  The  salt  was  applied 
in  the  evening  in  the  dry  state  or  in  solution.  The  result  was  very  sat- 
isfactory during  the  first  twenty-four  hours;  but  on  the  second  day,  a 
light  sprinkling  was  necessary;  on  the  third  day,  two  were  required;  and 
on  the  evening  of  the  third  day,  a  renewal  of  the  chloride  had  to  be  made. 
The  use  of  this  material,  even  by  the  aid  of  the  sprinkling-carts,  was  ex- 
pensive; and  the  advantages  of  this  and  other  similar  salts  have  not  been 
sufficiently  prominent  to  justify  their  employment  in  the  place  of  the  or- 
dinary sprinkling,  which  has  the  advantage  of  refreshing  the  air  as  well 
as  of  preventing  dust.  However,  in  dry  seasons,  when  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  water,  recourse  may  be  had  to  these  salts  with  profit.^ 

Disin/ecta7its. 

The  use  of  disinfectants  is  sometimes  required  to  prevent  and  counter- 
act the  offensive  products  of  decomposition  of  organic  matters  upon  the 
streets,  in  the  gutters,  catch-basins  of  sewer-inlets,  urinals,  etc.  But  in 
no  case  should  these  agents  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  thorough  cleanli- 
ness.    The  remark  of  Mr.  Simon  in  reg-ard  to  houses  having  offensive  smells 


■  Notice  sur  le  nettoiement  de  la  voie  publique,  Paris,  1876. 


564  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

may  also  be  applied  to  the  public  ways  in  a  like  condition,  that  artificial 
deodorizers  will  no  more  serve  in  the  stead  of  cleanliness  and  ventilation 
than,  in  regard  of  persons,  perfume  can  serve  instead  of  soap  and  water. 

The  agents  commonly  used  are  the  chloride  of  lime,  sulphate  of  iron, 
sulphate  of  zinc,  and  carbolic  acid. 

Chloride  of  lime  disengages  chlorine-gas,  which  has  the  effect  of  de- 
composing sulphuretted  hydrogen,  sulphurous  acid,  hydrogen,  the  ammo- 
niacal  salts,  and  all  the  volatile  products  of  organic  decomposition.  It 
may  be  employed  wherever  urine  and  fsecal  matters  are  deposited,  and 
for  disinfecting  foul  gutters,  inlets,  and  offensive  holes  in  badly-paved 
streets,  etc. 

The  sulphates  of  iron  and  zinc  may  be  employed  under  the  same  condi- 
tions. They  are  non-volatile,  and  therefore  do  not  destroy  the  offensive 
odors  produced  by  decomposing  organic  matters;  they  will,  hoAvever,  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  these  offensive  effluvia  by  their  application  to  the 
substances  from  which  the  bad  odors  are  given  off.  The  sulphate  of  iron 
is  a  very  cheap  article,  and  is  a  very  useful  agent  for  disinfecting  gutters 
and  inlets.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  producing  a  yellow  stain  upon 
objects  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The  sulphate  of  zinc  is  more 
energetic,  but  more  costly;  it  disengages  no  odor,  nor  does  it  produce  an^^ 
stain.  It  is  used  in  Paris  in  cleaning  and  washing  out  the  market-houses 
and  cellars,  and  spaces  adjoining  the  market-houses. 

Carbolic  acid  has  been  recommended,  both  for  its  antiseptic  and  dis- 
infectant qualities.  It  cannot  be  called  a  deodorizer,  in  the  sense  that 
chlorine  is;  and  it  is  hardly  proper  to  depend  upon  it  as  an  aerial  disin- 
fectant. But  it  does  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  processes  of 
fermentation,  which  it  arrests  and  prevents.  As  it  destroys  the  low 
forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  restrains  and  prevents  putrefac- 
tive changes,  it  is  an  especialh^  valuable  agent  for  disinfecting  urinals, 
latrines,  spaces  in  and  about  market-houses,  gutters,  public  streets,  etc. 
In  summer  time  it  may  occasionally  be  applied  to  the  streets  and  gutters 
liable  to  defilement,  such  as  those  in  the  poor  quarters  of  the  town,  and 
around  market-houses,  slaughter-houses,  and  the  like.  It  may  be  applied 
by  sprinkling-carts,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  acid  in  1,000 
parts  of  water.  For  the  other  purposes  indicated,  it  may  be  used  in  solu- 
tion, in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  acid  to  20  jDarts  of  water,  up  to 
one  part  of  the  former  to  100  parts  of  the  latter,  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

Many  other  agents  are  in  use,  a  full  description  of  which,  together 
with  their  uses,  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Disinfectants. 

The  Cleansing  of  MarJcet-houses. 

The  cleansing  of  the  market-halls,  and  the  passage-ways  and  streets  in 
their  vicinity,  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  sanitary  administration  of 
a  town,  and  should  therefore  receive  the  most  rpinute  care.  The  most 
rigid  regulations,  and  constant  surveillance  to  compel  their  enforcement, 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  565 

will  be  required  to  prevent  the  evil  effects  from  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  and  animal  refuse  matters  accumulated  during  each  day.  A 
daily  sweeping  and  washing  of  these  places,  and  a  daily  and  even  more 
frequent  removal  of  the  refuse  substances,  will  be  required  to  preserve  a 
perfect  hygienic  condition.  The  use  of  chlorinated  or  carbolated  water 
may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage  in  the  summer  season.  The  pave- 
ments of  the  market-halls  and  of  the  passages  and  neighboring  streets 
should  be  made  of  non-absorbent  material,  such  as  asphalt,  and  they 
should  be  thoroughly  drained. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  collecting  and  removing  the 
refuse-matters.  Galvanized  iron  receptacles  will  be  very  serviceable  for 
this  purpose,  and  those  used  for  the  collection  of  the  animal  matters,  such 
as  entrails  of  fish  and  poultry,  should  be  hermetically  sealed  before  being 
remot^d.  Butcher's  offal,  and  all  other  substances  liable  to  rapid  putre- 
factive changes,  should  be  removed  in  the  same  careful  manner.  If  carts 
are  used  they,  should  be  water-tight,  and  should  be  provided  with  tightly- 
fitting  covers.  The  offensive  practice  of  removing  these  substances  in 
open  carts,  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of  the  sun,  should  be  strictly  pro- 
hibited. 

The  Removal  of  Ashes  and  Dry  Refuse. 

The  removal  of  ashes  and  dry  refuse  from  houses  is  a  part  of  the 
street-cleaning  service.  These  materials,  collected  in  proper  receptacles, 
in  the  manner  already  indicated,  should  be  placed  upon  the  pavement  at 
the  moment  of  the  passage  of  the  ash-cart,  and  at  no  other  time,  lest  they 
interfere  with  locomotion  or  be  overturned  into  the  street,  and  thus  create 
a  nuisance.  They  are  immediately  emptied  into  the  ash-carts,  and  the  re- 
ceptacles are  removed  from  off  the  public  ways.  The  ash-carts  should  be 
large,  well-constructed  vehicles,  provided  with  tightly-fitting  wooden  or 
canvas  covers  to  prevent  the  scattering  of  the  dust  by  the  action  of  the 
wind  or  by  the  jolting  over  the  stones.  They  should  be  required  to  be 
kept  in  a  clean  condition.  The  streets  should  be  divided  into  routes,  and 
the  collections  should  take  place  at  regular  intervals,  and  as  near  as  possi- 
ble at  the  same  hour  on  the  days  of  collection.  This  will  be  a  great  con- 
venience to  housekeepers,  and  will  prevent  the  setting  out  of  the  recepta- 
cles before  the  approach  of  the  wagons.  A  daily  removal  of  ashes  and 
refuse  may  be  required  in  some  cases,  in  others  a  bi-Aveekly  or  even  weekly 
removal  will  suffice.  This  must  be  determined  by  local  circumstances. 
However,  the  more  frequent,  as  a  general  rule,  the  better.  When  the  re- 
fuse-matters are  very  offensive,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  carts 
cleansed  and  disinfected  before  they  are  returned  to  the  public  streets. 
Suitable  depots  should  be  provided  at  convenient  distances  from  the  town, 
where  the  refuse  can  be  deposited  and  assorted  preparatory  to  its  utiliza- 
tion. The  pernicious  practice  of  shooting  this  material  into  sunken  places 
and  upon  lots  in  the  environs  of  the  town  should  be  strictly  prohibited, 
since  these  "  filled-in  "  places  may  become  the  sites  of  dwellings  in  the 
near  future. 


566  SOIL    AND    WATEK. 


The  Removal  of  Kitchen- garbage. 

The  removal  of  kitchen-garbage  is  also  a  branch  of  the  street-cleaning- 
service,  and  one  which  requires  the  minutest  care  in  its  organization  and 
administration.  This  material  should  be  taken  away  daily.  There  can 
be  no  deviation  from  this  regulation  in  the  summer  season.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  garbage-vessel  upon  the  premises  has  already  been  described. 
Drained  of  its  liquid  contents,  it  is  delivered  to  the  collector  at  the  mo- 
ment of  his  arrival,  which  is  announced  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell.  The 
receptacle,  promptly  returned,  should  be  irrfmediately  cleansed  before 
being  used  for  fresh  deposits. 

The  same  regularity  and  systematic  management  are  required  in  regard 
to  the  garbage-carts  as  has  been  shown  to  be  necessary  in  the  case  of  the 
ash-carts.  They  should  be  constructed  in  the  best  possible  manner. 
They  should  be  water-tight;  and  the  interior  should  be  coated  with  some 
impervious  material,  to  prevent  absorption  of  the  liquids.  Tightly-fitting 
covers  should  be  provided,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  offensive  odors  or 
the  spilling  of  any  of  the  contents.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
these  vehicles  should  be  thoroughly  washed  out  and  disinfected,  to  pre- 
vent them  from  becoming  offensive.  Instead  of  the  garbage-carts,  air- 
tight receptacles,  about  the  size  of  a  barrel,  may  be  used  and  transported 
upon  a  truck.  Each  receptacle  is  provided  with  a  tightly-fitting  cover, 
which  is  adjusted  to  a  rubber  gasket,  and  firmly  fixed  by  means  of  clamps. 
Such  receivers  are  now  used  for  the  removal  of  night-soil  without  offence. 
They  are  more  easily  handled  and  cleansed,  and  have  a  great  advantage 
in  the  case  of  large  establishments,  such  as  hotels,  restaurants,  etc.  The 
material  need  not  be  disturbed;  the  entire  cask,  when  full,  is  sealed  up, 
and  removed  to  the  truck,  and  an  empty  one  left  in  its  place.  The  ma- 
terial should  be  removed  beyond  the  environs  of  the  town,  to  be  disposed 
of  according  to  circumstances.  It  is  often  utilized  by  feeding  it  to  swine, 
or  by  converting  it  into  a  compost. 

The  Defilement  of  Open  Spaces  in  Toions. 

The  defilement  of  open  spaces  and  vacant  lots  in  towns  and  cities  by 
refuse-matters,  dead  animals,  stagnant  water,  house-slops,  ffecal  matter, 
etc.,  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  refuse-matters  from  houses,  trades, 
manufactories,  the  street-sweepings,  garbage,  and  the  like,  are  deposited 
upon  these  spaces  in  the  environs  of  towns,  for  the  want  of  other  con- 
venient places.  The  most  stringent  regulations  and  the  most  constant 
watching  are  required  to  prevent  such  nuisances  from  being  perpetrated. 
It  is  generally  the  fault  of  the  town  authorities  in  not  providing  deposi- 
tories for  waste-matters,  which  must  of  necessity  be  carried  out  of  the 
populous  districts.  In  the  warm  weather  these  matters  undergo  decom- 
position, and  pollute  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  soil  also  is  defiled 
b}^  soakage,  favored  by  the  rainfall;  and  the  well-water  of  the  neighbor- 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  ,  507 

hood  is  exposed  to  the  risk  of  contamination.  Rain-water  collects  in  the 
depressions  of  the  surface,  and,  polluted  by  oozings  from  the  foul  accumu- 
lations, it  takes  on  a  still  more  offensive  character  from  exposure  to  the 
hot  rays  of  the  sun.  Sickness  in  the  neighborhood  is  often  attributed  to 
these  conditions,  and  with  reason. 

But  it  is  not  only  upon  the  outskirts  of  towns  that  these  nuisances  oc- 
cur. The  vacant  lots  in  the  more  populated  parts  are  also  converted  into 
depositories  for  all  kinds  of  filth.  At  times,  when  unobserved,  people 
deposit  upon  these  open  spaces  ashes,  garbage,  slops,  refuse  of  all  kinds, 
and  even  faecal  matter.  The  effluvia  from  these  places  render  impure  the 
air  of  the  neighborhood;  and  the  drainage  affects  the  soil  under  and  about 
the  adjoining  houses. 

To  prevent  these  nuisances,  there  should  be  provided  well-selected  de- 
positories for  all  refuse-matters  of  a  putrescible  nature;  the  inclosing  of 
all  open  spaces  within  the  populous  parts  should  be  required  and  enforced, 
so  as  to  prevent  access  for  improper  uses;  ordinances  prohibiting,  under 
penalty  of  a  fine,  the  improper  disposal  of  refuse  should  be  made  oper- 
ative; and,  most  of  all,  a  well-ordered  and  complete  system  for  removal 
of  all  refuse-matters  should  be  provided,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of 
infractions  of  sanitary  rules. 

The  defilement  of  the  surface  in  towns  and  cities,  by  urine  and  even 
fmcal  matter,  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  Where  proper  conyeni- 
ences  are  not  at  hand,  alley-ways  and  by -places  are  frequently  made  use 
of  by  persons  fqf  the  purpose  of  attending  to  the  wants  of  nature.  In 
parts  of  the  town  populated  by  the  poorer  classes,  faecal  matter  as  well  as 
urine  finds  its  way  into  the  small  streets,  courts,  and  alleys,  generally  on 
account  of  the  shameful  want  of  proper  conveniences  in  the  dwellings.  To 
prevent  these  nuisances  from  being  created,  the  municipality  should  require 
every  house  to  be  provided  with  suitable  water-closets,  and  cause  to  be 
erected  in  proper  places,  public  water-closets  or  privy  conveniences  and 
urinals.  Accommodations  of  this  kind  are  very  rarely  provided  in  this 
country,  simply  for  the  reason  that  there  exists  a  strong  popular  disgust 
for  anything  that  may  partake  of  the  nature  of  immodesty.  Another  ob- 
jection sometimes  urged  against  these  places  is  that  they  are  liable  to 
become  offensive  public  nuisances.  Such  may  be  the  case  where  there  is 
a  want  of  proper  care.  Both  of  these  objections  mafy  be  easily -over- 
come by  properly  locating  the  "  conveniences,"  and  so  constructing  them 
that,  while  they  are  easily  accessible,  they  afford  a  screen  from  public 
view  and  privacy  to  those  who  enter  them;  and,  further,  by  carrying  out 
a  thorough  system  of  inspection  and  cleansing,  so  that  these  resorts  shall 
never  remain  unserviceable  or  in  a  filthy  condition. 

These  accommodations  are  requisite,  not  only  as  a  means  of  promoting 
public  cleanliness  and  decency,  but  also  of  contributing  to  public  comfort 
and  of  preventing  needless  suffering,  and  even  disease.  They  are  especially 
required  in  much-frequented  localities.  They  should  be  simple  in  their 
construction,  well  lighted,  and  well  ventilated,  and  managed  with  the 
most  scrupulous  care,  so  as  to  maintain  perfect  cleanliness  and  freedom 


568  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

from  all  offensive  odor.  In  northern  towns  it  will  be  necessary,  in  the 
winter  season,  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  water.  In  its  stead,  fresh  saw- 
dust  is  sometimes  used  in  the  urinal-basins. 

/Surface  Defilement  in  Small  Towns  and  Villages. 

In  small  towns  and  villages,  the  absence  of  underground  drainage  and 
the  want  of  systematic  disposal  of  refuse-matters  frequently  give  rise  to 
serious  nuisances.  The  house-slops,  which  consist  of  kitchen- water,  some 
urine,  and  of  the  foul  washings  of  the  premises,  are  often  either  thrown 
upon  the  surface,  or  allowed  to  flow  into  ditches  or  open  channels  upon 
the  roadway,  from  which  they  soak  into  the  ground,  or  are  discharged 
into  the  nearest  Avater-course.  The  house-refuse  is  often  accumulated 
upon  the  jDremises,  or  is  thrown  into  the  public  road.  Excreta  also  fre- 
quently form  a  part  of  the  contents  of  the  ash-pit  placed  near  the  house. 
From  all  these  sources,  there  is  constant  danger  of  pollution  of  air,  ground, 
and  water. 

The  chance  of  surface  impurities  getting  into  the  water  of  wells 
(which  are  usually  located  close  to  the  houses)  is  very  great.  This  is 
more  particularly  the  case  when  shallow  wells  are  used.  The  soakage- 
water  from  the  ground  of  a  considerable  area  about  the  well  will  gravitate 
toward  it,  and,  if  the  surrounding  soil  is  constantly  saturated  with  filth, 
the  water  itself  will  necessarily  be  very  impure.  It  sometimes  hap^^ens  that 
filth  accumulated  ii]Don  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  washed  directly  into 
the  well.  The  water-supjoly  is  sometimes  taken  from  small  streams  jDol- 
luted  by  soakings  or  by  surface-washings.  Underground  water-cisterns, 
if  not  well  cemented  and  protected  by  good  cojDing-stones,  may  be  as 
liable  to  contamination  from  surface-washings  and  soakage  as  ordinary 
wells. 

Another  source  of  surface-defilement  in  villages  results  from  bad  privy 
management.  The  fgecal  matter  is  often  deposited  upon  the  natural  sur- 
face of  the  ground  or  in  a  superficial  hole,  whence  the  fluid  filth  drains 
away  into  the  soil,  or  overflows  ujDon  the  surface.  This  manner  of  accu- 
mulating excremental  matter,  with  its  attendant  effluvia  and  soakings,  is 
very  liable  to  give  rise  to  a  serious  nuisance,  by  infecting  the  atmosphere 
and  contaminating  the  water-supply. 

In  addition  to  these  sanitary  defects,  so  common  in  villages,  there  are 
others  which  arise  from  the  keeping  of  animals  in  situations  close  to 
houses  and  the  sources  of  the  water-supply.  Horse-stables,  cattle-sheds, 
pig-pens,  manure-heaps,  are  often  badly  managed  and  ill-cared  for.  Their 
location,  contiguous  to  dwellings,  is  of  itself  a  nuisance,  but  the  offensive 
outflows  upon  the  natural  surface  or  soakage  into  the  soil  of  liquid  filth 
from  neglected  accumulations  of  refuse-matter,  when  in  close  proximity 
to  human  habitations,  must  of  necessity  prove  injurious  to  health. 

The  public  roads  of  villages  are  too  often  only  common  dirt-roads  with 
open  ditches  at  the  sides  to  afford  drainage.  Refuse  thrown  upon  the 
surface  mixes  with  the  dust  or  mud,  and  is  left  to  decompose.      Road- 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  569 

cleansino-  receives  but  little  attention.  The  shallow  ditches,  which  were 
properly  intended  to  cany  off  the  surface-water,  are  frequently  resorted 
to  for  getting  rid  of  house-slops,  which  are  carried  over  the  surface  to  the 
ditches,  or  are  conveyed  into  them  by  badly-laid  and  open-jointed  drains. 
The  outlet  to  such  of  the  contents  of  the  road-ditches  as  does  not  soak 
into  the  o-round,  is  either  into  some  small  neighboring  stream,  or  into  field- 
ditches  near  the  village.  It  is  needless  to  speak  of  the  consequences 
which  must  arise  from  this  pernicious  plan  of  drainage. 

The  problem  of  rural  sanitation  is,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case, 
difficult  of  solution.  Villages  spring  up  without  regulation.  At  first, 
the  houses  are  scattered,  and  surrounded  by  a  wide  space,  and  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  disposing  of  the  liquid  and  solid  refuse  upon  the  premises. 
But  in  time,  the  houses  become  crowded  together,  and  the  spaces  attached 
to  them  are  then  insufficient  to  properly  dispose  of  the  refuse  matters  pro- 
duced upon  the  premises.  The  evils  arising  from  the  improper  disposal 
of  waste  matters  gradually  become  more  and  more  apparent,  until  at  last, 
by  some  unusual  occurrence,  most  likely  an  outbreak  of  epidemic  disease, 
they  attract  public  notice. 

It  is  then  a  matter  of  the  greatest  difficulty  to  remedy  the  errors  of 
the  past.  The  location  is  often  such  as  should  never  have  been  selected. 
The  houses  are  often  ill  arranged,  destitute  of  proper  conveniences,  and 
many  of  them  unsuited  for  dwellings.  The  sanitary  defects  which  have 
been  described,  exist  in  all  their  forms.  There  may  be  a  total  absence 
of  public  drainage  and  of  public  scavenging,  the  accumulations  of  refuse 
being  stored  upon  the  separate  premises,  or  removed  according  to  the 
option  of  the  individual  householder. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  the  direction  of  improvement  will  be  the 
organization  of  a  sanitary  board,  which  should  be  clothed  with  ample 
powers,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  to  the  legislature  for  acts  by 
which  the  errors  of  the  past  may  be  in  a  measure  corrected.  As  a  rule, 
the  improvements  to  old  buildings  will  necessarily  be  limited,  bvit  all  new 
buildings  will  be  subject  to  sanitary  provisions.  Public  improvements, 
such  as  sewers,  water-supply,  refuse-removal,  road-macadamizing,  ought 
to  be  introduced;  but  here  the  question  of  expense  is  generally  the  ob- 
stacle in  the  way  of  progress  and  sanitary  reform.  The  limited  number 
of  houses  in  villages  in  comparison  with  the  expense  of  these  public  works, 
makes  the  cost,  per  head,  far  greater  than  in  towns,  and,  as  the  taxes  are 
considered  already  sufficiently  onerous,  there  is  little  disposition  on  the 
part  of  the  people  to  increase  their  burdens,  even  though  with  the  pros- 
pects of  adding  to  their  comforts  and  improving  their  health.  Hence  the 
reason  for  the  slow  progress  of  sanitary  improvements  in  villages,  even 
in  those  of  considerable  size,  and  in  small  towns. 

In  most  villages,  except  those  of  very  considerable  size,  or  where  the 
garden  space  is  very  limited,  a  system  of  public  scavenging  will  hardly 
be  deemed  necessary,  the  facilities  for  disposing  of  refuse  mattei-s  upon 
the  premises  generally  being  ample.  Rubbish  and  garbage  can  be  gotten 
rid  of  by  fire,  or,  if  not  utilized  upon  the  premises,  can  be  disposed  of 


570  SOUL    AND    WATEE. 

without  difficulty  to  collectors  from  the  neighboring  country.  Excreta 
collected  by  the  dry  method  may  be  disposed  of  in  the  gardens  by  digging 
it  into  soil,  whenever  the  space  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose;  otherwise  ar- 
rangement may  be  made  with  some  neighbor  or  some  farmer,  which  will  be 
satisfactory.  So  long  as  no  nuisance  is  created  by  individual  management 
of  house-refuse,  or  by  individual  privy  management,  a  public  system  need 
not  be  organized. 

If  the  village  be  a  large  one,  consorted  action  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants will  be  required  in  providing  a  system  of  scavenging.  The  dry 
earth  may  be  procured  and  distributed,  and  the  excreta  mixed  with  the 
earth,  removed  at  frequent  intervals,  either  by  contract  or  otherwise. 
The  simple  pail  s^^stern,  or  the  Goux  system,  may  be  adopted  with  ad- 
vantage, provided  the  removal  takes  place  at  very  frequent  intervals. 
The  expense  of  organizing  a  system  will  generally  not  be  great,  since,  in 
an  agricultural  district,  the  manure  will  have  considerable  value. 

In  most  villages  the  kind  of  closet-accommodation  usually  adopted  is 
objectionable.  It  may  be  a  simple  wooden  structure  erected  over  a  hore 
dug  in  the  ground  to  receive  the  excrement,  or  a  cesspit  bricked  up  at 
the  sides  to  prevent  the  falling  in  of  the  earth.  Both  of  these  contriv- 
ances are  very  offensive,  particularly  in  the  summer  season.  Sometimes 
a  privy- vault  is  built  close  to  the  house,  and  a  closet  is  constructed  over  it, 
so  as  to  communicate  with  the  interior  of  the  dwelling.  In  some  houses 
of  the  best  class,  water-closets  are  made  use  of,  but  too  often  the  plan  is 
seriously  defective.  The  soil-pipe  enters  a  privy-well  adjoining  the  house, 
which  is  usually  dug  sufficiently  deep  to  tap  a  porous  stratum  of  the  soil, 
with  the  object  of  securing  an  outlet  for  the  fluid  portions  of  the  filth. 
The  soil-pipe  is  usually  not  ventilated,  and  no  adequate  provision  is  made 
to  prevent  the  entrance  into  the  house  of  gases  generated  in  the  covered 
privy-vault.  All  these  varieties  of  privy-accommodation,  it  will  be  per- 
ceived, are  structural^  defective.  They  permit  of  outflow  upon  the  sur- 
face or  of  soakage  into  the  surrounding  soil,  and  are  thus  a  source  of 
offense  and  danger  to  health.  The  remedy  for  these  defects  should  be 
radical.  There  is  no  better  way  of  correcting  the  existing  evils  than  by 
the  adoption  of  some  form  of  dry  conservancy.  Where  water-closets  are 
in  use,  which  is  rarely  the  case,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  the  cess- 
pool as  far  away  from  the  house  and  water-well  as  possible,  and  also  to 
take  the  precaution  to  make  it  absolutely  tight,  so  that  no  part  of  its  con- 
tents can,  under  any  circumstances,  filter  away  into  the  soil.  Other  pre- 
cautions, already  suggested,  should  be  carried  out. 

The  use  of  the  flush-tank  for  collecting  the  house-water  and  disjDosing 
of  it  through  permeable  drains  carried  just  beneath  the  surface  and  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  plants,  or,  in  other  words,  subsoil  irrigation,  may  be 
turned  to  advantage  in  disposing  of  the  waste  from  water-closets.  This 
waste  should  enter  the  drain  some  distance  beyond  the  flush-tank,  so  that 
whatever  deposit  may  be  left,  will  be  swept  away  by  the  scouring  action 
of  the  water  discharged  periodically  from  the  tank.  This  means  of  the 
disposal  of  sewage,  in  the  few  cases  of  water-closet  accommodation  met 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  571 

with  in  villages,  will  answer  the  purpose  very  well.  A  proper  garden 
space,  located  some  distance  from  the  house  and  the  source  of  water- 
supply,  will  be  required,  and  care  will  have  to  be  taken  that  the  main 
drain  which  conducts  the  sewage  to  the  soil  to  be  irrigated,  is  of  proper 
material  and  well  constructed. 

In  almost  all  villages  the  slop-water  is  disposed  of  by  a  system  of  sur- 
face-drainage, which  often  gives  rise  to  a  serious  nuisance.  The  plan  of 
subsoil  irrigation,  just  alluded  to,  has  been  recommended,  by  Mr.  Moule, 
Colonel  Waring,  and  others,  as  the  best  solution  of  the  difficulty.  Its 
practical  application  has  recently  been  tested  in  the  village  of  Lennox, 
Mass.,  "  where  a  flush-tank,  having  a  capacity  of  five  hundred  cubic  feet, 
periodically  delivers  its  contents  through  a  system  of  about  ten  thousand 
feet  of  two-inch  tile  lying  twelve  inches  below  the  surface,  and  which  has 
an  uncemented  joint  at  every  foot  of  its  length."  According  to  Colonel 
"VYaring,  under  whose  advice  and  supervision  the  work  has  been  carried 
out,  the  results  have  been  entirely  satisfactory.  This  general  plan  of  dis- 
posal of  village  slops  may  be  substituted  for  the  ordinary  sewerage-system, 
with  the  advantage  of  creating  no  nuisance  at  the  outfall.  The  liquid  re- 
fuse engendered  on  separate  premises  may  be  dealt  with  .after  this  same 
manner,  whenever  there  is  ample  garden  space  at  hand. 

Various  other  plans  have  been  suggested  for  the  disposal  of  slop-water. 
One  of  these  is  that  devised  by  Dr.  Bond,  which  consists  in  the  use  of  a 
precipitating  tub  and  filter  for  clarifying  the  liquid  refuse  before  allowing 
it  to  flow  off  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  into  the  open  gutter. 
Dumb  wells  are  sometimes  used;  but  they  are  not  to  be  recommended  as  a 
safe  means  of  disposal  of  the  slop-water  of  villages.  For  a  few  cottages 
this  plan  will  be  satisfactory,  provided  the  well  be  located  far  away  from 
all  sources  of  water-supply.  To  carry  it  out  successfully  the  soil  should 
be  of  a  porous  nature,  so  as  to  permit  the  slop-water  to  gradually  soak 
into  its  pores.  A  full  exposition  of  the  subject  of  disposal  of  the  slop- 
water  of  villages  will  be  found  in  a  brochure  recently  published  by  Dr. 
Fox,  to  which  reference  may  be  made.' 

The  roadways  of  villages  should  be  macadamized,  or  made  of  coarse 
gravel,  so  as  to  furnish  a  good  surface  for  traffic,  and  afford  free  drain- 
age. The  gutters  should  be  constructed  with  particular  care,  since  a 
large  amount  of  slop-water  will  be  discharged  into  them.  A  very  good 
form  of  gutter  is  made  of  stone  laid  upon  concrete.  It  has  the  advantages 
of  being  easily  cleaned  and  of  preventing  soakage.  Superficial  drains, 
made  of  terra-cotta  pipe,  and  provided,  at  intervals,  with  catch-pits,  are 
very  satisfactory.  They  keep  the  surface  dry,  prevent  accumulations  of 
slop-water  in  the  gutters,  with  the  attendant  effluvia  and  soakings.  If 
the  roadbed  is  kept  in  good  order,  and  the  surface  is  cleaned  at  frequent 
intervals,  and  the  deposits  in  the  catch -pits  are  regularly  cleaned  out,  there 
will  be  but  little  danger  of  obstructions  forming  in  the  pipes.  Should 
such  occur,  the  expense  of  removing   them  will  be  inconsiderable,  as  the 

^  The  Disposal  of  the  Slop-water  of  Villages,  London,  1877. 


572  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

pipes  are  placed  near  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Means  of  flushing 
and  of  ventilation  should  be  provided.  If  there  is  any  likelihood  of  a 
nuisance  being  created  at  the  outfall  of  the  drains,  the  sewage  may  be 
purified  by  irrigation,  sub-irrigation,  or  intermittent  downward  filtration. 

Nuisances  in  connection  with  the  keeping  of  animals  are  very  common 
in  villages  and  small  towns.  The  pig-pen  is  a  usual  accompaniment  of 
the  village  lot.  Too  frequently  it  is  situated  close  to  the  dwelling-house, 
or  suflSciently  near  to  cause  an  offence.  The  removal  of  the  pens  to  the 
most  distant  part  of  the  lot,  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  the  provision 
of  receptacles  for  the  waste — which  may  be  used  as  a  manure — will  re- 
move the  cause  of  complaint.  In  thickly  populated  villages,  where  the 
garden-lots  are  very  limited  in  size,  jiig-pens  should  be  abolished  alto- 
gether. 

The  yards  adjoining  stables  or  barns,  where  the  manure  is  stored  for 
many  months  in  the  year,  and  into  which  the  drainage  of  the  buildings 
passes,  are  frequently  offensive  nuisances.  There  is  usually  no  means  of 
collecting  the  drainage  from  the  accumulated  manure,  or  of  diverting  the 
rain-water  from  the  buildings  away  from  the  yard.  The  want  of  paving 
is  another  reason  why  these  places  and  their  approaches  are  generally  in 
a  filthy  condition.  If  the  barnyard  is  situated  near  the  roadway,  the  out- 
flow may  pass  into  the  road-gutters,  and  thus  cause  a  public  nuisance. 
To  overcome  these  defects,  it  will  be  necessary  to  pave  the  barnyard 
and  its  approaches  and,  in  a  special  manner,  that  portion  of  the  yard  set 
apart  for  the  deposit  of  the  manure;  to  provide  a  tank  or  receptacle  for 
the  liquid  manure,  with  j)ump  attached;  and  to  carry  off  the  rain-water 
from  the  buildings  and  surface  in  appropriate  channels. 

These  nuisances  are  always  offensive,  and  they  may  be  dangerous  to 
health.  Says  Dr.  Wilson:  "Under  any  circumstances,  the  proximi^  of 
the  well  to  a  pig-sty,  pig- wash  tank,  or  an  undrained  farm-yard,  should 
be  viewed  with  suspicion,  even  though  the  water  be  found  to  be  good  at 
the  date  of  examination.  A  well  so  situated  is  almost  certain  to  become 
polluted  to  a  dangerous  extent  some  time  or  another;  but  it  is  seldom 
that  the  warning  is  attended  to  until  sore-throat,  diphtheria,  dirt-fever, 
or  diarrhoea  breaks  out  in  the  family;  and  then,  if  the  j)remises  in  ques- 
tion happen  to  have  a  dairy  attached  to  them,  there  is  no  saying  how  far 
disease  which  has  thus  been  engendered  may  spread.  Indeed,  there  is  no 
class  of  premises  in  rural  districts  whose  sanitary  condition  should  be 
more  carefully  looked  after  than  dairy-farms;  and  such  fatal  outbreaks 
as  those  of  Islington,  Annerly,  Moseh^,  Marylebone,  and  the  recent  out- 
break at  Eagley — all  of  them  traceable  to  polluted  milk — afford  the 
strongest  possible  argument  that  every  dairy  where  milk  is  sold  should  be 
licensed,  and  that  no  license  should  be  granted  unless  the  sanitary  condi- 
tion of  the  premises  is  in  every  respect  satisfactory."  ' 

*  'Sanitary  Work  in  Villages  and  Country  Districts,  London,  1876,  p.  38. 


SOIL    AND    WATEK.  573 


Surface  Defilement  by  Fcecal  Matters. 

The  accumulations  of  fjecal  matters  in  courts,  alleys,  and  confined 
places,  are  said  to  have  the  same  injurious  effects  as  sewer-air.  The  efflu- 
via from  such  accumulations  are  less  hurtful  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  atmospheric  dilution. 

The  use  of  faecal  matters  for  manure  is  not  generally  considered  to  be 
injurious  to  health.  When  turned  under  the  surface,  these  matters  soon 
lose  their  offensiveness,  on  account  of  the  absorbing  and  deodorizing 
powers  of  the  earth.  As  has  already  been  seen,  the  evidence  against  the 
influence  of  sewage-farms  in  the  production  of  disease  is  very  strong. 
Some  few  instances  have  been  recorded  in  which  the  spreading  of  excreta 
upon  the  ground  for  agricultural  purposes  has  been  followed  by  sickness 
attributable  to  fascal  emanations; '  but  these  cases  are  not  sufficiently 
numerous  to  warrant  a  general  conclusion.  In  China,  where  all  fcecal 
matters  are  carefully  stored  and  applied  to  the  soil,  there  is  no  evidence 
that  evil  effects  have  been  produced  by  the  practice.  In  the  villages,  the  air 
is  often  redolent  with  ftecal  odors;  yet  no  disease  likely  to  arise  from  such 
eflBuvia,  such  as  typhoid  fever  or  dysentery,  has  been  traced  to  this  cause. ^ 

However  strong  may  be  the  evidence  against  the  deleterious  effects  of 
applying  human  excrement  to  the  ground,  common  prudence  requires 
that  the  practice  should  be  limited  strictly  to  rural  districts.  The  ajDpli- 
cation  of  decomposing  excreta  to  the  surface  is  an  exceedingly  offensive 
operation,  and,  unless  the  material  is  speedily  mixed  with  the  earth,  it  will 
cause  a  further  annoyance,  and  possibly  be  damaging  to  the  health  of  the 
people  living  in  the  neighborhood.  The  practice  of  using  f^cal  matters 
as  a  manure  for  truck  patches  in  the  environs  of  towns,  which  are  more  or 
less  populated,  and  where  the  water-supply  is  derived  from  wells,  is 
known  to  be  an  offensive  nuisance,  and  it  may  be  dangerous  to  health. 
Here  the  conditions  are  altogether  different  from  those  existing  in  the 
country.  The  manure  is  lavishly  spread  upon  the  ground,  and  it  is  fre- 
quently the  case  that  it  is  applied  in  a  liquid  form  to  growing  vegetables 
without  digging  it  into  the  soil.  The  odors  from  such  farms  may  be  only 
offensive,  but  the  surface-washings,  if  they  enter  the  wells  depended  on  for 
the  water-supply,  will  produce  the  same  effects  as  would  result  from  con- 
tamination by  leaking  cesspools.  Shallow  wells  may  become  polluted  by 
soakage-water,  though,  unless  the  faecal  matter  is  ap^^lied  in  too  large 
quantities  and  too  frequently,  the  oxidizing  powers  of  the  soil  may  be 
sufficient  to  counteract  any  injurious  effects  from  filtration.  This  manner 
of  using  human  excrement  in  the  immediate  suburbs  of  towns,  which  are 
partly  built  upon,  and  where  the  water-supply  is  taken  from  wells,  is  a 
nuisance,  and  possibly  injurious  to  health,  and  should,  therefore,  be  for- 
bidden, 

^^  Wade  ground.^'' — In  towns,  more  or  less  of  the  ground  used  as  sites 

The  Sewage  Question,  p.  189.  ■  Customs  G-azette  of  China  for  1871. 


574  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

for  buildings  is  artificial — that  is,  made  by  filling  up  inequalities  in  the 
surface  with  all  kinds  of  refuse,  such  as  ashes,  street  dirt,  house  and  trade 
refuse  which  is  composed  of  a  very  considerable  amount  of  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  The  organic  matters  undergo  decomposition,  and  in 
course  of  time  the  soil  becomes  purified  by  oxidation  and  by  the  mechanical 
action  of  rain.  The  time  required  for  the  disappearance  of  the  impurities  is 
variable.  It  depends  mainly  upon  the  amount  of  decaying  matters,  the 
free  access  of  air,  and  the  free  motion  of  water  in  the  soil.  In  the  arti- 
ficial soil  of  Liverpool,  made  largely  of  ashes  and  not  very  imjaure,  Drs. 
Parkes  and  Sanderson  found  that  it  took  about  three  years  for  the  animal 
and  vegetable  matters  to  disappear:  textile  fabrics  were  destroyed  less 
rapidly  ;  while  wood,  straw,  and  similar  substances  were  only  partially 
decayed  in  three  years.  When  the  amount  of  impurities  is  excessive,  a 
much  longer  time  will  be  required.  The  process  of  purification  is  greatly 
impeded,  in  the  absence  of  drainage,  by  the  collection  of  stagnant  water, 
which  excludes  the  atmosphere.  Under  these  conditions  a  soil  may  re- 
main impure  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  and  it  is  uncertain  when  it 
would  be  safe  to  use  it  for  building  purposes. 

New-made  ground  should  never  be  used  for  building  purposes,  until  at 
least  three  years  after  the  final  deposit  of  rubbish  has  been  made  upon  it. 
From  the  very  commencement  it  should  be  well  drained,  to  facilitate  the 
natural  process  of  purification  by  the  free  passage  of  air  and  water 
through  it.  The  foundations  of  buildings  should  be  carried  down  to  the 
natural  soil,  and  the  sewer-pipes  should  be  securely  supported  upon 
boards  laid  upon  piles,  or  upon  piers  of  brick- work;  otherwise,  by  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  soil,  the  pipes  will  open  at  the  sockets  and  defile  the  sur- 
rounding ground  to  a  dangerous  extent.  In  the  report  on  the  sanitary 
condition  of  LiverjDool,  by  Drs.  Parkes  and  Sanderson,  the  following  rules 
are  laid  down  : 

"  1.  No  excavation  should  be  used  for  the  reception  of  cinder-refuse 
unless  it  is  efficiently  drained.  This  appears  to  us  to  be  of  especial  im- 
portance in  relation  to  the  filling  up  of  brick-fields.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  whole  of  the  surface  of  clay  is  never  removed,  and  there  is  always 
sufficient  to  form  an  impermeable  basin,  in  which,  in  the  absence  of  drain- 
age, water  constantly  collects.  We  hold  it  to  be  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, for  the  rapid  decomposition  of  whatever  offensive  material  may 
exist  in  the  '  cinder,'  that  it  should  be  able  to  become  dry.  The  only  way 
in  which  this  can  be  promoted  or  secured  is  by  efficient  subsoil  drainage. 

"  2.  As  the  vegetable  and  animal  matter  contained  in  the  cinder- 
refuse  decays  and  disappears  in  about  three  years,  and  is  virtually  innocu- 
ous before  that  time,  we  recommend  that  places  filled  up  with  cinder- 
refuse  shall  not  be  built  upon  for  at  least  two  years  from  the  date  of  last 
deposit." 

The  promiscuous  filling  up  of  inequalities  of  ground  is  certainly  an 
evil,  and  should  be  prohibited.  This  manner  of  disposal  of  refuse  should 
be  restricted  to  the  less  objectionable  materials,  and  the  practice  should  be 
subject  to  strict  supervision. 


SOIL    AND    WATEE.  575 


SECTION   III. 
Diseases  conjStected  with  certain  Conditions  of  the  Soil. 

The  conditions  of  the  soil  affecting  health  exert  their  influence  mainly 
through  the  medium  of  the  air  we  breathe  and  the  water  we  drink.  There 
is  also  to  be  noticed  the  influence  of  moisture  of  soil  as  an  independent 
factor,  which  affects  health  through  its  relations  to  the  temperature  and 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  general  subject  may  be  considered  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Diseases  connected  with  emanations  from  the  soil. 

2.  Diseases  connected  with  water  in  the  soil. 

3.  Diseases  connected  with  pollution  of  the  soil. 

a.  Diseases  connected  with  pollution  of  the  air. 

h.  Diseases  connected  with  pollution  of  drinking-water. 

1.  Diseases  connected  with  Emanations  feom  the  Soil. 

The  principal  diseases  which  have  been  attributed  to  telluric  effluvia 
are,  as  stated  by  Parkes,  paroxysmal  fevers,  enteric  (typhoid)  fever, 
yellow  fever,  bilious  remittent  fever,  cholera,  and  dysentery.  What  the 
nature  of  the  peculiar,  subtle  poison  is  that  has  the  power  of  producing 
certain  morbid  states  of  the  system,  has  not  been  determined  with  respect 
to  any  of  these  diseases.  Whether  it  consist  of  minute  particles  of  de- 
composing organic  matter,  or  of  living  germs,  neither  chemical  analysis 
nor  microscopical  examination  has  been  able  to  discover.  It  can  hardly  be 
a  gas.  All  that  we  know  of  it  is  that  the  production  of  the  morbific  agent, 
whatever  its  nature,  depends  upon  some  kind  of  decomposition  taking 
place  in  the  soil,  requiring,  as  essential  conditions,  the  presence  of  organic 
matter,  heat,  moisture,  and  air,  and  that  it  is  largely  conveyed  to  the 
body  through  the  medium  of  the  atmosphere. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  the  paroxysmal  fe'oers^  both  inter- 
mittent and  remittent,  are  produced  by  terrestrial  emanations,  commonly 
referred  to  under  the  term  malaria.  These  diseases  are  usually  associated 
with  the  effluvia  from  marshes  and  low-lying  and  badly-drained  situations, 
but  they  also  occur  in  districts  far  remote  from  marshes,  and  even  on 
elevated  regions.  Marshy  districts  are,  however,  the  principal  haunts  of 
these  diseases  in  nearly  all  countries.  Various  other  diseases  have  been 
ascribed  to  the  air  of  marshes,  such  as  dysentery,  diarrhoea,  and  some 
other  gastric  disturbances.  Bogs,  though  generally  damp,  do  not  produce 
periodical  fevers,  but  they  are  said  to  cause  malignant  catarrhs.  (Cameron.) 
The  deleterious  effects  of  the  air  of  marshes  (malaria)  are  also  manifested 
by  impaired  nutrition,   anaemia,   dyspepsia,   disorders  of  the  spleen   (en- 


576  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

larged  sj^leen),  and  sometimes  liver  abscess.  The  inhabitants  of  malarious 
districts  are  often  easily  recognized  by  their  sallow,  enfeebled  appearance, 
■which  is  probably  due  to  imperfect  or  defective  assimilation. 

Yelloto  fever  was  at  one  time  believed  to  be  of  malarial  origin,  and 
there  are  some  who  still  entertain  the  view  that  the  two  agencies  which 
produce  yellow  fever  and  paroxysmal  fevers  are  inseparably  associated,  and 
are  referable  to  telluric  emanations.  Certain  conditions  of  the  soil  un- 
doubtedly favor  the  development  of  the  active  agent  of  the  disease. 
Climatic  conditions,  especially  temperature,  also  exert  an  important  in- 
fluence upon  its  propagation.  But  its  causation  is  more  particularly 
associated  with  the  presence  of  jDutrefying  faecal  and  other  waste  organic 
matters,  such  as  accumulate  about  human  habitations.  Yellow  fever  is 
especially  a  fever  of  towns  and  cities,  and  not  of  country  districts.  The 
accumulation  of  filth,  defective  drainage,  and  general  inattention  to  clean- 
liness, seem  to  be  recognized  as  being  intimately  connected  with  the 
localizing  causes,  and  this  disease,  like  cholera  and  typhoid  fever,  has  not 
inaptly  been  called  a^/???A-disease. 

There  is  no  proof  whatever  that  cholera  is  produced  by  terrestrial  exha- 
lations of  the  nature  of  the  miasmata  which  engender  jDeriodic  fevers.  On 
the  contrary,  the  outbreaks  of  this  disease  in  sandy  deserts,  upon  ships  at 
sea,  and  in  the  severe  weather  of  winter,  indicate  that  its  cause  differs 
entirely  from  malaria.  Cholera  sometimes  prevails  in  marshy  and  mala- 
rious regions,  not  because  the  soils  of  such  regions  are  per  se  capable  of 
producing  the  morbific  agent,  but  rather  because  they  form  a  favorable 
breeding-place  for  the  development  of  the  cholera  germs  from  material 
introduced  from  without.  Intermittent  fever  and  cholera  bear  no  particu- 
lar relation  to  each  other,  and  their  prevalence  at  the  same  time  must  be 
looked  upon  simply  as  a  coincidence. 

The  hypothesis  that  typhoid  fever  may  be  caused  by  emanations  from 
the  earth,  occurring  in  the  late  autumn,  and  after  dry  and  hot  summers, 
is  supported  by  a  considerable  weight  of  evidence.  Warm,  damp  weather 
in  the  autumnal  months  causes  active  decomposition  of  vegetable  matters, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  poison  pro- 
ducing this  disease.  Epidemics  of  fever  have  been  attributed  to  the  turn- 
ing up  of  the  soil,  and  to  clearing  ground  covered  with  decaying  vege- 
table detritus.  "  The  exposure  of  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  reservoirs  in 
the  season  of  heat  and  the  season  of  decay — thus  charging  the  air  with 
the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  leaves,  wood,  and  all  forms  of  vege- 
table life,  mingled  with  whatever  the  soil  may  add  to  these  products,  or 
changed,  as  the  soil  alone  seems  to  have  power  to  change  them — is,  of  all 
others,  the  most  frequent  single  cause  assigned  for  the  production  of  epi- 
demics of  typhoid  fever  in  Massachusetts."  '  Colonel  Waring,  in  his  prize 
essay  on  the  causation  of  tj^phoid  fever,  accepts  the  theory  of  the  dissem- 
ination of  the  disease  by  the  fsecal  discharges  of  the  sick;  but  he  also  ad- 
vocates a  theory  of  the  development  of  the  disease  due  to  "  the  exhala- 

'  Dr.  Derby  :  Causatiou  of  Typhoid  Fever,  Second  Report  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Health,  p.  171. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  577 

tions  of  decomposing  matters  in  dung-heaps,  pig-sties,  privy-vaults,  cellars, 
cesspools,  drains,  and  sewers;  or  it  may  be  (according  to  Pettenkofer)  to 
the  development  of  the  poison  deep  in  the  ground,  and  its  escape,  in  an 
active  condition,  in  ground-exhalations."  And  he  is  also  of  the  opinion 
that  exhalations  from  freshly-exposed  mud,  as  after  the  emptying  of  mill- 
ponds,  are  capable  of  exciting  this  disease.  From  an  examination  of 
data  collected  in  the  States  of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  he  con- 
cludes that  typhoid  fever  is  "  a  disease  of  the  country  rather  than  of  the 
tov/n,"  at  least  so  far  as  these  two  States  are  concerned. 

"  The  analogy,"  says  Dr.  Derby,  "  between  fevers  generally  known  as 
miasmatic  (intermittent  and  remittent)  and  the  continued  or  typhoid 
fever  of  New  England,  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Jackson,  becomes  very  signifi- 
cant when  we  look  at  the  experience  of  practitioners  all  over  the  State 
(Massachusetts)  with  reference  to  the  bottoms  of  ponds  and  reservoirs 
laid  bare  in  the  seasons  of  drought.  These  are  the  very  places  which 
would  surely  give  rise  to  intermittents  in  our  southern  country.  Here 
they  give  rise  to  fever  without  remissions — to  typhoid." '  The  other 
modes  of  causation  of  typhoid  fever  will  be  noticed  further  on. 

2.  Diseases  connected  with  Water  in  the  Soil. 

Water  in  the  ground  affects  health  by  causing  a  cold  soil,  and  a  misty, 
chilly  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  and  a  disposition  in  persons  living  on 
or  near  such  a  soil  to  rheumatism,  heart  disease,  neuralgia,  and  catarrhal 
complaints.  Moisture  is  also  an  essential  element  in  the  j)roduction  of  the 
injurious  emanations  which  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  organic  mat- 
ters in  the  soil.  Heat  and  air  are  also  required  in  the  processes  concerned 
in  the  evolution  of  organic  emanations.  These  organic  processes  are  in- 
fluenced, to  a  great  extent,  by  the  condition  of  the  ground-water,  which  is 
the  principal  source  of  moisture  to  the  layers  of  the  ground  lying  above 
it.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  ground-water  cause  changes  in  the  dampness 
of  the  soil  above  it,  which  facilitate  or  retard  the  activity  of  animal  and 
vegetable  decomposition.  The  fluctuations  in  the  level  of  the  ground- 
water, as  implying  variations  in  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  have  therefore 
been  considered  by  Pettenkofer  and  others  to  exert  an  important  influ- 
ence in  the  production  of  disease.  A  uniformly  low  water-level  is  usually 
regarded  as  healthy,  and  a  persistently  high  ground-water  as  unhealthy. 
But  the  most  dangerous  condition  of  the  subsoil- water  is  that  in  which  its 
level  is  subject  to  frequent,  sudden,  and  violent  fluctuations. 

Of  late  years,  new  interest  has  been  imparted  to  the  subject  of  soil- 
moisture  by  the  investigations  of  Drs.  Bowditch  and  Buchanan,  upon  the 
connection  of  the  causation  of  consimiption  with  dampness  of  soil.  Both 
of  these  observers,  by  independent  researches,  have  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion, that  exposure  to  soil-moisture  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  causes 
of  consumption.       Dr.  Bowditch  published  his  views  in  an  address  de- 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  177. 
Vol.  I.— 37 


578  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

livered  before  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society,  in  1862,  and  he  then 
laid  down  the  following  propositions  as  embodying  the  results  of  his  in- 
quiry : 

"  First. — A  residence  on  or  near  a  damp  soil,  whether  that  dampness 
be  inherent  in  the  soil  itself,  or  caused  by  percolation  from  adjacent 
ponds,  rivers,  meadows,  marshes,  or  springy  soils,  is  one  of  the  primal 
causes  of  consumption  in  Massachusetts,  probably  in  New  England,  and 
possibly  in  other  portions  of  the  globe. 

"  Second. — Consumption  can  be  checked  in  its  career,  and  possibly — 
nay,  probably — prevented,  in  some  instances,  by  attention  to  this  law." 

Subsequently,  Dr.  Buchanan,  without  knowledge  of  the  observations 
of  Dr.  Bowditch,  proved  the  relation  between  dampness  of  soil  and  phthi- 
sis to  be  one  of  cause  and  effect.  He  has  shown,  that,  in  certain  English 
towns  in  which  drainage-works  have  been  introduced,  and  in  which  the 
ground  has  been  made  much  drier,  the  mortality  from  phthisis  has  greatly 
diminished;  and,  further,  that  the  rate  of  diminution  in  the  number  of 
deaths  from  this  disease  has  been  proportional  to  the  extent  of  the  dry- 
ing of  the  subsoil.  In  some  of  these  towns  the  improvement  in  the 
death-rate  was  very  remarkable.  In  Salisbury  the  death-rate  from  con- 
sumption fell  49  per  cent.;  in  Ely,  47;  in  Rugby,  43;  in  Banbury,  41;  in 
other  towns  the  rate  of  diminution  was  not  quite  so  marked.^  On  the 
other  hand,  in  towns  which  had  been  sewered  with  impervious  pipes,  and 
in  which  the  subsoil  had  not  been  drained,  there  was  no  reduction  in  the 
death-rate  from  phthisis. 

A  still  more  elaborate  examination  of  the  distribution  of  phthisis  in 
relation  to  conditions  of  the  soil  was  subsequently  made  by  direction  of 
the  privy  council,  and  of  this  examination  Mr.  Simon  remarks,  that  "  it  con- 
firms, without  an}^  possibility  of  question,  the  conclusion  previously  sug- 
gested, that  dampness  of  soil  is  an  important  cause  of  phthisis  to  the 
population  living  upon  the  soil."  During  the  years  which  have  elapsed 
since  these  investigations  were  completed,  the  theory  of  soil-moisture,  as 
a  cause  of  consumption,  has  been  strengthened  by  additional  evidence 
from  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  it  may  now  be  regarded  as  a  well- 
established  law. 

Excess  of  moisture  in  the  soil  is  a  common  cause  of  mists  and  fogs, 
which  injure  health  by  producing  chill.  This  condition  of  the  soil  gives 
rise  to  and  intensifies  sudden  vicissitudes  in  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere, which  are  deleterious  to  health.  A  humid  state  of  the  atmosphere 
is  also  injurious  as  a  medium  of  conveyance  of  the  impurities  evolved  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

In  a  recent  report  of  an  investigation  of  the  drainage  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  towns  in  Massachusetts,  Dr.  Winsor  remarks,  in  regard 
to  the  influence  of  a  damp  soil  upon  the  health  of  persons  living  over  it, 
that  "  the  class  of  diseases  most  frequently  noted  in  connection  with  such 
[damp]  cellars  is  '  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,'  espe- 


^  See  table,  p.  418. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  579 

cially  bronchitis.  Next  in  ordex-  of  frequency  comes  rlieumatism,  more 
particularly  of  the  sub-acute  order.  Phthisis,  jDneumonia,  and  wasting 
chronic  perversions  of  digestion,  are  also  found  by  many  of  our  correspond- 
ents to  be  common  over  such  cellars.  Also  a  lessened  power  of  resist- 
ance to  all  diseases  when  contracted.  No  observer  can  doubt  that  a  large 
amount  of  preventable  disease  is  caused  by  damjD  cellars."  ' 

Moisture  of  soil  is  one  of  the  main  factors  concerned  in  the  develop- 
ment of  malaria.  In  addition,  there  are  required,  heat,  air,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  organic  matter,  especially  of  vegetable  origin.  The  occurrence  of 
malarious  diseases  is  especially  common  in  marshy  regions.  But  other 
situations,  such  as  damp  bottom-lands,  the  oozy  shores  of  streams,  regions 
exposed  to  periodical  overflows,  and  soils  composed  of  impervious  sub- 
strata, such  as  clay,  which  present  an  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  water, 
are  also  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  agent  which  causes  paroxys- 
mal fevers. 

The  activity  of  the  miasm  varies  with  the  degree  of  humidity.  If  mala- 
rious lands  be  submerged,  so  that  no  part  of  the  surface  is  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  solar  rays,  the  remedy  is  often  complete.  And  this  plan  has 
often  been  resorted  to  when  drainage  is  impracticable  or  not  advisable  (as 
in  the  summer  season),  with  the  result  of  improving  the  salubrity  of  the 
locality.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the  evaporation  of  water  from  malarious 
lands,  and  the  consequent  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  direct  action  of  the 
sun,  the  conditions  are  especially  favorable  to  the  evolution  of  miasmata. 
The  mode  of  cultivation  of  the  land,  at  one  time  adopted  in  some  districts 
of  France,  by  alternately  forming  it  into  ponds  and  tilling  it,  was  produc- 
tive of  the  most  serious  consequences.  The  land  was  submer^-ed  for  a 
period  of  a  year  or  more,  and  at  the  expiration  of  this  time  the  water  was 
diverted  into  an  adjoining  field,  and  the  drained  lands  subjected  to  tillage 
for  one  or  two  years,  and  then  the  process  of  ponding  was  again  repeated. 
According  to  Fodere,  the  country  was  rendered  almost  uninhabitable  by 
this  practice,  the  mortality  amounting  to  about  one-half  the  laborers.  So 
long  as  the  water  covered  the  surface,  no  injurious  effects  were  experi- 
enced; but  so  soon  as  the  surface  became  desiccated  the  place  became 
unhealthy.  The  exposure  of  river-beds  and  the  bottoms  of  ponds  and 
surfaces  over  which  water  has  collected  for  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
has  been  followed  by  the  production  or  increase  of  paroxysmal  fevers, 
"  The  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  development  of  this  poison  [ma- 
laria] are  offered  by  marshes  that  have  dried  up;  while  their  injurious 
influence  is  materially  diminished  as  soon  as  heavy  rains  once  more  sub- 
merge the  previously  parched  surface  of  the  ground." 

The  variations  of  the  ground- water  are  intimately  related  to  the  causes 
of  paroxysmal  fevers.  "  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  ground-water,"  says 
Parkes,  "  by  supplying  the  requisite  degree  of  moisture,  or,  on  the  con- 
trary, by  making  the  soil  too  moist  or  too  dry,  evidently  plays  a  large 
part  in  producing  or  controlling  periodical  outbreaks  of  paroxysmal  fevers 


Seventh  Annual  Report  of  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  p.  227. 


580  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

in  the  so-called  malarious  countries.  The  development  of  malaria  may  be 
connected  either  with  rise  or  with  fall  of  the  ground-water.  An  impeded 
outflow  which  raises  the  level  of  the  ground-water  has,  in  malarious  soils, 
been  productive  of  immense  spread  of  paroxysmal  fevers."  The  rise  and 
fall  of  the  ground- water,  by  alternately  wetting  and  drying  the  super- 
ficial soil,  furnish  conditions  favorable,  under  the  influence  of  a  hot  sun, 
to  the  decomposition  of  impurities  in  the  ground,  which  is  in  some  way 
connected  with  the  evolution  of  malaria.  Marshy  lands  which  lie  upon  a 
retentive  structure,  through  which  the  surface-water  cannot  drain  away, 
are  subject  to  frequent  and  sudden  fluctuations  in  the  level  of  the 
ground-water  in  seasons  of  rainfall.  The  season  of  heat,  rainfall,  and  de- 
cay usually  corresponds  with  the  period  of  marked  prevalence  of  the  fever. 

In  districts  free  from  marshes,  but  where  the  subsoil  is  of  an  imper- 
vious nature,  the  fever  sometimes  appears  after  the  season  of  heavy  rains, 
on  account  of  the  raising  of  the  soil- water  from  obstructed  outflow. 
Some  such  explanation  as  this  seems  applicable  to  Pola,  a  district  of 
Istria,  where,  according  to  Jilck,  the  epidemic  prevalence  of  m.alarious  dis- 
eases corrresponds  with  the  wet  season,  and  is  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  rainfall.  The  fertile  districts  about  Rome,  which,  centuries 
ago,  were  made  habitable  by  the  introduction  of  subterranean  drainage, 
relapsed  into  their  former  state  of  unhealthiness  after  the  neglect  and 
destruction  of  these  works,  following  upon  the  Gothic  invasion.  The  ap- 
pearance of  malaria  between  1866  and  1868,  on  the  island  of  Mauritius, 
which  had  previously  been  exempt  from  diseases  of  this  origin,  has  been 
attributed,  in  part,  to  the  heavy  rains  and  inundations.  The  outbreak  of 
malarial  fever  which  occurred  at  Kurrachee,  in  Scinde,  in  1869,  is  said 
to  have  been  caused  by  an  excessive  rainfall.   (Parkes.) 

The  permanent  lowering  of  the  ground-water  in  malarious  districts  has 
had  the  effect  of  greatly  mitigating,  if  not  of  entirely  eradicating,  parox- 
ysmal fevers.  The  fen-lands  of  Norfolk,  Lincolnshire,  and  Cumberlandshire 
are  conspicuous  examples  of  the  salutary  effects  of  deep  drainage.  These 
places,  which  were  formerly  pestilential  marshes,  have  been  rendered  com- 
paratively salubrious  by  improved  land-drainage.  Waring  states  that  the 
town  of  Batavia,  New  York,  which  became  so  malarious  as  to  be  almost 
threatened  with  depopulation,  has  been  rendered  practically  free  from 
malaria  by  the  drainage  of  the  saturated  lands  situated  near  the  town. 
He  also  mentions  the  case  of  Shawneetown,  in  Illinois,  as  a  practical  illus- 
tration of  the  removal  of  malarious  disease  by  the  free  drainage  of  the 
soil.  The  ckilful  drainage  of  a  jDortion  of  the  Maremma  district,  in  Italy, 
a  notoriously  malarious  territory,  by  increasing  the  outflow  and  lowering 
the  ground-water,  has  had  the  effect  of  greatly  improving  the  health  of 
that  region.  Instances  could  be  multiplied  to  show  the  beneficial  effects 
of  draining  on  malarious  lands. 

The  study  of  the  subject  of  ground-water  and  its  influences  on  disease, 
is  especially  interesting  since  the  promulgation  of  the  views  of  Petten- 
kofer  relative  to  the  connection  of  the  variations  in  the  moisture  of  the 
soil  with  the  prevalence  of  typJioicl  fever  and  cholera. 


SOIL    AND    WATEll.  '581 

The  observations  of  Pettenkofer  and  Buhl,  made  in  Munich,  and  cov- 
ering a  long  series  of  years,  clearly  establish,  so  far  as  that  city  is  con- 
cerned, a  fixed  relation  between  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  and  certain 
chano-es  in  the  soil — as  yet  unexplained — which  are  indicated  by  fluctua- 
tions in  the  level  of  the  ground-water.  It  has  been  shown,  that,  during 
the  years  1855-'72,  the  periods  of  the  greatest  mortality  coincide  with 
the  years  of  the  lowest  level  of  the  ground- water,  and  the  periods  of  the 
least  mortality  with  the  highest  water-level  ;  and  that  the  variations  be- 
tween the  highest  and  lowest  mortality  corresponded  with  variations  in 
the  moisture  of  the  soil,  as  indicated  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the  ground- 
water. With  the  rise  of  the  ground-water  there  is  a  steady  decrease  in 
the  number  of  fatal  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  and  vice  versa.  Low  gi-ound- 
water,  especially  when  the  v/ater  has  rapidly  fallen  after  having  risen  to 
an  unusual  height,  is  the  condition  of  the  water-level  most  favorable  to 
the  pr©\'alence  of  the  disease.  Prof.  Seidel  has  made  a  mathematical 
calculation  from  data  covering  a  period  of  eight  years,  which  proves  that 
the  probability  is  36,000  to  1  that  there  is  a  connection  between  variations 
of  level  of  soil-water  and  the  prevalence  of  the  fever. 

According  to  the  theory  of  Pettenkofer,  the  poison  to  which  enteric 
fever  is  due  is  a  product  of  the  soil,  and  not  of  the  water  of  the  soil;  the 
latter  simply  indicating,  by  its  rise  and  fall,  variations  in  the  moisture  of 
the  ground.  "The  importance  of  these  variations  in  moisture  consists  in 
their  facilitating  or  retarding  certain  organic  processes  in  the  soil,  while 
the  ground-water  itself  maybe  quite  harmless  and  innocent  in  the  matter." 

The  fever  seeds,  or  germs,  which  result  from  these  obscure  changes  in 
the  soil,  rise  with  the  ground-air  and  are  communicated  to  man  through 
the  medium  of  the  atmosphere.  Such  is  the  "  ground-water  theory  "  of 
the  development  of  the  poison  of  typhoid,  proposed  by  Pettenkofer  and 
elaborated  by  Buhl  and  others. 

While  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  relationship  between  the  frequency 
of  typhoid  fever  and  the  level  of  the  ground- water  has  been  proved  to 
exist  in  Munich,  this  fact  has  not  been  as  clearly  demonstrated  with  re- 
gard to  other  localities.  It  is  true  that  Virchow  has  shown  that  in  Berlin 
typhoid  fever  increases  as  the  ground-water  falls,  and  decreases  as  the 
water-level  rises,  but,  as  Liebermeister  remarks,  the  influence  of  the  season 
of  the  year  upon  which  typhoid  and  water-level  depend,  must  first  be 
eliminated  before  concluding  a  connection  between  typhoid  and  water- 
level  in  Berlin.  Both  Giessler  and  Rath  deny  this  particular  influence  of 
the  A^ariations  in  the  water-level,  and  attribute  the  typhoid- fever  of  Berlin 
to  polluted  drinking-water.  Buxbaum  has  cited,  as  proof  of  the  correct- 
ness of  the  ground-water  theory,  the  recent  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  in 
the  barracks  at  Neustift,  which  appears  to  show  a  direct  connection  be- 
tween the  prevalence  of  the  disease  and  the  fall  of  the  subsoil-water;  but, 
as  Parkes  remarks,  the  frequency  and  extent  of  the  connection  remain  to 
be  determined. 

These  views  as  to  the  origin  of  enteric  fever  are  considered  to  be  too 
exclusive,    and   have    not    been    generally    adopted.       English    observers 


582  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

almost  universally  reject  them,  since  they  fail  to  explain  the  frequent 
connection  observed  in  England  between  imperfect  drainage  or  contami- 
nated drinking-water  and  enteric  fever,  quite  independent  of  any  varia- 
tion in  the  ground- water,      (Murchison.) 

The  explanation  of  the  connection  between  the  frequency  of  the  fever 
and  the  water-level  is  explained  in  this  manner:  When  the  level  of  the 
water  in  wells  is  lowered,  the  amount  of  dissolved  and  suspended  mat- 
ters in  the  water  is  relatively  increased;  and,  moreover,  the  area  of  drain- 
age for  each  well  is  greatly  enlarged  by  the  subsidence  of  the  ground- 
water; and  the  foul  matters  containing  the  germs  of  the  disease,  from 
whatever  source  derived,  are  drawn  from  a  greater  distance,  and  are  there- 
fore more  abundant  in  the  water,  the  lower  the  latter  is.  As  a  rule,  the 
water  of  any  spring  is  purer  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  its  surface.  A 
considerable  amount  of  the  impurities  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
which  would  drain  into  it  at  a  low  state  of  the  subsoil-water,  is  washed 
away  when  the  latter  stands  at  a  high  level.  Adopting  this  view  of  the 
causation  of  the  disease  through  the  medium  of  drinking-water,  it  is  evi- 
dent, as  Dr.  Buchanan  remarks,  that  the  connection  between  the  fre- 
quency of  enteric  fever  and  the  height  of  the  springs,  would  exist  only  in 
localities  where  the  water-supjoly  is  drawn  from  wells.  In  support  of  this 
view,  the  fact  has  been  pointed  out,  that  in  certain  English  towns,  where 
the  water-level  has  been  permanently  lowered  by  drainage  operations,  and 
pure  drinking-water  has  been  introduced  from  a  distance,  the  mortality 
from  typhoid  fever,  instead  of  increasing,  as  it  should  do,  according  to 
theory,  has  been  reduced. 

Pettenkofer  and  Buhl,  while  they  admit  the  general  importance  of 
drawing  the  supply  of  drinking-water  from  a  pure  source,  deny  the  agency 
of  water  in  producing  typhoid  fever,  especially  so  far  as  the  case  of  Mu- 
nich is  concerned.  Filth,  they  consider,  will  aggravate  the  disease;  but  it 
will  not  originate  it.  The  true  cause  lies  in  the  soil,  the  air  of  which  acts 
as  the  vehicle  of  communication.  The  conditions  which  they  hold  to  be 
essential  to  the  development  of  the  poison  are  rapid  sinking  of  the  ground- 
water after  an  unusual  rise,  air,  heat  of  soil,  the  presence  of  animal  mat- 
ters, and  the  entrance  of  a  specific  germ,  (Parkes.)  Dr.  Buchanan,  and 
the  English  observers  generally,  admit  the  connection  between  the  preva- 
lence of  typhoid  fever  and  the  falling  of  the  ground- water;  but  hold  that 
this  is  not  of  essential  importance,  the  true  cause  of  the  disease  being 
referable  to  j^ollution  of  drinking-water. 

Neither  of  -these  theories  appears  to  be  opposed  to  the  view,  tliat  the 
disease  is  due  to  the  decomposition  of  filth  accumulated  in  the  soil  by 
soakage  from  jDrivy-vaults,  cesspools,  drains,  etc.,  from  which  it  finds 
its  way  into  wells  and  contaminates  the  drinking-water,  under  circum- 
stances especially  favorable  in  dry  weather,  when  the  area  of  drainage  is 
extended,  and  when  the  relative  proportion  of  impurities  in  the  water  is 
increased;  or,  when  it  is  exposed  in  the  soil,  especially  after  the  subsi- 
dence of  the  ground-water,  to  the  influences  of  heat,  air,  and  moisture, 
which  are  favorable  to  the  decomposition  of  organized  substances  and  to 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  583 

the  development  of  the  poison,  which  is  communicated  to  the  atmos- 
phere tlirough  the  medium  of  the  ground-air.' 

A  very  similar  theory  has  been  advanced  by  Pettenkofer  with  regard 
to  the  causation  of  cholera.  He  holds  that  a  fixed  relation  exists  between 
the  variations  in  the  mortality  from  epidemics  of  cholera  and  the  ground- 
water; that  the  poison  is  elaborated  in  the  soil,  and  not  in  the  water  of 
the  soil.  The  only  influence  which  drinking-water  can  have  on  the  spread 
of  the  disease  is  by  occasionally  acting  as  a  means  of  conveyance  of  the 
germs  engendered  elsewhere;  and,  moreover,  that  the  conditions  of  the 
soil  most  favorable  for  the  genesis  of  the  poison  are  porosity,  pollution  by 
animal  matter,  heat,  and  dampness,  especially  following  a  rapid  subsidence 
of  soil-water  after  an  unusual  rise,  or,  in  other  words,  that  a  situation  in 
a  soil  impregnated  with  organic  matter,  in  which  the  specific  germ  of 
cholera  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat,  moisture,  and  air,  is  an  indis- 
pensabl^e  condition  of  the  prevalence  of  a  widespread  epidemic  of  the  dis- 
ease. A  porous,  filth-impregnated  soil  is  certainly  a  dangerous  one;  but 
such  a  condition  is  not  believed  to  be  indispensably  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  cholera.  The  exclusiveness  of  the  theory  is  what  is  objec- 
tionable. Well-authenticated  instances  of  epidemic  outbreaks  of  cholera 
have  been  reported  in  Germany,  India,  and  elsewhere,  in  which  the  direct 
connection  between  variations  in  soil-water  and  the  disease  have  not  been 
observed.  The  observations  made  of  the  cholera  epidemics  in  Zurich,  in 
1855  and  1867,  especially  in  the  latter  year,  show  the  disease  to  be  uncon- 
nected with  any  variations  in  the  subsoil-water.-  In  Berlin,  and  in  Leip- 
sic  and  Dresden,  in  1866,  the  observations  appeared  to  agree  with  the 
theory.  In  the  former  place  the  well-waters  were  found  to  be  highly 
polluted. 

The  weight  of  evidence  in  India  is  opposed  to  Pettenkofer's  views,^ 
though  there  are  instances  which  seem  to  establish  their  correctness,  so 
far  at  least  as  the  places  are  concerned  where  the  observations  have  been 
made. 

The  investigations  recently  made  by  Lewis  and  Cunningham,  at  Cal- 
cutta, show  that  the  prevalence  of  cholera  in  that  city  is  closely  connected 
with  the  state  of  the  water-level.  In  their  report,  published  in  1878,  they 
remark,  that  "  the  period  of  maximum  prevalence  coincides  with  part  of 
the  period  of  maximum  depression  of  the  water-level,  and  one  of  the 
months  of  minimum  prevalence  with  the  month  of  minimum  depression. 
Whilst  the  prevalence  of  cholera  in  Calcutta  is  associated  with  a  low  level 

'  See  on  this  subject  articles  by  Pettenkofer,  Buhl,  Seidel,  Buxbaum,  etc.,  in  Zeit- 
pchrift  f  llr  Biologie,  1865-'70  ;  Buchanan  :  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  March  1.2,  1870  ; 
Pettenkofer:  ibid.,  June  11,  1870;  Virchow  :  Reinigung  u.  Entwiisserung  Berlins, 
1873,  p.  63;  Archiv  f iir  klin.  Med. ,  1873,  p  237;  Parke s  :  op.  c,  p.  333;  Murchison  : 
Cont.  Fevers,  p.  450;  Ziemssen :  CyclopEedia  of  Practice  of  Med.,  Vol.  I.,  pp. 
68-73, 

-  Lebert :  Die  Cholera  in  der  Schweiz,  Frankf.,  1856  ;  also  Zehnder:  Bericht  iiber 
die  Cholera-Epidemie  d.  J.  1867  im  Kanton  Ziirich,  Ziirich,  1871. 

^  Townsend  :  Reports  on  Cholera  in  Central  India. 


584  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

of  the  soil-water,  the  data  very  clearly  show  that  the  absolute  water-level 
in  itself  is  of  bo  importance."  Investigations  are  still  being  carried  on,  the 
results  of  which  will  doubtless  furnish  data  of  value  in  determining  this 
phase  of  the  subject  of  rlie  etiology  of  cholera. 

Epidemic  dysentery  and  bilious  remittent  fever  have  been  classed 
among  the  diseases  supposed  to  be  influenced  by  variations  in  the  level  of 
the  soil-water;  but  the  evidence  upon  this  point  is  as  yet  meagre  and  in- 
conclusive. A  soil  contaminated  with  organic  matter  in  a  state  of  decom- 
position under  the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  is  frequently  noticed  in 
connection  with  outbreaks  of  these  diseases.  The  propagation  of  epi- 
demic dysentery  is  largely  connected  with  local  causes.  Moisture  of  the 
soil  is  held  to  be  favorable  to  its  development.  In  the  tropics  the  period 
of  its  prevalence  is  one  in  which,  from  rain  or  overflow,  the  soil  is  in  a  very 
moist  state.  It  sometimes  exists  under  conditions  similar  to  those  which 
are  connected  with  the  production  of  malarial  fevers,  a  moist  soil,  and 
even  a  swampy  condition  of  the  ground,  seemingly  being  an  important 
factor  in  the  development  of  the  cause  of  the  disease.  At  present  it  is 
impossible  to  give  a  decided  opinion  with  regard  to  the  influence  of 
ground- water  upon  the  propagation  of  these  diseases. 

3.  Diseases  connected  with  Pollution  of  the  Soil  as  a  source  of — 

a.  Pollution  of  the  air. 

h.  Pollution  of  drinking-water. 

a.  Diseases  connected  toith  Pollution  of  the  Air} 

Emanations  from  the  polluted  soil  of  thickly  crowded  grave-yards,  es- 
pecially in  densely  populated  localities,  exert  an  injurious  influence  upon 
health.  If  not  actually  productive  of  any  specific  disease,  they  aggravate 
sickness  and  increase  the  rate  of  mortality.  Vicq  d'Azyr  attributed  an 
epidemic  which  occurred  in  Auvergne  to  the  removal  of  bodies  from  an  old 
cemetery.  The  neighborhood  of  the  old  cemetery  of  the  Innocents  in  Paris 
became  so  sickly  as  to  necessitate  the  removal  of  the  remains.  The  air  of 
the  locality  was  highly  impure.  Candles  were  quickly  extinguished  in 
the  cellars  of  houses  near  by.  After  the  disinterment  of  the  bodies  the 
neighborhood  ceased  to  be  unhealthy.  Cholera  was  very  fatal  in  1849 
in  the  houses  adjoining  the  old  cemeteries  of  London.  Typhus  and  other 
fevers  were  not  uncommon  near  these  old  city  grave-yards.  Diarrhoea 
and  dysentery  are  said  to  be  caused  by  putrid  emanations  from  cemeteries. 
Malignant  fevers,  asphyxia,  and  suffocating  catarrhs  result  from  expo- 
sure to  the  concentrated  effluvia  from  putrifjdng  bodies.   (Rammazzini.) 

On  the  other  hand,  well-regulated  cemeteries,  located  on  proper  soil 
and  in  rural  districts,  exert  no  injurious  effects  upon  the  public  health.* 
(See  Interments,  p.  538.) 

'  See  chapter  on  The  Atmosphere :  its  Impurities,  etc. 
^  See  chapters  on  The  Atmosphere  and  Public  Nuisances. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  ^  585 

The  pollution  of  the  air  from  fjecal  matter  thrown  upon  the  ground 
has  already  been  alluded  to.  Instances  are  on  record  in  Mhich  typlioid 
fever  has  resulted  from  the  manuring  of  the  land;  but  they  are  not  as 
frequent  as  they  should  be,  if  the  effluvia  produced  by  the  application  of 
excreta  to  the  land  were  a  common  cause  of  this  disease.  In  Chinese 
villages,  which  are  surrounded  with  f^cal  matter  used  in  this  manner,  and 
where  the  air  is  contaminated  with  the  offensive  effluvia,  typhoid  fever 
does  not  exist,  at  least  to  any  noticeable  extent.  The  weight  of  evidence 
is  against  the  influence  of  sewage-farms  in  the  production  of  enteric 
fever.  Dr.  Clouston  has  recorded  an  outbreak  of  dysentery  in  the  Cum- 
berland and  Westmoreland  Asylum,  which  he  traced  to  emanations  from 
sewage  spread  over  the  land  about  300  yards  from  the  asylum.  During 
the  discontinuance  of  the  practice  for  two  years,  there  was  an  absence  of 
this  disease.  But  when  the  sewage  was  again  applied  to  the  land,  dysen- 
tery again  appeared.  There  was  no  possibility  of  the  action  of  other 
causes,  such  as  impure  water,  bad  food,  etc.  The  application  of  sewage 
to  land  may  become  dangerous  to  health  by  poisoning  adjacent  wells. 

Accumulations  of  fsecal  matter  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  con- 
fined places  near  to  dwellings,  such  as  close  courts,  alleys,  back-yards,  etc., 
will  produce  the  same  effects  as  air  from  sewers  and  cesspools.  Many  in- 
stances of  this  kind  are  recorded  in  the  English  "  Health  of  Towns  Re- 
ports." 

The  effects  upon  health  of  emanations  from  the  soil  polluted  by  ex- 
creta—the cause  of  its  most  frequent  contamination — and  impurities  from 
sewers  and  drains,  and  by  all  kinds  of  filth,  are  similar  to  those  produced 
by  the  effluvia  from  sewers,  drains,  and  cesspools,  and  will  therefore  be  con- 
sidered under  this  latter  head.  The  diseases  which  have  been  attributed 
to  these  effluvia  are  enteric  fever,  diarrhoea,  cholera,  dysentery,  diphtheria, 
pneumonia,  and  ophthalmia.  There  is  some  evidence  that  scarlet  fever 
may  be  communicated  in  this  way.  Other  effects  from  these  effluvia  have 
been  observed,  such  as  languor,  loss  of  appetite,  feverishness,  headache, 
dyspepsia,  anaemia,  etc.,  etc.  Sewage-emanations  are  known  to  aggra- 
vate the  severity  of  all  the  exanthemata — erysipelas,  hospital  gangrene^ 
and  puerperal  fever  (Rigby);  and  it  Avould  seem  that  all  diseases  are 
more  or  less  affected  by  these  effluvia.      (Parkes.) 

Instances  are  recorded  of  poisoning  by  breathing  the  gases  generated 
in  sewers  and  cesspools,  in  some  of  which  the  consequences  have  been 
fatal,  probably  on  account  of  inhaling  a  large  quantity  of  ammonium  sul- 
phide, or  of  some  other  poisonous  or  fetid  gas.  In  a  case  occurring  at 
Clapham,  in  August,  1829,  twenty  out  of  twenty-two  boys  at  the  same 
school  were  seized,  within  three  hours,  with  fever,  vomiting,  purging,  and 
great  prostration.  One  other  boy  had  been  seized  the  day  before,  and 
died  in  twenty-three  hours;  another  boy  died  after  twenty-five  hours'  sick- 
ness; all  the  rest  got  well.  The  cause  of  the  disease  was  found  to  be  due 
to  the  opening  of  a  long-blocked  drain  at  the  back  of  the  house.  The  con- 
tents had  been  spread  upon  a  garden  near  the  play-ground  two  days  be- 
fore the  first  illness  occurred.     The   effluvium  from  the  drain  was  very 


586  SOIL    AND    WATEE. 

offensive;  and  the  boys  had  watched  the  workmen  while  cleaning  it  out.^ 
(Murchison.)  A  similar  case  came  under  Dr.  Murchison's  own  observa- 
tion, in  June,  1861.  A  girl,  nine  years  of  age,  was  taken  sick  with  febrile 
symptoms — vomiting,  purging,  and  headache — followed  by  active  deli- 
rium, and  died  in  forty-seven  hours  after  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  It 
was  found  that  the  disease  was  caused  by  offensive  effluvia  which  issued 
from  the  grating  over  a  choked-up  cesspool,  close  to  which  the  child  had 
been  playing.  Dr.  Parkes  states  that  he  has  known  decided  febrile  at- 
tacks lasting  several  days,  and  accompanied  with  great  headache  and  loss 
of  appetite,  to  have  resulted  from  exposure  to  the  gases  and  effluvia  from 
sewers.  The  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  at  Fort  Lascaris,  at  Malta,  caused 
by  the  opening  of  a  drain,  was  associated  with  the  prevalence  of  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  trifling  pyrexial  disorders,  and  diseases  of  "  the  primary  assimi- 
lative organs."     (Marston.) 

The  fetid  gases  of  sewers,  when  breathed  in  a  much  diluted  state  in 
close  atmospheres,  give  rise  to  headache,  malaise,  and  general  discomfort 
in  delicate,  sensitive  persons  only  temporarily  exposed  to  their  influence; 
and  they  also  a^jpear  to  exert  a  depressing  effect  upon  the  general  health, 
often  manifested  by  derangement  of  the  digestive  system,  in  persons  who 
habitually  breathe  such  effluvia.      (Simon.) 

The  effect  of  sewer-air  upon  men  employed  at  work  in  sewers  which  are 
not  obstructed  or  temporarily  impure  has  been  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion, and  opposite  views  are  held  by  reliable  authorities.  The  state- 
ment that  workers  in  sewers  and  nightmen  are  exempt  from  fever  is,  for 
the  most  part,  founded  on  the  observations  of  Parent  du  Chatelet  and 
Dr.  Guy;  but,  as  Dr.  Murchison  remarks,  "  on  close  examination,  they 
scarcely  justify  the  inference  drawn  from  them."  The  number  of  men 
examined  by  Parent  du  Chatelet  was  very  small,  and  the  majority  of  them 
had  been  employed  in  the  sewers  only  for  a  short  time.  It  is  also  to  be 
observed,  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  workmen  were  actually  in 
hospital  for  two  or  three  weeks  with  a  "  fievre  bilieuse,"  or  a  "  fievre  bili- 
euse  et  cerebrale,"  which  Murchison  regards  as  examples  of  enteric  fever. 

Dr.  Guy's  observations  were  made  before  the  different  continued 
fevers  were  recognized  as  distinct  diseases.  The  comparison  was  made 
between  101  brickmakers'  laborers  and  96  nightmen,  scavengers,  and  dust- 
men; and  it  was  found  that  the  cases  of  fever  among  the  former  were 
greatly  in  excess.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  fever  among  the  brick- 
makers'  laborers  was  typhus,  as  it  was  attributed  to  overcrowding.  Dr. 
Guy  remarks  that  some  of  the  cases  of  fever  were  produced  by  emana- 
tions from  sewers  and  cesspools.      (Murchison.) 

It  is  stated  by  Parent  du  Chatelet,  that  the  air  of  sewers  cannot  be 
endured  by  some  men;  but  those  who  can  work  in  them  suffer  from  only 
trifling  complaints,  such  as  ophthalmia  and  lumbago.  With  these  excej^- 
tions,  the  work  is  considered  by  the  laborers  themselves  as  not  interfering 
with  their  health.     On  the   other  hand,   both  Murchison  and  Peacock 

'  Continued  Fevers,  1873,  p.  473. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  587 

state,  from  their  own  observations,  that  enteric  fever  is  not  uncommon 
among  workers  in  sewers. 

Recent  investigations  upon  the  health  of  the  sewer-men  of  London 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  not  affected  by  their  occupation;  but  the 
sewers  of  London  and  of  Paris  are,  as  a  rule,  well  constructed  and  well 
ventilated,  and  in  many  of  them  the  air  is  really  not  very  impure.  Letheby 
subjected  the  air  of  the  sewers  of  London  to  chemical  examination,  and 
found  that  it  diifered  but  little  from  the  external  air.  The  sewers  in  this 
country  are  of  a  very  different  character;  they  are  badly  constructed, 
hardly  ventilated  at  all,  and  carelessly  managed.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable, 
that,  if  inquiry  were  made  into  the  condition  of  the  health  of  men  habitu- 
ally engaged  at  work  in  these  sewers,  the  results  would  show  an  excess 
of  disease  among  such  laborers.  And  while  it  does  appear  from  the  few 
records  at  hand,  that  workmen  connected  with  well-ventilated  sewers  do 
not,  as  a  general  thing,  suffer  any  serious  inconvenience,  the  statement 
that  sewer-men  do  not  suffer  in  health,  as  a  result  of  their  employment, 
cannot  be  accepted  as  a  general  conclusion  ;  more  evidence  is  required 
upon  this  point,  for  as  yet  the  statistics  are  very  imperfect. 

Much  interest  attaches  to  the  subject  of  the  development  of  typhoid 
fever  from  the  air  of  sewers  and  fsecal  emanations.  That  this  disease  de- 
pends, to  a  great  extent,  upon  the  polluted  air  of  sewers,  cesspools,  and  of 
the  soil,  is  proved  by  very  strong  evidence.  The  morbific  agent,  conveyed 
through  the  medium  of  the  air,  finds  its  way  into  houses  from  cesspools 
improperly  located,  or  from  drain-pipes  imperfectly-ventilated  or  badly 
trapped,  or  from  impure  soil  beneath  and  surrounding  the  dwellings.  In 
some  cases  the  disease  has  been  confined  to  a  particular  part  of  the  house, 
especially  exposed  to  the  effluvia  from  badly  trapped  drains;  and,  as  the 
water-supply  was  apparently  unexceptionable,  there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to 
the  source  of  the  infection.  It  has  been  assigned  as  a  reason  why  people 
of  the  better  classes  in  towns  suffer  more  from  enteric  fever,  that  their 
dwellings  are,  as  a  rule,  more  generally  connected  with  sewers. 

Houses  located  in  the  upper  part  of  a  town  sometimes  suffer  more 
than  those  at  a  lower  elevation,  and  this  difference  arises  from  a  feature 
connected  with  the  sewers.  It  is  known  that  the  sewer-gases  tend  to 
force  their  way  toward  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  sewers,  and  if  the 
drains  of  houses  connected  with  them  are  not  very  efficiently  trapped,  the 
entrance  of  sewer-air  is  easily  effected. 

Offensiveness  is  not  a  necessary  concomitant  of  infectious  sewer-air. 
An  instance  is  mentioned  in  Parkes'  Hygiene  of  an  outbreak  of  typhoid 
in  a  training-school,  unmistakably  traced  to  imperfection  of  traps,  in  which, 
on  account  of  the  smell  of  the  effluvia  being  so  very  slight,  it  was  not  at 
first  believed  that  the  drains  could  be  at  fault.  The  outbreak  of  typhoid 
fever  at  Newbridge  was  caused  by  the  entrance  of  sewer-air  into  the  bar- 
racks during  the  temporary  disuse  of  a  ventilating  shaft  for  the  drains. 
All  other  possible  causes  were  examined  into  and  eliminated.*     Riecke 

'  Army  Med.  Reports,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  301. 


588  SOIL    AND    T\^ATEE. 

gives  a  very  unique  and  conclusive  case  of  typhoid  fever  poisoning  from 
fsecal  emanations,  in  which  two  men  who  slept  over  a  room  where  the 
evacuations  of  a  typhoid  fever  patient  were  placed,  were  seized  with  the 
disease.  It  should  be  noted  that  there  was  no  proper  ceiling  to  this  room, 
and  there  was  but  slight  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air  to  the  sleeping- 
apartment  above.  It  has  already  been  seen  that  the  opening  of  a  drain 
has  been  followed  by  decided  cases  of  typhoid  fever.  The  leakage  of 
cesspools  into  the  soil  under  dwellings  has  also  given  rise  to  the  same 
effects. 

While  typhoid  fever  has  prevailed  in  consequence  of  exposure  to  the 
emanations  from  bad  sewerage-arrangements,  on  the  other  hand  a  marked 
diminution  of  the  disease  has  uniformly  followed  the  introduction  of  an 
improved  system  of  sewerage.  In  twenty-one  English  towns,  in  which 
proper  drainage-works  had  been  adopted,  the  mortality  from  typhoid  fever 
diminished  45.4  per  cent. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  (fiarrhcea  is  sometimes  caused  by  sewer-air 
and  fjecal  emanations.  It  stands  in  close  relationship  with  imperfection  in 
the  removal  of  sewer-matters.  As  a  rule,  it  is  most  prevalent  in  badly 
sewered  localities,  and  least  so  in  districts  which  are  well  drained.  A  high 
degree  of  temperature  and  deficient  rainfall  appear  to  be  the  conditions 
most  favorable  to  the  evolution  of  fgecal  effluvia  connected  with  the 
spread  of  this  disease.  Children  are  the  subjects  most  frequently  attacked. 
Dysentery  has  also  been  traced  to  the  same  causes. 

It  is  probable  that  cholera  is  occasionally  spread  by  means  of  the  air  of 
sewers  and  cesspools;  but  there  is  very  little  evidence  on  this  point. 
Parkes '  gives  a  case  (at  Southampton)  in  which  sewers  were  supposed  to 
have  played  a  part  in  the  dissemination  of  cholera,  and  De  Chaumont  cites 
two  cases  which  came  under  his  own  observation  at  Parkhurst,  in  1854, 
the  cause  seeming  to  be  due  to  the  clearing  out  of  an  old  latrine.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Radcliffe,  the  outbreak  of  cholera  in  the  City  of  London  Work- 
house, in  July,  1866,  was,  in  all  probability,  due  to  the  sudden  escape  of 
sewer-air  from  a  drain  containing  the  evacuations  of  cholera  patients.^ 

Polluted  air  from  soils  is  another  probable  means  of  the  introduction 
of  the  agent  which  produces  cholera.  According  to  Pettenkofer,  the  soil 
is  the  place  in  which  the  cholera  poison  is  elaborated,  and  the  "  infecting 
matter  is  communicated  through  the  medium  of  the  ground-air."  This 
observer  admits  that  the  disease  is  occasionally  propagated  by  drinking- 
water;  but  it  is  in  the  soil,  and  not  in  water,  that  the  cholera  germ  becomes 
developed  and  assumes  its  characteristic  virulence. 

The  objection  to  this  theory  is  that  it  is  too  exclusive.  At  the  same 
time  it  must  be  affirmed,  that,  under  certain  circumstances,  a  polluted  soil 
stands  in  a  close  relation  to  the  prevalence  of  cholera,  and  that  the  con- 
nection between  the  effluvia  from  such  a  soil  and  cholera  is  occasionally  a 
causal  one.     "  The  diffusion  of  cholera  among  us,"  says  Dr.  Simon,   "  de- 

J  Sixth  Report  of  the  Med.  Officer  to  the  Privy  Council,  p.  251. 
-  Ninth  Report  of  the  Med.  Officer  to  the  Privy  Council. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  589 

pends  entirely  upon  the  numerous  filthy  facilities  which  we  let  exist,  and 
especially  in  our  larger  towns,  for  the  fouling  of  earth,  air,  and  water; 
and  thus,  secondarily,  for  the  infection  of  man  and  whatever  contagion 
may  be  obtained  in  the  miscellaneous  outflowings  of  the  population." 

The  impure  air  from  sewers  and  cesspools  has  been  assigned  as  a 
means  of  propagating  diphtheria,  and  instances  are  not  wanting  which 
seem  to  show  that  the  poisonous  decomposition  of  organic  matter  is  in 
some  way  connected  with  the  dissemination  of  this  disease.  Dr.  de  Chau- 
mont  says:  "  It  would  certainly  seem  as  if  the  disease  was  capable  of  being 
generated  by  any  sewage  Avhatsoever,  placed  under  particular  circum- 
stances," and  he  cites  two  cases  in  support  of  this  opinion.  One  is  that 
mentioned  by  Dr.  Maclean,  in  which  a  number  of  children  were  struck 
down  with  diphtheria,  supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  a  leakage  of 
sewage,  which  had  been  going  on  for  months,  in  a  part  of  the  house  im- 
mediately under  the  nurseries  of  the  children.  The  heating-apjDaratus 
was  placed  near  the  point  of  leakage,  and  was  thought  to  have  intensified 
the  evil  by  favoring  the  ascent  of  the  poisonous  effluvia.  The  other  case 
was  that  noticed  by  Dr.  Frank  as  having  occurred  at  Cannes,  in  France, 
in  which,  by  a  defect  in  the  sewer-ventilating  pipe  passing  up  close  to  the 
cupboard  in  a  nursery,  there  was  an  escape  of  sewer-air  into  the  room  oc- 
cupied by  a  number  of  children,  with  the  effect  of  sickening  the  whole  of 
them  by  diphtheria.  Dr.  Wilson  remarks,  that  "  in  country  districts  iso- 
lated outbreaks  of  diphtheria,  traceable  to  cesspool  effluvia,  are  not  at  all 
uncommon.  In  these  cases  it  is  generally  found  that  there  is  a  water- 
closet  in  the  house,  which  itself  is  badly  ventilated,  that  the  soil-pipe  is 
never  ventilated,  and  that  the  closet-drain  discharges  into  a  cesspool  which 
is  completely  covered  up,  and  only  cleaned  out  at  rare  intervals.  The 
consequence  is  that  any  gases  generated  in  the  cesspool  have  no  outlet 
except  through  the  water-closet  and  into  the  house,  and  hence  result 
attacks  of  diphtheria,  ulcerated  sore-throat,  and  other  badly  defined  ail- 
ments." ' 

From  an  inquiry  instituted  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1875,  respecting  the  predisposing  causes  of  diphtheria,  its 
prevalence,  etc.,  it  would  appear  that  this  disease  has  been  most  severe  in 
the  rural  districts  where  there  are  no  sewers,  and  where  the  drainage  is 
generally  very  bad.  The  special  connection  between  this  disease  and  filth 
is  not  very  clearly  made  out,  although  this  condition  is  supposed  to  have 
the  effect  of  aggravating  the  symptoms.  The  belief  that  the  propagation 
of  diphtheria  is  greatly  influenced  by  contaminated  air  from  sewers, 
privies,  soils,  etc.,  or,  in  other  words,  by  filth-infection,  seems  to  be 
gradually  gaining  ground;  but  at  present  the  evidence  is  not  sufficient  to 
justify  a  decided  opinion.  The  investigations  which  are  now  being  car- 
ried on  will  doubtless,  in  a  few  years,  settle  this  important  question. 

That  pneicmo7iia  may  be  caused  by  sewer-emanations  is  shown  by  the 
remarkable  case  in  the  school  at  East  Sheen.      Ophthalmia  is  also  pro- 

'  Handbook  of  Hygiene,  1877,  p.  71. 


590  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

duced  by  the  impure  air  arising  from  sewage-matters.  According  to 
Parent  du  Chatelet,  the  laborers  in  the  sewers  of  Paris  frequently  suffered 
from  slight  ophthalmia,  and  de  Chaumont  mentions  unequivocal  cases  of 
this  affection  originating  from  the  foul  air  of  a  ditch  into  which  sewage 
had  been  allowed  to  accumulate. 

There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  scarlet  fever  is  traceable  to 
sewers,  but  it  is  inconclusive.  Y^eyiereal  disorders  are  greatly  aggravated 
by  sewer  emanations.  Parent  du  Chatelet  is  authority  for  the  statement, 
that  workers  in  sewers  who  persisted  in  the  occupation  when  suffering 
from  this  disease  inevitably  perished.  Two  other  disorders  have  been  re- 
cently mentioned  in  English  journals  as  being  attributable  to  the  effluvia 
of  drains  and  sewers,  namely,  "  abscess  of  the  cervical  gla7ids,  and  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  ulcerated  surfaces  to  become  sluggish,  and  to 
yield  to  no  ordinary  management.  Sometimes  these  ulcers  take  on  a 
diphtheroid  ajopearance." ' 

b.  Diseases  coniiected  with  Pollution  of  Dr hiking -water."^ 

The  use  of  water  defiled  by  impurities  from  the  soil,  whether  from 
drains,  cesspools,  or  other  sources  ^f  decomposing  organic  matter,  is  a  very 
frequent  mode  of  origin  of  some  diseases.  Water  contaminated  by  fsecal 
matters  is  perhaps  the  most  noxious  in  its  effects.  And  this  is  more  es- 
pecially the  case  when  such  matters  are  composed  in  part  of  the  evacua- 
tions of  persons  sick  of  some  one  of  the  specific  diseases,  such  as  cholera 
or  typhoid  fever.  The  effects  of  the  use  of  impure  water  may  be  very 
gradual,  and  may  be  manifested  by  general  impairment  of  the  health, 
without  giving  rise  to  any  well-defined  disorder.  The  principal  diseases 
which  have  been  attributed  to  this  cause  are  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  cholera, 
typhoid  fever,  etc. 

Diarrhoea  is  a  very  common  effect  of  the  use  of  impure  drinking-water. 
Both  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  especially  the  former,  contained  in 
water  under  certain  conditions  are  capable  of  producing  this  disease.  Sew- 
age is  a  frequent  source  of  contamination,  and  its  effects  are  somewhat  pe- 
culiar when  the  degree  of  impurity  is  very  considerable.  Parkes,  Gibb, 
Oldekop,  and  others  have  noticed  in  such  cases  that  the  symptoms  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  cholera,  vomiting,  purging,  colic,  and  even  loss  of 
heat,  being  not  uncommon  characteristics  of  the  affection.  Surface  im- 
purities washed  into  shallow  wells  by  heavy  rains  have  caused  an  out- 
break of  diarrhoea.  An  instance  of  this  kind  occurred  in  Prague  in  1860. 
The  water  from  grave-yards,  which  contains  animal  organic  matter,  is 
known  to  have  given  rise  to  attacks  of  diarrhoea. 

Outbreaks  of  dysentery  have  been  traced  to  polluted  drinking-water, 
especially  such  as  contains  animal  impurities.  Water  contaminated  by 
sewage-matters  from  leaky  cesspools  and  drain-pipes,  by  filth  penetrating 
the  soil  about  dwellings  and  gaining  access  to  wells,  by  impurities  washed 

'  The  Med.  Record,  1878,  p.  433.  ^  See  chapter  on  Drinking-water. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  591 

into  shallow  wells  by  heavy  rains,  and  by  the  drainage  from  cemeteries, 
has  been  demonstrated  over  and  over  again  to  be  a  means  of  disseminat- 
ing this  disease.  The  discharges  of  patients  affected  with  dysentery  are 
known  to  be  infectious,  and  if  admitted  into  drinking-water  will,  in  all 
probability,  have  the  effect  of  communicating  the  disease. 

From  the  abundant  evidence  at  hand,  there  can  no  longer  be  any 
doubt  that  water  is  a  medium,  if  not  the  j^rincipal  one,  through  which  the 
poison  of  cholera  is  conveyed.  Since  Dr.  Snow  first  announced  his  views, 
in  1849,  respecting  the  propagation  of  cholera  by  polluted  water-supply, 
founded  on  facts  gathered  at  Horsleydown,  "Wandsworth,  and  other  places, 
and  subsequently  confirmed  by  the  evidence  in  the  famous  and  conclusive 
Broad-street  pump  case,  other  and  abundant  evidence  of  the  most  un- 
equivocal character  lias  been  collected,  which  goes  to  siibstantiate  this 
opinion,  and  now  many  of  the  former  opponents  of  the  theory,  among  them 
Pettenkofer,  admit  that  this  mode  of  conveyance  of  cholera  may  occasion- 
ally happen.  On  the  other  hand,  many  competent  observers,  especially  in 
Germany,  have  failed  to  throw  the  weight  of  their  authority  in  favor  of 
this  view.  The  evidence  in  the  cases  of  epidemic  prevalence  of  this  dis- 
ease in  Munich,  in  Saxony,  in  Baden,  and  in  the  small  towns  near  A^ienna, 
does  not  seem  to  be  in  favor  of  the  spread  by  water.  AVhile  this  negative 
evidence  should  be  allowed  to  have  due  weight,  it  should  not  be  permitted 
to  supplant  the  abundant  and  authentic  positive  evidence  of  the  English 
observers.  But  Germany  is  not  without  instances,  reported  by  very  com- 
petent investigators,  which  go  to  show  that  outbreaks  of  cholera  are 
traceable  to  pollution  of  drinking-water  by  sewage. 

The  evidence  from  India  is,  in  the  main,  confirmatory  of  the  same  view. 
Drs.  Macnamara,  Townsend,  and  Cleghorn  have  all  given  some  strong 
proofs  of  the  fact,  that  dissemination  of  the  disease  is  largely  dependent 
on  water-fouling. 

Striking  instances  of  cholera-propagation  by  the  aid  of  polluted  well- 
water  have  been  furnished  by  other  countries.  Dr.  Ballot's  report  on  the 
spread  of  cholera  in  Holland  shows,  that,  in  all  those  towns  in  which  rain- 
water alone  was  drunk,  there  were  either  no  cases  of  cholera,  or  very  few 
single  cases,  and  these  were  supposed  to  have  been  imported  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  where  the  water-supply  was  derived  from  the  canals  and  wells, 
both  highly  polluted  with  sewage,  the  disease  prevailed.  "  When  places 
affected  by  the  cholera  were  supplied  with  pure  water,  instead  of  the  viti- 
ated water,  the  disease  disappeared."  During  the  epidemic  which  pre- 
vailed extensively  throughout  that  country,  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  which 
is  supplied  with  rain-water  carefully  collected  and  distributed,  had  only  4 
deaths  per  1,000,  while  in  other  cities  and  towns  supplied  with  the  water 
from  the  polders,  or  from  the  canals,  the  rate  of  mortality  was  from  16.8 
to  17.7  per  1,000.^  This  country  has  contributed  cases  in  support  of  the 
influence  of  foul  water  in  spreading  cholera.  Dr.  Chandler  mentions 
cases  connected  with  the  epidemic  of  1866.     The  prevalence  of  the  dis- 


The  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  May,  1869. 


592  SOIL   AND    WATER. 

ease  in  a  village  near  the  Central  Park,  New  York,  was  traced  to  the 
polluted  water  of  the  village-well.  So  also  in  the  case  of  the  Van  Brunt- 
street  pump,  Brooklyn,  which  supplied  over  fifty  families,  among  which 
the  disease  spread  until  the  further  use  of  the  water  was  prevented,' 

The  fact  that  the  mortality-rate  from  cholera  in  districts  supplied  with 
impure  water  has  been  very  considerable,  while  in  other  districts,  situated 
in  the  same  locality,  and  placed  under  similar  conditions,  except  that  the 
water-supply  was  from  a  source  less  liable  to  contamination,  it  has  been 
very  slight — is  evidence  in  favor  of  this  mode  of  spreading  the  disease. 

Dr.  Simon  has  shown,  that,  in  London,  the  houses  supplied  with  water 
drawn  from  the  river,  after  it  had  been  polluted  by  a  large  quantity  of 
sewage,  furnished  a  death-rate  from  cholera  equal  to  13  per  1,000;  while  in 
other  houses,  situated  under  quite  similar  circumstances,  except  that  they 
were  supplied  with  a  pure  water,  the  rate  was  only  3.7  per  1,000.  Frank- 
land  furnishes  a  number  of  illustrations  of  this  very  point.^  Similar 
evidence  has  been  presented  by  Schiefferdecker  in  connection  with  the 
great  epidemics  of  cholera  which  have  visited  Konigsberg  from  1831  to 
1866,  in  which,  out  of  5,543  persons  attacked,  2,671  persons  died.  It  was 
found  that  the  inhabitants  of  those  districts  of  the  city  which  were  sup- 
plied with  impure  drinking-water  from  the  river  Pregel  and  from  wells 
were  those  chiefly  attacked,  while  those  supplied  with  pure  water  from  a 
separate  system  scarcely  suffered  at  all.  (Lebert.)  This  same  fact  was 
attested  by  the  experience  in  Berlin,  in  1866,  the  year  of  the  great  epi- 
demic of  cholera.  The  disease  occurred  in  36.6  per  cent,  of  the  houses 
supplied  with  good  water,  while  in  the  houses  with  bad  water  the  propor- 
tion amounted  to  52.3  per  cent.      (Parkes.) 

The  freedom  of  towns  from  cholera  during  its  general  prevalence, 
when  such  towns  are  provided  with  a  water-supply  free  from  ordinary 
sources  of  contamination ;  and  the  fact  that  places  which  were  ravaged  in 
former  visitations  of  the  disease  have  escaped  at  its  subsequent  returns, 
after  the  introduction  of  good  drinking-water;  and  also  the  fact  of  the 
abatement  of  outbreaks  following  the  use  of  pure  water — are  all  argu- 
ments favorable  to  the  theory  that  drinking-water  is  a  potent  element  in 
the  dissemination  of  cholera.  The  death-rate  from  cholera  has  greatly 
diminished  in  Calcutta  since  a  better  supply  of  potable  water  has  been 
secured  for  that  city.  Pettenkofer  states  that  entire  towns  in  Germany, 
which  suffered  severely  in  former  epidemics,  have  entirely  escaped  the 
disease  during  the  late  visitations;  and  he  attributes  the  result  to  thorough 
and  efficient  drainage  and  purification  of  the  water-supply.^  Exeter,  Hull, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Glasgow,  and  Moscow  are  similar  instances,  which 
have  been  mentioned  by  Dr.  Parkes.  Strong  evidence  of  a  similar  char- 
acter has  been  brought  forward  by  Dr.  Forster.  He  shows  that  in  five 
towns  in  Silesia  in  which  the  water-supply  is  brought  from  a  distance, 

1  Public  Health  Eeports,  Vol.  I. ,  p.  541. 

^  The  Water-supply  of  London  and  the  Cholera :  The  Quart.  Journ.  of  Science, 
1867. 

2  Transactions  Internat.  Med.  Congress,  Philadelphia,  1876,  p.  1063. 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  593 

and  is  protected  from  contamination,  there  is  an  absence  of  this  disease, 
and  that,  when  imported,  it  never  spreads  in  these  localities.' 

There  is  no  proof  that  cholera  may  be  produced  by  water  uncontami- 
nated  with  cholera  evacuations,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  use  of  water 
containing-  organic  impurities,  by  causing  a  constant  tendency  to  diarrhoea 
and  by  lowering  vitality,  joredisposes  to  this  disease. 

In  typJiold fever,  as  in  dysentery  and  cholera,  faecal  evacuations  form 
the  chief  medium  of  communicating  the  disease.  The  poison  developed 
during  putrefaction  of  the  alvine  dejections  is  propagated  by  means  of 
water  as  well  as  air.  Says  Sir  W.  Jenner,  in  speaking  of  infection  from 
drinking-water:  "The  spread  of  typhoid  fever  is,  if  possible,  less  disput- 
able than  the  spread  of  cholera  by  the  same  means.  Solitary  cases,  out- 
breaks confined  to  single  houses,  to  small  villages,  and  to  parts  of  large 
towns — cases  isolated,  it  seems,  from  all  sources  of  fallacy — and  epidemics 
affecting  the  inhabitants  of  large-  though  limited  localities,  have  all  united 
to  support,  by  their  testimony,  the  truth  of  the  opinion  that  the  admixture 
of  a  trace  of  ftecal  matter,  but  especially  the  bowel  excreta  of  typhoid 
fever,  with  the  water  supplied  for  drinking  purposes,  is  the  most  efficient 
cause  of  the  spread  of  the  disease,  and  that  the  diffusion  of  the  disease, 
in  any  given  locality,  is  limited,  or  otherwise,  and  just  in  proportion  as 
the  dwellers  of  that  locality  derive  their  supply  of  drinking-water  from 
polluted  sources." 

There  are  a  great  number  of  instances  on  record  which  tend  to  show 
the  connection  of  typhoid  fever  with  excremental  pollution  of  drinking- 
water.  The  soakage  from  soils  charged  with  sewage  and  excremental 
matters  is  a  very  common  source  of  pollution  of  well-water.  This  is  not 
surprising  when  we  consider  how  little  precaution  is  taken  to  prevent  the 
filth  from  privies  and  drains  and  the  defiled  surface  about  houses  from 
soaking  into  the  surrounding  soil,  from  which  these  foul  matters  find  their 
way  into  the  water  of  wells  used  for  drinking  purposes.  Not  only  the 
water  of  wells,  but  that  supplied  to  towns  by  aqueducts,  has  been  the 
means  of  spreading  the  disease.  In  the  latter  case,  as  would  be  supposed, 
the  extension  of  the  disease  has  been  more  general. 

Sudden  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  have  been  caused  by  an  irruption 
of  sewage  into  wells  from  a  break  in  a  cesspool  or  drain,  or  from  a  soil 
in  which  the  matter  had  gradually  been  accumulating.  In  this  connection 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  when  the  poison  is  imbibed  with  water,  the 
incubative  period  is  usually  short;  and,  as  Dr.  Budd  remarks,  this  mode 
of  infection  is,  in  all  probability,  much  more  certain  than  when  the  poison 
is  spread  through  the  medium  of  the  air.  The  outbreak  of  fever  which 
occurred  at  Cowbridge,  in  Wales,  in  1853,  presented  this  fact:  that,  out 
of  nearly  one  hundred  persons  who  attended  a  ball  at  the  town  inn,  more 
than  one-third  were  shortly  afterward  attacked  with  the  disease.  There 
was  good  reason  for  supposing  that  the  water  used  on  that  occasion  was 
polluted,  although  a  chemical  examination  had  not  been  luade." 

1  Die  Verbreitung  der  Cholera  durch  die  Brunnen,  Breslau,  1873. 
■^  Parkes'  Practical  Hygiene,  1878,  note,  p.  49. 
Vol.  I.— P,8 


594  SOIL    AND    WATER. 

The  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  at  a  convent  in  Munich,  in  1860,  vs^as 
traced  to  the  defilement  of  wells  by  sewage  containing  typhoid  dejections. 
Thirty-one  out  of  one-hundred  and  twenty  of  the  inmates  were  affected 
with  the  fever,  and  four  of  them  died.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the 
disease  disappeared  after  the  water  ceased  to  be  used.  Dr.  Clifford  All- 
butt  records  a  case  which  occurred  at  Ackworth,  in  1870,  where  the  water 
of  a  well,  polluted  with  sewage,  caused  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  soon 
after  its  special  pollution  by  the  discharges  of  a  patient  who  had  been 
brought  home  to  the  village  while  suffering  from  the  fever. 

Another  instance,  reported  by  the  same  observer,  and  quoted  by  Wil- 
son, occurred  at  Bramham  College,  Yorkshire,  in  March,  1869  :  "  It 
appears  that  two  of  the  pupils  were  laid  up  with  enteric  fever  in  February, 
but  circumstances  showed  that  they  must  have  contracted  the  disease 
before  their  arrival  at  Bramham.  Towards  the  end  of  March,  nineteen 
fresh  cases  occurred,  and  all  of  them  about  the  same  time.  This  sudden 
outbreak  clearly  pointed  to  some  common  cause  which  must  have  been  in 
operation,  and  it  was  then  discovered  that  the  well  used  to  supply  drink- 
ing-water was  contaminated  by  soakage  from  a  soft- water  tank,  into  which 
sewage-matter  has  passed  from  a  broken  water-closet  pipe.  The  dis- 
charges of  the  first  two  patients  had  also  passed  into  this  tank,  and  had 
doubtless  been  the  cause  of  the  outbreak.  Another  important  fact  con- 
nected with  this  outbreak  was  the  distribution  of  the  disease  amongst 
the  pupils,  it  being  confined  to  those  who  drank  water,  while  those  who 
drank  beer  escaped.  As  the  same  water  was  used  for  cooking  purposes, 
it  would  thus  appear  that  the  poison  must  have  been  destroyed  by  boil- 
ing." 

Dr.  Wohlrab  mentions  a  case,  somewhat  similar  to  one  of  those  re- 
ported by  Dr.  Allbutt,  in  which  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  followed  the 
defilement  of  drinking-water  by  the  alvine  dejections  of  a  person  who  had 
contracted  typhoid  fever  elsewhere.  Parkes  considers  the  case  of  the 
village  of  Nunney,  recorded  by  Ballard,  as  furnishing  very  strong  evidence 
in  favor  of  the  origin  and  propagation  of  the  disease  by  a  specific  poison. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  village  had  been  in  the  habit  of  using  highly  pol- 
luted water  for  years  without  causing  the  fever,  when  a  person  suffering 
from  the  fever  came  from  a  distant  place,  and  the.  discharges  from  this 
person  were  washed  into  the  stream  from  which  the  village  drew  its  supply 
of  drinking-water.  The  result  was  that  "between  June  and  October, 
1872,  no  less  than  seventy-six  cases  occurred  out  of  a  population  of  832 
persons.  All  those  attacked  drank  the  stream- water  habitustlly  or  occa- 
sionally. All  who  used  filtered  rain  or  well  water  escaped,  except  one  family 
who  used  the  water  of  a  well  only  four  or  five  yards  from  the  brook." 
Dr.  Parkes  further  remarks,  that  "  the  case  seems  quite  clear — first,  that 
the  water  caused  the  disease;  and,  secondly,  that  though  polluted  with 
excrement  for  years,  no  enteric  fever  appeared  until  an  imported  case 
introduced  the  virus.  Positive  evidence  of  this  kind  seems  conclusive, 
and  I  think  we  may  now  safely  believe  that  the  presence  of  typhoid  evacua- 
tions in  the  water  is  necessary.     Common  fagcal  matter  may  produce  diar- 


SOIL    AND    WATER.  595 

rhoea,  which  may  perhaps  be  febrile,  but  for  the  production  of  enteric 
fever  the  specific  agent  must  be  present." 

It  is  very  evident  that  water  contaminated  with  sewage  containing 
typhoid  dejections  will  cause  the  disease;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
contended  that  the  presence  of  the  typhoid  poison  derived  from  the  ex- 
creta of  a  person  already  suifering  from  the  disease  is  not  a  necessary 
condition;  that  water  polluted  by  sewage  can  disseminate  the  disease  in- 
dependently of  typhoid  excreta.  Numerous  cases  have  been  reported 
from  time  to  time,  which  seem  to  strongly  support  this  view. 

Again,  there  are  those  who  hold  the  view,  that  enteric  fever  may  be 
disseminated  by  drinking-water  contaminated  with  other  forms  of  decom- 
posing organic  substances  besides  fsecal  matter.  Such  authorities  as  Mur- 
chison,  Griesinger,  Niemeyer,  Liebermeister,  Hudson,  and  Stewart  sup- 
port the  view  of  the  independent  origin  of  enteric  fever — that  is,  that  this 
disease  "  may  be  generated  independently  of  a  previous  case  by  fermenta- 
tion of  fsecal  and  perhaps  other  forms  of  organic  matter, "  While,  on  the 
other  hand,  von  Gietl,  W.  Budd,  Parkes,  and  others  believe  that  the 
presence,  in  the  water,  of  the  specific  agent  derived  from  the  stools  of  an 
individual  already  suffering  from  enteric  fever,  is  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  disease.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  conclusion  is  inevitable, 
and  its  relations  to  preventive  medicine  should  not  be  undervalued,  that 
water  exposed  to  the  danger  of  contamination  by  sewage  or  other  forms 
of  filth  should  be  regarded  with  the  gravest  suspicion,  as  neither  chemical 
analysis  nor  microscopic  examination  has  been  able  to  detect  the  subtle 
poison  to  which  the  fever  is  attributed.  Water  which  is  unobjectionable 
to  the  senses  of  sight,  taste,  and  smell  may,  nevertheless,  contain  the 
morbific  agents  capable  of  propagating  this  and  other  forms  of  disease. 
It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  health  of  a  community 
that  the  strictest  scrutiny  should  be  exercised  with  respect  to  the  supply 
of  drinking-water.  All  possible  sources  of  impurity  should  be  promptly 
removed,  and  every  effort  made  to  secure  an  abundant  and  pure  water; 
for  it  is  clearly  evident,  that,  to  maintain  the  health  of  a  community,  one 
of  the  primary  considerations  is  an  abundant  supply  of  water  from  which 
all  possible  dangers  of  contamination  have  been  excluded. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  remarked  that  yellow  fever,  diphtheria,  ulcer- 
ated sore-throat,  erysipelas,  and  the  "  low  fever  "  of  country  districts  have 
all  been  attributed  to  impure  water-supply ;  but  there  is  not  sufiicient  evi- 
dence at  present  to  sustain  this  belief. 

Disinfection  of  Excreta} 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  when  healthy  excreta  are  removed 
promptly  and  efficiently,  disinfection  is  not  required.  But  when  these 
effete  matters  are  retained  about  premises,  and  are  accumulated  in  cess- 
pools and  privies,  it  is  advisable  to  make  use  of  chemicals  to  prevent 
decomposition  and  the  evolution  of  offensive  and  hurtful  effluvia.     The 

'  See  chapter  on  Disinfectants. 


596  SOIL    AND    WATEK. 

alvine  evacuations  of  persons  suffering-  from  infectious  diseases  should 
always  be  disinfected,  no  matter  how  complete  may  be  the  means  for  re- 
moving the  excreta.  The  reason  for  this  procedure  is  obvious  when  it  is 
known  that  the  ftecal  dejections  of  the  sick  are  the  chief  medium  of  prop- 
agating certain  of  these  diseases  from  man  to  man.  There  is  the  very 
best  reason  for  believing  that,  if  this  practice  were  always  scrupulously 
observed,  a  vast  amount  of  needless  sickness  and  suffering  would  be  pre- 
vented. 

It  has  already  been  seen  that  the  spread  of  cholera,  enteric  fever, 
dysentery,  and  some  other  diseases,  is  associated  with  circumstances  of 
excremental  filth.  The  contagium  is  known  to  exist  in  the  discharges 
from  the  bowels,  and,  under  favorable  circumstances,  may  be  the  means  of 
propagating  the  infection  from  the  sick  to  the  well. 

"  Choleraic  discharges,  if  cast  away  without  previous  disinfection, 
impart  their  own  infective  quality  to  the  excremental  matters  with  which 
they  mingle,  in  drains  or  cesspools,  or  wherever  else  they  may  flow  or 
soak,  and  to  the  effluvia  which  those  matters  evolve;  that  if  the  cholera- 
contagium,  by  leakage  or  soakage  from  drains  or  cesspools,  or  otherwise, 
gets  access,  even  in  small  quantity,  to  wells  or  other  sources  of  drinking- 
water,  it  infects,  in  the  most  dangerous  manner,  very  large  volumes  of 
the  fluid;  that  in  the  above-described  ways  even  a  single  patient  with 
slight  choleraic  diarrhoea  may  exert  a  powerful  infective  influence  on 
masses  of  population  among  whom  perhaps  his  presence  is  unsuspected." 
In  the  same  manner  the  evacuations  in  typhoid  fever  and  perhaps  other 
diseases  are  capable  of  communicating  their  own  infective  quality  to  any 
ordure  with  which  they  may  come  in  contact,  whether  in  drains,  cesspools, 
or  privy-wells. 

Says  Dr.  Simon:  "The  argument  which  applies  to  the  bowel-discharges 
of  cholera  and  enteric  fever,  and  which,  in  regard  of  them,  rests  on  a  very 
large  quantity  of  detailed  evidence,  seems  to  extend  by  extremely  strong 
analogy  to  every  disease,  whether  nominally  '  common '  or  '  specific,' 
in  which  the  human  intestinal  canal  is  the  seat  of  infected  changes; 
chiefly  perhaps  to  such  diarrhoeal  and  dysenteric  infections  as  are  ex- 
clusively or  distinctively  intestinal,  but  likewise,  I  apprehend,  more  or 
less,  to  every  general  infection  (such,  for  instance,  as  scarlatina)  in  pro- 
portion as  it  inclusively  infects  the  bowels;  and  it  would  thus  seem  prob- 
able that  air  and  water,  having  in  them  the  taint  of  human  excrement, 
must  often  carry  with  them,  whithersoever  they  pass,  the  seeds  of  current 
morbid  infections." 

Such  being  the  case,  it  is  important  to  guard  against  the  danger  of 
increasing  the  sources  of  communicating  disease,  by  promptly  and  thor- 
oughly disinfecting  the  intestinal  discharges  in  all  cases  of  disease  in 
which  there  is  the  least  suspicion  of  this  mode  of  propagation  ;  and  such 
agents  only  should  be  employed  as  are  capable  of  destroying  not  merely 
the  specific  contagia  contained  in  the  matters  thus  thrown  off  from  the 
body,  but  also  the  material  in  the  stools  out  of  which  the  infectious  par- 
ticles may  be  evolved. 


SOIL    AND    ^VATEK.  597 

"It  is  requisite,"  says  Dr.  Carpenter,  "to  deal  with  the  particles  of 
contagion  at  their  fountain-head;  to  act  upon  the  nest-eggs  freely  as  they 
come  from  the  patient;  to  apply  as  much  as  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  the 
material  used  to  the  material  to  be  acted  upon,  before  it  can  find  a  new 
habitation,  in  which  it  may  increase  and  multiply  to  an  indefinite  extent, 
if  not  so  acted  upon." 

Insufficient  disinfection  is  too  frequently  practised,  the  substances 
used  often  being  comparatively  inert,  or,  if  effective,  being  used  in  too 
limited  quantity.  The  object  is  to  immediately  neutralize  the  infectious 
matter,  and  to  this  end  it  is  most  important  that  the  agents  should  be 
icell  selected,  freely  used,  and  thoroughly  incorporated  ^\h.  the  matters  to 
be  acted  upon. 

Various  chemical  substances  have  been  used  to  accomplish  this  object. 
The  most  prominent  among  them  are  carbolic  acid,  chloride  of  zinc,  sul- 
phate of  iron,  cupralum,  and  chloride  of  iron. 

The  evacuations  should  be  received  at  their  very  issue  from  the  body  in 
a  vessel  containing  about  half  a  pint  of  either  of  the  following  solutions: 

A  solution  of  four  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  (Calvert's  No.  4  or  No.  5) 
in  a  gallon  of  (warm)  water. 

A  solution  of  one  quart  of  chloride  of  zinc  (Burnett's  fluid  =  25  grains 
of  the  salt  to  every  fluid  drachm)  in  three  quarts  of  water. 

A  solution  of  two  pounds  of  sulphate  of  iron  (green  copperas)  in  a 
gallon  of  water.  A  solution  of  one  quart  of  "  strong  solution  of  per- 
chloride  of  iron  "  in  a  gallon  of  water. 

In  addition  to  the  above  chemical  agents — which  are  the  most  reliable 
— other  substances  have  been  used,  such  as  sulphate  of  zinc,  sulphate  of 
copper,  chloride  of  aluminium,  chloride  of  lime,  permanganate  of  potas- 
sium, strong  carbolic-acid  powder,  and  terebene  powders  =  feralum  and 
cupralum,  the  latter  consisting  of  sulphate  of  copper,  alum,  a  little  bi- 
chromate of  potassium,  and  terebene. 

To  disinfect  water-closets  and  sinks,  use  may  be  made  of  any  of  the 
above-mentioned  solutions,  of  which  a  pint  may  be  poured  down  the 
place  two  or  three  times  a  day.  The  constant  disinfection  of  water-closets 
can  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  some  one  of  the  automatic  disinfectors 
already  described. 

Privy- wells  and  cesspools  may  be  disinfected  by  the  use  of  large  quan- 
tities of  the  metallic  salts,  preferably  chloride  of  zinc  and  sulphate  of  iron, 
A  solution  of  two  pounds  of  the  sulphate  of  iron  in  a  gallon  of  water,  or 
of  one  pint  of  Burnett's  solution  of  the  chloride  of  zinc  in  a  gallon  of 
water  (to  each  of  which  two  ounces  of  strong  carbolic  acid — Calvert's  No.  5 
— may  be  added),  are  of  the  strength  ordinarily  used  in  disinfecting  the  con- 
tents of  privies  and  cesspools.      Unless  freely  used  their  power  is  wasted. 

To  accomplish  a  thorough  disinfection,  as  much  as  one  pint  of  any  of 
these  solutions  must  be  used  to  each  cubic  foot  of  contents. 

The  disinfection  of  sewage  has  been  discussed  elsewhere.' 


'  See  section :  The  Disposal  of  Sewage. 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE 


D.   F.   LINCOLN,   M.D. 

BOSTON,    MASS. 


THE   ATMOSPHERE. 


Under  this  title  the  air  we  breathe,  and  which  forms  the  medium  in 
which  we  live,  will  be  considered  in  a  variety  of  aspects. 

For  convenience,  the  following  general  order  will  be  observed  in  treat- 
ing the  subject: 

I.  Normal  Components  of  Air — Oxygen,  Nitrogen,  Carbonic 
Acid.     Water  will  be  considered  in  a  later  section,  under  Meteorology. 

II.  Impurities,  Organic  and  Inorganic,  with  some  special  injuries 
due  to  them. 

III.  Meteorology  and  Climate. 

IV.  Ventilation  and  Heating. 

Composition  of  the  Atmosphere, 

There  is  no  absolutely  normal  composition  of  the  air  we  breathe;  or, 
if  there  be,  it  is  not  at  present  known.  It  contains,  however,  in  all  cases, 
unless  under  purely  artificial  conditions,  tioo  essential  elements,  nearly 
(perhajjs  quite)  invariable  under  normal  circumstances,  and  tvno  accessory 
elements,  which  vary  extremely  in  amount,  but  are  practically  never  ab- 
sent. The  first  two  are  oxygen  and  nitrogen  ;  the  other  two,  carbonic 
acid  and  water.  Without  either  of  the  first  two,  air  could  not  exist  ; 
without  the  last  two,  air  is  scarcely  found  in  nature.  Their  association, 
furthermore,  forms  not  a  chemical  union,  but  a  simple  mechanical  mixture. 

Oxygen  is  the  absolutely  essential  element  for  the  support  of  animal 
life.  Its  functions  in  this  respect  will  be  described  elsewhere.  ISfitrogeu 
seems  to  act  in  the  animal  economy  purely  as  a  diluent  or  vehicle  for  the 
administration  of  oxygen. 

Carhonic  acid  is  far  from  such  an  indifferent  agent;  it  is  essential, 
but  not  to  the  animal  kingdom,  as  far  as  known.  To  man  it  is  simply 
a  superfluous  ingredient,  harmless,  when  in  moderate  amounts  ;  to  the 
vegetable  world,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  food  which,  together  with 
water,  often  suffices  to  support  the  entire  life  of  a  plant.  Hence,  as 
related  to  life,  in  its  broadest  sense,  the  air  may  be  said  to  be  composed 
of  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbonic  acid;  and  this  statement  is,  on  some 
accounts,  preferable  to  that  which  admits  only  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 


602  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

Certain  other  substances,  as  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  are  not  valu- 
able to  man  directly,  and  are  by  no  means  constantly  present  in  air, 

Water,  in  a  gaseous  form,  is  contained  in  the  air,  adding  very  little  to 
its  bulk.  Speaking  popularly,  it  is  said  to  be  held  in  solution  by  the  air. 
Its  value  will  be  made  the  subject  of  future  remark.  Its  great  variations 
in  amount,  however,  place  it  in  a  different  relation  from  that  held  by 
nitrogen  and  oxygen,  which,  for  the  uses  of  man,  constitute  alone  (or 
perhaps,  we  should  say,  with  carbonic  acid)  atmospheric  air  in  its  strict 
meaning.  Another  point  in  which  it  holds  a  different  relation  is  the  fact 
that  its  amount  is  entirely  independent  of  that  of  the  other  ingredients; 
it  does  not  diminish  when  they  increase,  nor  vice  versa,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  complementary  gases,  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid.  Nor  is  it  a 
vehicle  for  oxygen;  but  a  body  of  separate  functions  and  laws,  which  will 
be  spoken  of  in  a  special  section. 

The  normal  composition  of  air  has  been  variously  stated.  Earlier  ob- 
servers have  given  figures  slightly  varying  from  those  now  accepted.  A 
very  pure  air  contains  in  100  parts  by  measure  :  ' 

Nitrogen 78.98 

Oxygen 20 .  99 

Carbonic  acid 0 .  03 


100.00 


The  mean  of  out-door  air,  as  taken  from  various  specimens,  some  very 
pure  and  some  not  so  good,  is  given  by  Smith  at:   . 

Nitrogen 79 .00 

Oxygen 20.96 

Carbonic  acid ,     0 .  04 


100.00 
Oxygen. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  air,  if  pure,  should  contain  20.99  per  cent,  of 
oxygen;  an  average  air  out  of  doors,  20.96;  while  Liebig  and  Graham 
assume  20.9  as  a  fair  average  for  air.  "Very  bad"  air  begins  at  20.6 
(Smith). 

Other  observers  have  found  varying  results,  Gay-Lussac  and  Hum- 
boldt, after  many  experiments,  fixed  on  a  mean  of  21.00  ;  De  Saussure, 
21.05;  Berthollet,  Davy,  Thomas  Thomson,  Vogel,  and  Hermbstadt,  from 
21.00  to  21.59.  Two  observers,  however,  must  be  considered  of  leading  au- 
thority, namely,  Bunsen,  who  from  28  examinations  of  air  at  Heidelberg, 
ranging  between  20.970  and  20.840,  found  a  mean  of  20.924  ;  and  Reg- 
nault,  who  from  100  observations  at  Paris  gives  the  mean  of  20,96. 

It  should  be  noted  of  the  latter  series  that  all  his  analyses  give  above 

*  See  R.  Angus  Smitli  on  "  Air  and  Rain,"  to  which  I  am  much  indebted  in  this 
section. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  603 

20.9,  except  in  unwholesome  places  with  putrid  waters.     The  following 
tables  are  given  for  further  illustration. 

ANALYSES  BY  REGNAULT. 

100  specimens  in  Paris 20.913—20.999 

9  "         from  Lyons  and  around 20.918—20.966 

30  "  "     Berlin 20.908—20.998 

10  "  "     Madrid 20.916—20.982 

23  "  "      Geneva  and  Switzerland 20.909—20.993 

15  "  "     Toulon  and  Mediterranean 20.912—20.982 

5  "  "     Atlantic  Ocean 20.918—20.965 

1  "  "     Ecuador 20.960 

2  "  "     Pichincha,  higher  than  Mont  Blanc.  20.949— 20.981 

Mean  of  all  foregoing 20.949—20.988 

Mean  of  Paris  specimens 20.96. 

CLASSIFIED  ANALYSES  OF  AIR  FROM  SCOTLAND,  1863-'65  (R.  A.  SMITH). 

Sea-shore  and  heath mean  20.999 

Tops  of  hills "     20.98 

Bottoms  of  hills "     20.94 

All  places  not  mountainous "     20,978 

Inferior  parts  of  a  town  (in  favorable,  ^.  e,,  windy,  weather).  "     20.935 

Lower  marshy,  etc.,  places "     20.922 

Forests "     20.97 

All  together , "     20.959 

Or "     20.96 

The  following  extracts,  from  a  table  by  Smith,  give  certain  points  for 
comparing  the  numerical  values  with  the  sensible  qualities  of  various  sorts 
of  air  : 

OXYGEN,  PERCENTAGE  IN  VOLUME. 

Scotland,  N,  E.  seashore  and  open  heath 20.999 

Manchester,  suburb,  wet  day 20.98 

"  "  "        20.96 

"  outer  circle  of  city  (not  raining) 20.94 

in  city  (fog  and  frost) 20.91 

London,  open  parts,  summer 20.95 

Sitting-room  feels  close 20.89 

Theatre,  gallery,  10.30  p,m 20.86 

«  '     pit,  11.30  p.M 20.74 

Backs  of  houses  and  closets 20.70 

Court  of  Queen's  Bench  (1866) 20.65 

Mines,  under  shafts  (aver,  of  many) 20.42 

"       where  candles  go  out 18.50 

"       worst  specimen  yet  examined 18.27 

Very  difficult  to  remain  in  for  many  minutes 17.20 


604  THE    ATiVlOSPHERE. 

ANALYSES  FROM  DWELLING-ROOMS  (SMITH). 

Before  the  door  of  a  house  in  Manchester 20.96 

In  the  sitting-room,  not  very  close 20.89 

In  a  very  small  room,  with  a  petroleum-lamp  burning,  a  good  deal 

of  draught 20.84 

After  six  hours 20.83 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  air  at  great  elevations  has  often  been 
observed  to  contain  less  oxygen  than  was  found  at  lower  levels.  Dumas 
and  Boussingault  give  the  mean  of  nine  observations,  taken  at  Paris,  as 
20.864  per  cent.,  while  the  mean  of  five,  taken  by  them  on  the  Faulhorn, 
was  20.774.  Dr.  William  Allen  Miller  found  air,  procured  from  a  balloon 
at  the  height  of  18,000  feet,  in  August,  1852,  to  contain  20.88,  while  that 
taken  from  near  the  ground  contained  20.92.  Dr.  Frankland  found  the 
air  at  the  Grands  Mulcts  containing  20.802  (with  0.111  per  cent,  of  COo); 
at  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  20.963,  with  0.061  of  COo ;  at  Chamounix, 
20.894,  with  0.063  of  COo.  Brunner  made  upon  elevated  places  a  series  of 
observations  giving  from  20.750  to  20.867.  These,  and  other  similar  ob- 
servations, apparently  confirmatory  of  one  another  in  a  general  way,  point 
to  some  cause,  as  yet  unproved,  for  the  diminution  of  oxygen  in  the  upper 
regions  of  air. 

De  Saussure  considered  that  the  facts  rather  pointed  to  an  increase  of 
oxygen  in  the  lower  strata  than  to  a  diminution  in  the  upper.  This  in- 
crease he  ascribed  to  the  action  of  vegetation,  which  is  well  known  to 
consume  carbonic  acid  and  exhale  oxygen. 

Smith,  however,  proposes  the  converse  hypothesis  ;  he  assumes  that 
the  organic  substances  floating  in  the  air  become  consumed,  oxidized,  by 
the  influence  of  ozone,  producing  as  a  result  of  their  combustion  carbonic 
acid. 

Such  increase  of  carbonic  acid  coincident  with  loss  of  oxygen  appears 
in  Frankland's  analyses  just  quoted ;  and  Messrs,  H.  and  A,  Schlagint- 
weit  found  the  carbonic  acid  to  increase  up  to  the  height  of  11,000  feet. 
"  The  diminution  of  the  oxygen  is  probably  a  disadvantage — although  to 
such  a  small  extent  is  it  so,  that  there  is  abundant  compensation  in  the 
purification  consequent  on  the  removal  of  organic  substances.  We  shall 
have,  then,  a  distinct  variety  of  air  on  mountains  differing  from  that  of  the 
plains.  In  the  one  there  would  be  more  carbonic  acid  and  less  oxygen, 
with  little  or  no  organic  matter — constituting  mountain  air  ;  whilst  the 
air  of  the  plains  would  have  more  oxygen,  less  carbonic  acid,  and  more 
organic  matter."  ' 

In  the  mountains  of  Scotland,  however,  air  collected  from  the  tops 
averaged  20.98  per  cent.,  while  that  from  the  bottoms  averaged  20.94 ; 

'  A  certain  diminution  in  the  proportion  of  oxygen  at  great  heights  above  the  earth 
is  to  be  expected  in  accordance  with  Dalton's  and  Mariotti's  laws.  This  view  is  sus- 
tained, upon  theoretical  grounds,  by  Hann,  in  the  Zeitschrift  der  oesterreichischen 
Gesellschaft  fiir  Meteorologie,  Bd.  X.,  1875,  p.  35. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  605 

and  a  large  number  of  observations  from  districts  not  mountainous  or 
only  partly  so  averaged  20.978.  This  seeming  exception  maybe  due  (it  is 
suggested)  to  the  fact  that  the  mountains  of  Scotland  are  not  very  high 
— the  highest  not  attaining  to  4,500  feet ;  and  perhaps  also  to  the  close 
neighborhood  of  the  sea,  which  would  furnish  by  a  direct  transference  over 
a  few  miles  an  air  of  nearly  identical  composition.  The  mountain  regions 
which  give  low  percentages  of  oxygen  lie  inland,  where  the  air  may  be 
supposed  to  have  taken  up  organic  matter  from  the  surrounding  country. 

The  air  of  the  German  Ocean,  as  given  by  Lewy,  contained  from  20.423 
to  21.010.  These  analyses  were  made  by  the  aid  of  the  balance  ;  when, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  tested  by  explosion  by  hydrogen,  he  obtained  for 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  (in  mean  of  33  analyses)  a  range  from  20.96074  to 
21.06099. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  evidence  in  favor  of  adopting  the  analysis  for 
oxygen,  instead  of  that  for  carbonic  acid,  as  a  test  of  purity.  The  test 
would  be  an  absolute  one  if  we  could  be  sure  of  the  uniformity  of  the  pro- 
portion of  oxygen  in  pure  air.  Taking  this,  as  we  probably  may,  for  granted, 
we  can  say  that  the  carbonic  acid,  in  most  cases,  increases  directly  at  the 
expense  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  that,  therefore,  a  diminution  of 
oxygen  points  logically  to  an  increase  of  carbonic  acid.  There  is  this 
disadvantage  in  adopting  the  oxygen  test,  that  it  removes  from  view 
accidental  impurities,  such  as  the  discharges  from  chimneys,  which  are  cer- 
tainly important. 

Special  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  oxygen  diminishes  under  con- 
taminating influences  is  furnished  in  the  following  tables  of  air  from 
cities  : 

ANALYSES  OF  LONDON  AIR  (SMITH). 

Middle  of  Hyde  Park,  average 21.005 

Parks  and  open  places,       "        20.95 

W.  C.  and  W.  (including  some  parks) 20.925 

E.  and  E.  C.  "  "  "       20.86 

S.  and  S.  W.  "  "  "       20.883 

N.  and  N.  E 20.857 

Metropolitan  Railway 20.70 

MANCHESTER   (SMITH),  FROM   THIRTY- TWO   OBSERVATIONS   JVIADE  AT 

LABORATORY. 

In  very  wet  weather,  in  front  of  building 20.98 

Average  of  all  thirty-two '  20.947 

Behind  building,  in  medium  weather 20.936 

In  foggy  frost,  when  the  smoke  of  Manchester  had  little  exit  from 

the  town 20.91 

Over  ash-pits 20.706 

In  the  open  parts  of  Glasgow  the  average  was  found  to  be  20.9293  ; 
in  the  closer  parts  20.8890. 


606  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

Further  illustrationsj  under  more  specific  conditions,  are  furnished  by 
the  cinalysis  of  the  air  from  cow-houses  and  stables,  in  which  six  observa- 
tions, made  after  the  buildings  had  been  opened  in  the  morning,  gave 
from  20.70  to  20.82.  A  long  series  of  pairs  of  observations,  taken  simul- 
taneously upon  the  air  from  the  closet  or  midden  behind  the  laboratory  of 
R.  A.  Smith,  and  upon  that  in  front  of  the  laboratory,  gives  the  average 
of  20.706  for  the  former,  and  20.943  for  the  latter.  To  make  the  evidence 
more  impressive,  it  may  be  stated  thus  :  the  average  deviation  from  a 
standard  of  pure  air  (21.00)  in  the  former  case  is  0.293;  in  the  latter  only 
0.065,  showing  a  deoxidation  four  and  a  half  times  as  great  in  the  midden 
as  in  the  street. 

Ozone,  or  Allotropic   Oxygen. 

This  substance  is  obtained  from  oxygen  by  a  variety  of  methods.  It 
owes  its  importance  to  its  intense  activity,  far  more  than  to  its  amount, 
for  the  maximum  quantity  of  ozone  in  the  air  never  exceeds  t-q-oVt^  ^^  '^^^ 
bulk  (Houzeau),  and  it  is  often  entirely  wanting.  The  first  satisfactory 
account  was  given  by  Schonbein  in  1840. 

Ozone  is  simply  oxygen  which  has  assumed  a  new  set  of  properties 
(allotropic  state),  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  electricity,  or  some  other 
force;  its  elemental  composition  remaining  the  same.  "It  is  now  believed 
that  it  is  an  allotropic  oxygen,  in  which  three  volumes  are  condensed  into 
two,  one  of  the  volumes  being  in  a  different  polar  condition  to  the  other 
two  (o5q=  two  volumes).  Its  molecular  weight  is  48,  that  of  oxygen 
being  32;  and  its  density  is  1|-  times  that  of  common  oxygen.  It  decom- 
poses slowly  in  the  presence  of  moisture  at  212°  F,,  but  decomposes  in- 
stantly at  a  temperature  of  from  450°  to  500°  F.,  the  ozone  becoming  ordi- 
nary oxygen.  Ozone  is  only  slightly  soluble  in  water.  At  32°  F.  100 
volumes  of  water  dissolve  |-  volume  of  ozone  (Carius).  It  is  not  soluble 
in  solutions  of  acids  or  alkalies."  '  In  its  sensible  properties,  it  is  a 
colorless  gas,  having  a  peculiar  odor  of  phosphorus,  like  that  perceived 
during  the  passage  of  an  electric  spark. 

Ozone  may  be  obtained  in  various  ways  : 

1.  By  electrical  agency.  The  silent  passage  of  electricity  through  damp 
oxygen  is  the  method  best  adapted  for  its  generation.  The  induction- 
spark  may  also  be  used.  Its  chief  source  in  nature  is  atmospheric  elec- 
tricity.     It  may  be  generated  by  passing  electricity  through  dry  oxygen. 

2.  The  oxygen  set  free  at  the  positive  pole  of  the  battery  in  electro- 
lysis of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  contains  ab'out  g-^-^  of  its  bulk  of  ozone. 

3.  By  slow  combustion  (eremacausis)  of  phosphorus  in  moist  air,  or 
in  a  mixture  of  moist  hydrogen  and  oxygen;  and  by  the  slow  combustion 
of  ether  and  volatile  oils  (turpentine,  etc.). 

Ozone  is  also  found  in  the  oxygen  produced  by  the  action  of  light  on 
growing  plants  (De  Lucca) ;  it  is  produced  by  aromatic  plants  and  flowers 

'  C.  Meymott  Tidy  :  Handbook  of  Chemistry. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  607 

(Mantegazza) ;  it  is  also  produced  by  contact  with  the  juices  of  fungi 
(Schonbein,  Phipson),  and  during  all  processes  of  fermentation,  putrefac- 
tion, or  decay  (Phipson).  It  also  originates  during  certain  other  pro- 
cesses of  combustion  and  nascent  action. 

The  following  resume  of  its  laws  of  distribution  is  given  by  A.  Mey- 
mott  Tidy: 

1.  More  ozone  is  present  during  the  night  than  during  the  day,  and 
most  of  all  is  found  at  daybreak. 

2.  More  is  found  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and  least  in  autumn. 

3.  More  is  found  at  high  than  at  low  levels. 

4.  More  is  found  on  the  sea-coast,  and  especially  when  the  wind  is 
blowing  from  the  sea,  than  inland. 

5.  More  is  found  in  the  country  than  in  towns. 

6.  More  is  found  after  a  thunder-storm  than  at  any  other  time;  least 
of  all  is  found  on  damp,  foggy  days. 

7.  More  is  found  with  western  than  with  eastern  winds  [i.e.,  in  Eng- 
land]. 

8.  The  maximum  quantity  of  ozone  in  the  air  .never  exceeds  -^00^000' 
part  its  bulk  (Houzeau).  Its  chief  source  is  atmospheric  electricity,  and, 
as  minor  sources,  the  action  of  aromatic  plants  and  flowers,  etc. 

Ozone  is  almost  never  found  in  the  air  of  inhabited  rooms.' 

Ebermeyer  ^  says  that  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  air  of  the  open  fields 
and  in  places  of  great  atmospheric  moisture.  In  the  forests  more  is  found 
in  the  upper  strata  of  air,  among  the  branches,  than  near  the  ground, 
owing,  doubtless,  to  the  absorption  which  occurs  in  the  processes  of  de- 
composition. It  is  not  found  in  large  quantities  over  marshes  and  swamps 
during  the  season  of  active  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter,^  though 
this  is  denied  by  Burdel.* 

Ozone  is  an  exceedingly  powerful  oxidizing  agent.  It  corrodes  cork, 
paper,  animal  membranes,  caoutchouc,  and  other  organic  substances;  its 
action  on  metals  is  very  energetic.  This  property  gives  it  great  value  as  a 
disinfectant  agent.  It  oxidizes  with  great  rapidity  the  compounds  of  am- 
monia, phosphorus,  and  sulphur,  which  are  so  offensive  in  animal  decom- 
position, instantly  removing-  the  odor.  Its  action  on  the  lower  forms  of 
life  is  not  sufficiently  established;  but  it  may  probably  be  found  to  act 
as  a  germ-destroyer,  as  simple  vegetable  substances,  such  as  mould,  are 
completely  destroyed  when  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  containing  ozone 
(H.  Carey  Lea). 

Ozone  bleaches  indigo,  converting  it  into  isatin.  It  is  probable  that 
the  action  of  light  and  dew,  by  exposure  to  which  cloth  was  formerly 
bleached,  depends  on  the  production  either  of  ozonized  air,  or  of  nascent 
oxygen;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  modern  process  with  chlorine. 

^  Wolff hiigel:  "Ueber  deu  sanitaren  Werth  des  atmospharischen  Ozons,"  Ztschr. 
1  Biologie,  Bd.  XI.,  pp.  419,  421,  440,  444. 

'■'  Physikalische  Einwirkungen  des  Waldes,  etc. 

=  Kedzie  :  Third  Report  Michigan  Board  of  Health,  1875. 

^  Recherches  sur  les  fievres  paludeennes,  1858. 


608  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

The  most  pojDular,  and  the  most  sensitive,  test  for  the  presence  of 
ozone  depends  upon  this  bleaching  power  (Schonbein).  The  test-paper  is 
prepared  by  adding  ten  parts  of  best  quality  of  starch  to  two  hundred 
parts  of  pure  water,  heating  this  till  the  starch  gelatinizes,  and  then  dis- 
solving in  it  one  part  (two  parts,  according  to  Tidy)  of  pure  iodide  of 
potassium.  This  paste  is  spread  evenly  with  a  brush  on  sheets  of  paper 
free  from  sizing,  which  are  then  rapidly  dried  by  stove-heat,  without  ex- 
posure to  sunlight,  and  then  stored  up  in  a  covered  jar,  and  kept  from  the 
sunlight  till  used.  When  exposed  to  air  containing  ozone,  the  salt  is  de- 
composed, changing  the  jDaper  to  blue.  The  depth  of  the  blue  tint  pro- 
duced on  exposure  is  measured  by  comparison  with  a  scale  of  colors, 
printed  on  a  paper  which  is  furnished  for  the  purpose.  In  making  the 
observations,  strips  of  suitable  length  are  cut,  moistened,  and  hung  up  for 
a  sufficient  number  of  hours.      Moffatt  j^refers  dry  paper. 

In  air  containing  no  ozone,  it  is  presumed  that  no  discoloration  takes 
place.  This,  however,  is  not  absolutely  correct;  and  hence  a  fallacy  in 
the  test.  Chlorine,  or  the  oxides  of  nitrogen,  and  some  other  agents,  if 
present,  produce  a  similar  coloration.  For  this  reason,  ozonometry  has 
not  been  so  extensively  and  so  satisfactorily  pursued  as  the  other  branches 
of  air  analysis.  Nevertheless,  with  all  allowances  made,  the  admitted 
powers  of  ozone  render  the  subject  one  of  great  interest  in  its  bearing 
uj)on  climate  and  health. 

Houzeau's  ozonometer  consists  of  neutral  litmus-paper  soaked  in  a 
dilute  solution  of  potassic  iodide,  the  potash  set  free  by  the  ozone  turning 
the  paper  blue.  A  piece  of  the  litmus-paper  without  iodide  is  also  ex- 
posed to  the  air  at  the  same  time;  a  comparison  of  the  two  papers  indi- 
cating how  far  the  action  on  the.  iodide  paper  may  be  due  to  ammonia  in 
the  air,  and  not  to  the  action  of  ozone. 

Ozone  has  a  very  irritating  influence  upon  the  respiratory  mucous 
membranes;  it  is  especially  so  to  the  eyes  and  nose,  when  breathed  in  any 
concentrated  form.  It  may  produce  the  symptoms  of  influenza,  or  cold 
in  the  head.  In  a  very  concentrated  form  it  is  irrespirable,  and  soon 
causes  the  death  of  any  animal  confined  in  it.  These  properties  have 
suggested  the  causal  relation  between  ozone  and  epidemics  of  influenza  ; 
a  relation  not  established. 

Oxygen  containing  g^g  of  its  volume  of  ozone  is  rapidly  fatal  to  all 
animals,  death  occurring  with  intense  congestion  of  the  lungs,  emphysema, 
and  distention  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart  with  blood  (Redfern). 

Air  highly  charged  lessens  the  number  of  respirations  and  the  strength 
of  the  cardiac  pulse,  and  lowers  the  temperature  from  5°  to  8°  F.,  the 
blood  after  death  being  found  venous  (Dewar  and  McKendrick). 

Oxygen,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to  so  great  an  extent  an  indifferent  gas 
that  it  can  be  breathed  in  very  varying  proportions  without  immediate 
toxic  effects.  In  pure  oxygen,  at  75°  F.,  a  rabbit  lives  about  three  weeks, 
eating  voraciously  all  the  time,  but  nevertheless  becoming  thin.  At  45° 
F.  oxygen  produces  narcotism,  and  eventually  death.  When  cooled  by 
a  freezing-mixture,  it  produces  intense  narcotism.    When  compressed  un- 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  609 

der  3|-  atmospheres,  it  produces  violent  convulsions,  like  those  caused  by 
strychnia,  and  ultimately  death,  when  the  arterial  blood  is  found  to  con- 
tain about  twice  the  normal  amount  of  oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

This  gas  is  colorless,  tasteless,  odorless,  and  has  less  weight  than  at- 
mospheric air.  By  the  action  of  ozone,  formed  during  thunder-storms,  it 
may  be  converted  into  nitric  acid ;  and  the  combination  of  the  latter  with 
organic  impurities  forms  nitrate  of  ammonia,  so  often  found  in  the  rain  of 
thunder-storms. 

The  gas-springs  in  the  island  at  Paderborn  contain  97  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  with  3  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid;  that  at  Lippspringe  83.25  per 
cent,  nitrogen,  15.25  carbonic  acid,  0.20  oxygen,  and  1.30  atmospheric  air. 

The  gas  is,  as  above  said,  a  vehicle  for  oxygen.  It  is  incapable  of 
sustaining  life,  and  causes  death  by  suffocation. 

According  to  Kiipper  (quoted  in  Eulenberg),  the  "  gemeinen  bosen 
Wetter"  and  the  "matten  und  stockenden  Wetter"  are  chiefly  composed 
of  nitrogen,  and  are  characterized  in  this  case  by  specific  lightness,  and 
their  inability  to  support  combustion.  The  gas  flows  from  clefts  in  rocks 
in  many  places,  the  exact  seat  of  which  is  hard  to  find.  When  it  forms 
84  per  cent,  of  the  air,  lamps  go  out;  at  89  per  cent,  respiration  ceases, 
and  death,  with  convulsions,  rapidly  follows.  These  gases  occur  most 
frequently  in  long-disused  shafts.  In  Diiren  seven  men  died  within  two 
and  a  half  years  of  the  effects  of  this  gas.  It  is  often  found  combined 
with  carbonic  acid  and  carburetted  hydrogen;  all  three  originate  in  coal 
and  organic  debris. 

The  poisonous  effects  of  air  impregnated  with  nitrogen  are  given  as 
follows  by  Brockmann: — 1st  stage.  Hunger  for  air,  frequent  deep  breaths, 
oppression,  and  cold  sweat.  2d.  Mental  oppression  appears;  but  if  the 
man  escapes  into  pure  air  all  the  symptoms  disappear.  In  a  few  cases 
there  are  secondary  inflammatory  symptoms  referring  to  the  brain  and 
lungs.  3d.  Stertor,  icy  coldness,  loss  of  pulse,  rigidity,  loss  of  conscious- 
ness; the  beats  of  the  heart  hardly  perceptible,  full,  and  very  slow.  After 
venesection  the  respiration  becomes  freer,  and  consciousness  gradually 
returns.     -Ith.   Death;  the  body  icy  cold  and  rigid. 

Carbonic  Acid. 

This  body  sustains  a  peculiar  relation  to  the  atmosphere,  being,  on  the 
one  hand,  always  present  as  a  normal  constituent,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
owing  its  presence  to  the  spoliation  of  another  normal  constituent,  oxy- 
gen— i.  e.,  to  combustion.  And,  owing  to  this  fact  of  origin,  and  certain 
other  facts,  it  occupies  the  place  of  an  index  of  pollution  when  present 
beyond  a  given  proportion.  In  this  respect  it  has  a  very  different  rank 
from  that  of  oxygen. 

The  balance  between  carbonic  acid  and  oxvgen  in  the  atmosphere. 
Vol.  I.— 39 


610  THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 

continually  disturbed  in  one  direction  by  the  animal  kingdom,  is  con- 
stantly maintained  by  the  vegetable.  The  former  excretes  carbonic  acid, 
and  consumes  oxygen;  the  latter,  for  the  most  part,  performs  the  oppo- 
site function.     Fungi  act  like  animals,  in  excreting  carbonic  acid. 

An  increase  in  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  ought  in  all  ordinary  cases 
to  correspond  with  the  diminution  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air.  Lignin, 
mineral  coal,  peat,  etc.,  derive  the  oxygen  required  for  combustion  from 
the  air;  so  do  the  hydrocarbons;  so  does  the  animal  system.  Exception 
may  be  made  for  the  combustion  of  special  bodies,  like  nitre,  chlorate  of 
potassa,  and  gunpowder,  containing  large  quantities  of  oxygen  in  their 
substance. 

It  appears  that  the  rain  also  acts  in  diminishing  the  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  in  the  air.  This  it  does  by  simple  absorption;  a  power  to  dis- 
solve carbonic  acid  being  a  well-known  property  of  water.  In  addition, 
the  rain,  coming  from  high  regions,  is  believed  to  bring  with  it  (also  in  a 
state  of  solution)  portions  of  atmosphere  which  contain  more  oxygen  than 
that  at  lower  levels  (in  cities),  and  to  part  with  some  of  this  oxygen  at 
the  same  time  that  it  takes  up  some  of  the  carbonic  acid;  thus  acting,  in 
a  double  sense,  as  a  purifier. 

To  the  excretions  of  the  lungs  and  skin,  poured  into  the  air  of  cities, 
must  be  added  the  product  of  fires  and  the  decomposition  of  animal  and 
vegetable  refuse. 

Immense  amounts  of  carbonic  acid  are  produced  by  burning  fuel.  It 
is  estimated  by  Smith  that  15,066  tons  are  daily  poured  into  the  air  of 
Manchester  from  this  source;  in  comparison  with  which  the  estimate  of 
330  tons  for  the  product  of  respiration  is  a  trifling  amount.  Nevertheless, 
by  allowing  duly  for  the  space  and  height  over  which  this  is  distributed, 
and  the  rate  at  which  the  wind  blows  (12  miles  an  hour),  it  appears 
that  the  percentages  added  together  make  the  following  table: 

Carbonic  acid  from  coals 0091 

Carbonic  acid  from  expired  air 0002 

Natural  carbonic  acid  in  air 0300 


.0393 


If  this  estimate  be  allowed,  it  shows  that  combustion  and  respiration, 
in  a  large  city,  are  not  sufficient,  when  taken  together,  to  i-aise  the  aver- 
age percentage  above  .04,  or  four  parts  in  ten  thousand,  which  is  within 
the  limits  of  what  is  stated  by  most  observers  to  be  a  good  average  air. 

Whence,  then,  comes  the  decided  increase  of  CO2  in  the  air  of  cities  ? 
It  comes  mainly  from  the  confinement  of  the  air  in  streets  and  alleys  ;  and 
the  lesson  drawn  from  the  preceding  table  should  be,  the  importance  of 
planning  wide  straight  streets,  and  open  spaces,  and  of  avoiding  closed 
squares  of  high  buildings.  The  products  of  combustion  and  of  putrefac- 
tion are  very  rapidly  diffused,  and  the  balance  restored  to  nearly  the 
normal  point  when  fresh  air  in  abundance  is  accessible.  Sewer-gases  dis- 
charged above  the  level  of  the  housetops  become  Jiearly  harmless.     The 


THE    AT.ArOSPIIEUE. 


6H 


air  of  parks  in  large  cities  is  nearly  equivalent  to  country  air  when 
analyzed  ;  and  a  country  air  of  fair  purity  is  found  up  to  the  very  limits 
of  thickly-settled  towns. 

CARBONIC  ACID  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY  COMPARED. 

Places. 


Percentages. 

Smith 0336 

04136 

0461 

0539 

0291 

0369 

0403 


Scotland,  purely  rural  and  hilly  districts, 
Perth  and  outskirts,  October, 
Glasgow,  opener  parts,  winter, 

"        closer  parts,         " 
Manchester,  minimum  of  suburbs, 
"  where  fields  begin, 

"  streets  in  usual  weather, 

"  average  of  all  town  observations,     "     0442 

"y  during  fogs,  "     0679 

"  about  middens,  "      0774 

London,  open  places,  April,  "     0301 

"        streets,  "  "      0341 

"        oh  the  river,       "  "     0343 

"        average  whole  city,  November,  "     04394 

*'        open  parts,  "     04115 

Munich,  Pettenkofer ,    .   .05 

"         Lange  and  Wolffhiigel 037 

Madrid,  outside  walls,  March,  De  Luna 045 

"        inside         "      April,         "         053 

Boston  Public  Garden  (4  analyses).  May,  Storer 03006 

The  experiments  of  Theo.  de  Saussure,  made  with  the  greatest  care  in 
Switzerland  during  a  period  of  several  years,  show  a  number  of  facts 
which  appear  to  have  the  force  of  laws.     Such  are  : 

1.  Analyses  made  at  noon  give  uniformly  a  less  percentage  of  carbonic 
acid  than  those  made  at  11  p.m. 

2.  Noon  observations,  30  in  number,  give  the  mean  amount  for  the 
three  winter  months  as  related  to  that  for  the  three  summer  months,  in 
the  proportion  of  77  :  100.  The  mean  for  January  was  .0423  ;  for  August, 
.0568.  These  results  were  not  uniformly  low,  however,  for  winter,  nor 
high  for  summer. 

3.  Eight  observations,  made  at  the  middle  of  Lake  Leman,  at  noon, 
and  compared  with  those  made  on  the  bank,  give  a  ratio  of  98.5  :  100. 

4.  Twelve  observations,  made  on  mountain-tops,  give  in  all  but  two 
cases  a  higher  percentage  of  CO;,  than  was  found  below  or  at  the  foot.  It 
was  further  found  that  this  percentage  did  not  change  by  night,  as  was 
the  case  with  observations  on  lower  levels. 

In  stating  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  present  in  air,  the  number  of 
parts  per  ten  thousand  will  usually  be  given.  This  is  a  convenient 
method,  with  the  special  advantage  that  it  is  easier  to  remember  whole 
nnmbers  (3,  4,  5)  than  decimals  (.03,  .04,  etc.)  Tables  like  the  two  preced- 
ing are  converted  by  shifting  the  decimal  two  places  to  the  right. 


612 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


CARBONIC  ACID  IN  AIR  FROM  CONFINED  PLACES. 
(Parts  in  10,000,) 


Time. 


Tunnel  in  Metropolitan  Railway,  London, 

six  observations 

Chancery  Court,  closed  doors ;  7  feet  from 

ground 

Chancery  Court,  closed  doors ;  3  feet  from 

ground 

Strand  Theatre,  gallery | 

Surrey  Theatre,  boxes 

Same,  same  evening i 

Olympic  Theatre ! 

Same I 

Haymarket  Theatre,  dress  circle j 

Victoria  Theatre,  boxes. j 

Effingham 

Pavilion 

City  of  London  Theatre,  pit 

Standard  Theatre,  pit 

Public  schools  of  Philadelphia  (average  of 

10  of  various  grades)  in  1875 

Public  schools    of   Boston  (average  of    25 

primary  and  15  grammar)  in  1870 

Public  schools    of  Michigan  (average  of  11 

high  and  normal) 

Annaberg,  five  schools 

School-room  after  two  hours 

A  school,  in  March 

Same,  in  July 

Wilhelm's  gymnasium,  in  March 

Same,  in  July 

Celle,  gymnasium,  various  rooms ! 

Celle,  Volks-Schulen,  most  rooms j 

Same,  ' '  one  room I 

A  Sunday-school,   80-100  children,   before  j 

opening  

Same,  an  hour  later , j 

Same,  half  an  hour  later  still ! 

A  Sunday-school,  350  persons ] 

Same  room,  evening,  200  people  and  10-121 

burners 

Berth-deck   of    the    "Powhatan,"    April, 

May,  and  June | 

"  Swatara,"  same  period 

"  Ossipee," 

Highest  amount  found  in  an  U.   S.  naval 

vessel 


10  p.m. 
10.3  P.M. 

12  P.M. 

11.30  P.M. 
11.55  P.M. 
11.30  P.M. 


10.30  P.M. 

10.11  P.M. 
11.15  P.M. 
11  P.M. 


11  P.M. 


Observer. 


Smith. 


E.  Thomson.' 
^  Storer  and 
I      Pearson.  - 

Kedzie.  ^ 

O.  Krause. 

Pettenkofer. 

Oertel. 


Barinsr. 


W.  R.  Nichols.' 


Th.  J.  Turner.  5 


Parts. 


14.53 

19.3 

20.3 
10.1 
11.1      . 
21.8 

8.17 
10.14 

7.57 

7.6 
12.6 
15.3 
25.3 
33.0 

13.15 
j-    14.5 

24.00 
39.9 
73. 
56.7 
41. 
55.8 
32.9 
30.-50. 
90. 
120. 

7.31 
39.51 
31.96 
36.34 

31.58 

11.8-19.6 

15.03-36.63 

14.-18. 

39.1 


'  Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Education  to  inquire  into  the 
Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Schools  of  the  First  School  District  of  Pennsylvania,  City  of 
Philadelphia,  1875. 

'^  Second  Annual  Report  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  1871. 

^  First  Annual  Report  Michigan  State  Board  of  Health,  1873. 

^  Private  communication. 

^  From  records  kept  by  medical  officers  of  the  ships. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


013 


Place. 

Time. 

Observer. 

Parts. 

Smoking-cars — 15   analyses,   ranging   from 
9  8  to  36  9 — 1874 

W.  R.Nichols.' 

u 

Wilson.^ 
Smith. 

22.8 

Same   other  analyses 

17.0 

Passenger-cars  (range  from  15.9  to  36.7).  . .  . 
Sewer  in  Berkeley  Street,  Boston  : 
90  analyses  during  pumping 

23.3 

8.5 

25        ' '        without        ""       

10.4 

Portsmouth  Convict  Prison:    cells   of  614 
cubic  feet,  always  occupied 

7.20 

Same :  cells   of  210   cubic  feet,    occupied 

10.44 

English  mines,  average  of  339  examinations 

78.5 

De  Chaumont  gives  the  following  data  from  barracks,  hospitals,  and 
■prisons.  The  figures  are  given  in  the  original  table  as  parts  in  1,000  ; 
here  pointed  to  give  parts  per  10,000.  The  observations  of  external  air 
are  instructive,  as  showing  how  wide  may  be  the  range  of  carbonic  acid  in 
air  called  "fresh."  The  fourth  column  of  figures  gives  the  difference 
between  the  carbonic  acid  found  in  the  room  and  that  in  the  outer  air,  a 
very  important  datum  for  determining  the  efficiency  of  ventilation. 


EAERACKS. 

Gosport  New  Barracks 

Anglesey  Barracks 

Aldershot 

Chelsea 

Tower  of  London.    

Fort  Elson  (casemate) 

Fort  Brockhurst  (casemate) . 


COain 
external 


CO2  in  room. 


MILITARY  AND  CPV^IL  HOSPITALS. 

Portsmouth  Garrison  Hospital 

Portsmouth  Civil  Infirmary 

Herbert  Hospital 

Hilsea   Hospital 

St.  Mary's,  Paddington 


MILITARY  AND  CIVIL  PRISONS. 

Aldershot  Military  Prison — cells 

Gosport  Military  Prison — cells 

Chatham  Convict  Prison — cells 

PentonviUe  Prison — cells,  Jebb's  system. 


4.30 
393 

4.40 
4.70 
4.30 
4.35 

4.23 


3.06 
3.33 
4.34 
4.05 
5.63 


4.09 
5.55 
4.53 


Largest 
amount 
found. 


Mean 
amount. 


Mean 
respiratory 
impurity. 


18.46 
19.71 
14.08 
11.75 
17.31 
18.74 
10.37 


20.57 

13.09 

7.30 

7.41 

15.34 


34.84 
33.44 
30.97 
19.26 


6.45 
14.04 

9.76 

7.18 
13.38 
12.09 

8.38 


9.76 
9.38 

4.73 
5.78 
8.47 


16.51 

13.35 

16.91 

9.89 


2.15 
10.11 
5.36 
2.48 
8.98 
7.84 
4.16 


I     6.70 

i     6.06 

!    0.48 

1.73 

I     2.87 

i 

I  12.43 

7.80 

13.39 


As  regards  the  amounts  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  found  in  mines, 
the  following  illustrative  data  will  be  interesting: 

R.  A.  Smith's  analyses  of  339  specimens  from  a  large  number  of  mines. 


'  Second  Report  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  1871. 

-  Handbook  of  Hygiene. 


014  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

almost  all  English,  give  a  few  instances  of  quite  pure  air — containing,  e.  g., 
of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid,  respectively,  20,95  and  .05  ;'  20.96  and  .04; 
20.96  and  .06.  These  are  few  in  number.  The  average  of  all  his  speci- 
mens gives  oxygen  20.26,  and  carbonic  acid,  .785  per  cent.  (Compare 
standard  of  COs  in  pure  air,  .03  and  .04  per  cent.)  Of  all  the  specimens, 
10.67  per  cent,  were  normal,  or  nearl}^  so,  in  respect  to  CO2 ;  24.69  per 
cent,  were  decidedly  impure,  and  G4.63  per  cent,  were  exceedingly  bad. 

Of  the  worst  specimens,  99  contained  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  oxygen; 
and  of  these,  13  contained  less  than  19  per  cent.  The  worst  were  :  18.69, 
18.67,  18,62,  18.52,  and  18.27.  And  as  regards  the  amount  of  carbonic 
acid,  in  the  worst  cases,  it  exceeded  1  per  cent.  (=  100  parts  in  10,000,  or 
twenty-five  times  the  normal  amount)  in  98  cases,  in  13  of  which  it  rose 
above  2  per  cent.  (=  50  times  normal  amount);  the  worst  containing  2.38, 
2.40,  2.42,  2,51,  and  2,73  respectively.  The  increase  in  carboiiic  acid  was 
by  no  means  exactly  proportionate  to  the  loss  of  oxygen. 

Bodemann's  eight  analyses  from  the  mines  of  the  upper  Harz^  give  an 
average  of  carbonic  acid  by  volume  =  1.1964  per  cent.;  of  oxygen,  19.785 
per  cent.     Smith,  however,  estimates  the  former  at  1.396. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  accurate  analyses  of  mine-gas.  The  "  gemeine 
bose  Wettern,"  analyzed  by  Hausmann,'  gave  in  100  parts,  in  two  speci- 
mens: 

I.  II, 

Nitrogen 81.4  86.52 

Oxygen 13.75         12.12 

Carbonic  acid 4,83  1,36 

The  Cornish  mines,  as  examined  by  P,  Moyle,*  in  eighteen  places, 
gave  worse  results.  The  average  percentage  of  oxygen  was  found  by 
him  =  16.87;  but  Smith  corrects  the  result  by  reference  to  the  ascertained 
amount  of  carbonic  acid,  and  gives,  as  the  mean  contents  of  oxygen,  17,55 
per  cent.  The  worst  cases  were  those  where  14,76  per  cent,  was  reported 
(15,74,  Smith),  "four  men  at  dead-end,"  where  "lights  burned  with  diffi- 
culty," and  14,51  per  cent.  (15,51,  Smith),  "forty-five  minutes  after 
firing," 

Twelve  ounces  of  gunpowder  gave  in  burning  2,803  cubic  feet  of  CO2. 
This  quantity,  which  is  commonly  used  in  a  day's  blasting,  does  not  do 
so  much  harm  in  this  way  as  by  the  sulphide  or  sulphate  of  potassium  it 
produces.  One  blast  (4  oz.)  gives  713  grains  of  these  compounds,  which, 
mingled  with  the  confined  air,  renders  it  intolerable  to  breathe  for  a 
time.  There  are,  besides,  numerous  other  deleterious  compounds  result- 
ing from  the  burning  of  gunpowder. 

Wehrle  describes  as  follows  the  different  degrees  of  impurity  in  the 
air  of  mines: 

'J.  e.,  per  cent.  ;  equal  to  5.0  parts  per  10,000. 

«R.  A.  Smith:  L,  c,  p,  78. 

^  Brockraann  :  Die  metallurg.  Krankheiten. 

■^Annales  de  chim.  et  de  phys.,  1841. 


THE    ATMOSPHEKE.  615 

"  That  air  in  vvliich  the  mining-candle  burns  dull  and  dark,  but  in 
which  the  workman  feels  no  oppression,  is  called  (matte  Luft)  dull,  flat, 
or  stale  air.  But  when  the  workman  carmot  keep  his  candle  burning,  it 
is  called  bad  air  (schlechte  Liifte  or  "Wetter).  A  man  may  live  in  this 
bad  air,  and  an  Argand  lamp  may  burn  in  it;  but  when  this  also  goes  out, 
and  the  workman  feels  confined  (beengt),  or  when  he  is  suffocated,  then 
it  is  bad  or  poisonous  air  (Schwaden).  When  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
falls  under  13  per  cent.,  and  is  too  small  for  the  process  of  respiration,  or 
when  the  carbonic  acid  amounts  to  7  per  cent.,  with  several  per  cent,  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  miasmas  of  a  peculiar  kind,  they  communicate 
to  the  atmospheric  air  a  property  which  is  often  very  dangerous." 

The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  allowable  in  air  for  respiration  is  given 
differently.  Leblanc  named,  as  the  maximum  allowable,  5  parts  per 
thousand  by  measure;  Poumet,  2-3  parts;  Wolpert,  3  parts.  But  in 
later  times  the  authority  of  Pettenkofer  has  replaced  these  statements 
by  the  more  strict  claim  that  7  parts  per  ten  thousand  is  the  maximum  to 
be  allowed  in  the  air  of  dwellings.  De  Chaumont  gives  G  in  10,000. 
Pettenkofer  states  that  "  air  is  bad,  and  improper  for  continuous,  use, 
when  it  contains,  in  consequence  of  respiration  and  perspiration,  more 
than  1  part  of  CO-j  in  1,000;  and  a  good  air  for  chambers,  in  which  a 
person  may  remain  for  a  long  time  in  a  state  of  health  and  comfort,  con- 
tains no  more  than  0.7  of  a  part  in  1,000,  or  7  parts  in  10,000." 

These  statements  must  all  be  qualified  by  the  implied  condition  that 
the  carbonic  acid  is  derived  from  respiration.  The  poisonous  element  in 
badly  ventilated  places  is  now  fully  understood  to  consist,  not  of  carbonic 
acid,  but  of  the  organic  compounds  which  are  given  off  simultaneously 
from  the  lungs  and  skin;  and  the  vahie  of  analyses  of  air,  contaminated 
by  human  exhalations,  consists  in  the  probability  that  the  proportion  of 
these  organic  compounds  in  a  given  specimen  is  fairly  represented  by  the 
proportion  of  CO2.'     These  organic  effluvia  will  be  spoken  of  again. 

Air  which  is  changed  rapidly  may  be  permitted,  perhaps,  to  contain  a 
relatively  larger  proportion  of  CO^.  In  certain  situations,  where  the 
cubic  space  is  very  small  and  the  number  of  persons  large,  even  rapid 
change  does  not  lower  the  proportion  to  what  might  be  desired  in  large 
rooms;  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  element  of  rapidity  of  change 
may  have  its  special  effect  in  purifying  the  air,  by  preventing  the  organic 
ingredients  from  having  time  to  decay.  Investigations  into  the  air  of 
railway  carriages,  made  by  Lang  and  others,  have  shown  that  the  air  may 
be  considered  pure  and  good  as  long  as  it  does  not  contain  more  than  10 
parts  per  10,000  of  CO.;  and  an  amount  not  exceeding  15  j^arts  may  be 
permissible  in  such  places. 

It  has  been  thought  that  a  very  large  room  may  contain  so  much  air 

'  "From  experiments  made  at  Gravesend,  Netley,  Aldershot,  and  Hilsea,  by  vari- 
ous medical  officers  (De  Chaumont,  Hewlett,  and  others),  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
amount  of  potassium  permanganate  destroyed  by  air  drawn  through  its  solution  is 
generally  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  of  respiration."  (Parkes'  Hy- 
giene, ) 


616  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

as  to  require  little  or  no  ventilation.  Such  a  case  can  hardly  be  admitted. 
Practically  speaking,  a  room  of  ordinary  size,  or  even  a  hospital  w^ard,  is 
not  the  gainer  by  being  made  more  than  thirteen  feet  high.  Indeed,  the 
existence  of  abundant  space  may  tempt  us  to  neglect  the  necessity  of 
abundant  renetoal,  and  so  a  large  room  be  more  unsafe  than  a  small  one. 
The  only  advantage  of  great  space  lies  in  the  fact  that  we  can  ventilate 
freely  'without  giving  rise  to  perceptible  drcmght. 

In  respect  to  the  minuteness  with  which  we  ought  to  carry  out  the 
analysis  for  CO2,  R.  A.  Smith  makes  these  remarks  :  ' 

"  A  very  minute  amount  of  carbonic  acid  shows  deterioration  of  air 
sufficient  for  the  senses  to  observe.  The  senses  observe  a  difference  be- 
tween Manchester  and  the  outskirts.  The  difference  is  .0034  ^^er  cent. 
[or  0.34  per  10,000].  The  senses  observe  it  in  London,  where  the  dif- 
ference between  the  streets  and  parks  is  .0040  ^:)er  <"6«^.  .  .  .  The  conclu- 
sion is,  that  carbonic  acid  in  these  small  amounts  is  not  that  which  annoys 
us.  In  some  towns  it  is  no  doubt  sulphurous  acid ;  in  others  organic  mat- 
ter and  gases  from  putrefaction. 

"  It  does  not  follow  that  we  must  therefore  neglect  carbonic  acid;  on 
the  contrary,  it  ought  to  be  examined  minutely,  so  that  not  the  smallest 
increase  be  allowed,  if  possible;  not  that  we  know  certainly  of  any  posi- 
tive evil  which  it  can  do  of  itself  in  these  small  quantities,  but  because  it 
almost  always  comes  in  bad  company. 

"In  the  above  analyses  the  air  containing  .0774  [7.74  per  10,000] 
is  really  worse  than  that  containing  .1604,  and  even  .3  [16.  and  30.], 
because  over  the  middens  [the  former]  there  is  a  little  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. It  is  well,  then,  in  such  cases  to  use  a  double  test.  Indeed  it  is 
probable  enough  that  other  gases  besides  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  such 
as  marsh  gas  and  hydrogen — products  of  decomposition — are  issuing 
from  cesspools  and  middens.  I  should  not  say  probable;  it  is  really 
certain.  These  gases,  including  the  carbonic  acid,  show  the  reason  why 
less  oxygen  should  be  found  in  such  places, 

"A  deviation  of  ,02  [=  2  parts  in  10,000]  is  not  pleasant  to  us  when 
it  is  caused  by  simple  Avant  of  ventilation.  If  it  is  accompanied  with 
gases  of  putrefaction,  it  is  much  more  hurtful,  as  some  of  these  are  very 
deadly. 

"We  must  not  conclude  that,  because  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is 
small,  the  effect  is  small;  the  conclusion  is  rather  that  minute  changes  in 
the  amount  of  this  acid  are  indications  of  occurrences  of  the  highest 
importance. 

"  In  the  case  of  carbonic  acid,  we  must  attend  to  the  third  place  even 
now,  as  I  believe,  and  for  scientific  purposes  even  to  the  fourth,  or  one  in 
a  million.  .  <.  .  Let  us  consider  what  is  meant  by  a  difference  between 
.0314  per  cent,  and  .0400  per  cent.,  or  86  in  a  million.  A  room  twice  the 
size  of  one  not  unusual,  or  two  30  feet  long,  24  feet  wide,  and  15  high, 
will  contain  21,600  cubic  feet.     If  we  introduce  .0086  per  cent.,  we  bring 

'  Air  and  Rain,  p.  55. 


THE    ATMOSPIIEIIE.  617 

3,200  cubic  inches  of  carbonic  acid  into  the  room,  or  nearly  12  gallons. 
If  we  take  the  numbers  found  in  a  very  moderately  close  building,  we  add 
1,239  in  a  million,'  or  1G8  gallons.  If  we  make  the  room  as  close  as  in  a 
crowded  theatre,  taking  the  number  given  for  one  in  London  .320,  we  add 
2,831  in  a  million,  or  377  gallons.  In  order  to  read  off  the  amount  in  a 
million,  there  ought  always  to  be  four  figures  after  the  decimal  point  [^.  e,, 
when  the  number  of  parts  in  100  of  air  is  given]." 

Pure  carbonic  acid  is  not  j^^oved  to  be  injurious  in  quantities  slightly 
exceeding  the  normal  rates  of  3  or  4  per  10,000  parts.  It  proves  nothing 
against  the  salubrity  of  Munich,  for  instance,  that  the  air  contains  a  general 
average  of  .05  per  cent,  (if  we  accept  the  figures),  nearly  one-fourth  more 
than  that  of  London.  The  cause  of  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  must 
be  looked  to  before  we  are  sure  that  it  is  an  index  of  pollution.  Munich 
lies  1,690  feet  above  the  sea,  and  may  share  in  the  excess  of  CO.,,  common 
to  many  elevated  spots  with  pure  atmosphere.  In  cases  where  the  atmos- 
phere is  loaded  with  a  pure  carbonic  acid — as  by  the  accidental  escape  of 
the  gas  where  soda-fountains  are  being  charged — it  is  not  found  that  the 
slightest  inconvenience  or  annoyance  is  felt  by  those  who  work  in  such 
air,  although  containing  in  some  cases  nearly  2  per  cent,  of  the  gas. 

Pettenkofer  has  passed  some  hours  in  air  containing  10  per  mille  CO2, 
without  affecting  his  comfort.' 

Forster  states  that  during  a  stay  of  ten  minutes  in  a  cellar  containing 
fermenting  wine,  with  a  proportion  of  40  per  mille  of  CO^  in  the  air,  he 
felt  no  difficulty  in  breathing." 

There  is  a  vast  difference  when  the  carbonic  acid  originates  in  the 
breath.  Smith,  for  instance,  after  making  the  experiment,  says:  "It 
seems  to  me  impossible  to  endure  4  per  cent,  for  any  length  of  time." 

We  cannot  affirm,  therefore,  that  carbonic  acid  is  proved  directly  poi- 
sonous in  small  quantities,  or  even  (in  milder  terms)  that  it  is  injurious. 
It  is,  however,  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  pure  gas  destroys  life,  as 
water  puts  out  a  candle.  And  that  it  may  be  suddenly  dangerous  in 
quantities  which  often  occur  in  foul  places  in  mines,  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing anecdote,  given  by  Smith. ^ 

A  young  lady  was  anxious  to  be  in  the  closed  chamber  (described 
hereafter),  when  the  amount  of  CO.2  was  sufficient  to  put  out  the  candles. 
She  entered  when  the  candles  were  threatening  to  go  out,  so  that  there 
could  not  be  quite  19  per  cent,  of  oxygen  with  2.1  of  carbonic  acid.  No 
one  had  been  breathing  in  it,  so  that  the  organic  matter  from  the  poison 
was  absent.  She  stood  five  minutes  perfectly  well,  and  making  light  of 
the  difficulty,  but  suddenly  became  white  and  could  not  come  out  without 
help.  She  was  remarkably  healthy,  never  was  ill,  and  was  troubled  with 
no  fear  of  the  air  in  which  she  stood. 

In  another  experiment  with  the  closed  chamber,  candles  were  burned 

'  Annalen  der  Chemie  und  Pharmacie,  1863,  Suppl. ,  Bd.  II. 
■^  Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  Bd.  XI. 
'L.  c,  p.  441. 


618  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

"until  they  went  out.  Smith  and  others  then  entered.  "  ^Ye  breathed 
without  difficulty  at  first,  but  a  gradual  feeling  of  discomfort  appeared  of 
a  kind  which  is  not  easily  described  ;  it  was  restlessness  and  anxiety  with- 
out pain,  whilst  the  breathing  increased  in  rapidity.  Afterward  gas  was 
lighted,  and  burned  with  brilliancy.  On  entering  after  the  gas  had  gone 
out,  candles  were  extinguished  as  rapidly  and  completely  as  if  they  had 
been  thrust  into  water  ;  nevertheless  we  still  breathed,  and  although  every- 
one was  anxious  to  go  out,  no  very  correct  description  of  the  feelings 
could  be  given.  I  stood  on  a  chair,  and  then  a  feeling  of  incipient  faint- 
ing began  ;  but  the  senses  were  not  annoyed  by  anything  beyond  a  feeling 
of  closeness,  by  no  means  so  unpleasant  as  a  school-room  or  close  end  (in 
a  mine).  This  is  a  very  important  fact,  as  it  points  again  to  the  organic 
matter,  of  which  there  was  little  here,  and  of  which  there  is  much  in  a 
school-room  or  close-end.  The  lungs  seemed  to  refuse  exjDansion,  \vithout 
the  senses  being  able  to  indicate  a  reason.  The  actual  amount  of  oxygen 
when  the  gas  went  out  is  not  known  ;  but  a  specimen,  taken  from  the 
room  after  the  door  had  been  opened  long  enough  to  allow  three  persons 
to  enter,  contained  17.45  per  cent." 

"  On  another  occasion  a  still  greater  amount  of  carbonic  acid  was 
present  in  the  chamber,  but  it  was  not  accompanied  with  a  corresponding 
loss  of  oxygen,  as  the  gas  was  driven  in  upon  pure  air.  The  oxygen, 
therefore,  was  20.19  with  3.84  of  carbonic  acid  [=  96  times  the  normal 
percentage].  On  this  occasion.  Dr.  Reissig  and  Mr.  Higgins  got  head- 
aches instantaneously  on  entering,  and  were  unable  to  stay  above  seven  or 
eight  minutes.  I  stayed  about  twenty  minutes,  still  felt  very  anxious  to 
get  out,  as  all  ray  movements  were  made  with  great  haste,  and  both  mind 
and  body  betrayed  symptoms  of  feverish  activity.  There  was  also  a  rush 
of  blood  to  the  head,  the  face  was  flushed,  and  the  lungs  acted  more 
rapidly  than  usual,  the  inspirations  being  26,  whilst  the  average  of  wak- 
ing hours  was  as  nearly  as  possible  20.  ...  I  was  satisfied  that  the 
condition  of  body  and  mind  was  caused  entirely  by  physical  agents,  not 
by  the  imagination.  There  was  a  burning  haste  to  live,  as  if  life  were 
afraid  of  being  put  out." 

With  these  statements  may  be  compared  those  of  M.  Foster  (Hand- 
book of  Physiology),  "When  an  animal  is  made  to  breathe  an  atmos- 
phere containing  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  in  the  presence  of  an  ample 
supply  of  oxygen,  the  breathing  becomes  labored,  the  respiratory  move- 
ments being  deeper  and  more  frequent.  True  dyspnoea,  however,  does 
not  set  in,  and  death  does  not  take  place  by  convulsions  and  asphyxia  [as 
is  the  case  in  deprivation  of  oxygen]  ;  the  symptoms,  on  the  contrary,  re- 
semble those  of  an  animal  under  the  influence  of  a  narcotic  poison,  such 
as  opium." 

A  dog,  in  an  atmosphere  of  CO2  9f  percent.,  and  oxygen  4^  per  cent., 
fell  into  a  deathlike  coma,  but  recovered  soon  in  pure  air,  and  in  thirty 
minutes  was  as  lively  as  before.     This  is  a  mixed  result. 

There  is  also  evidence  that  simple  lessening  of  the  amount  of  oxygen 
in  the  air  has  a  decidedly  injurious  effect.     It  is  palpably  so  in  the  effect 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  019 

it  has  on  the  burnhig  of  a  candle.  R.  A.  Smith  found  that  a  candle  rapidly 
went  out  in  air  containing  2.2  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid,  replacing  a  cor- 
resi^onding  amount  of  oxygen;  when  the  carbonic  acid  was  washed  out 
from  this  air,  and  the  oxygen  formed  18.5  per  cent.,  the  candle  burned, 
but  with  a  photometric  value  of  45,  as  against  75  in  pure  air.  At  the 
same  time,  a  great  relief  to  breathing  was  felt  on  the  simple  removal  of 
the  carbonic  acid. 

"In  an  atmosphere  poor  in  oxygen  there  is  felt — not  so  much  as  a 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  nitrogen,  as  of  the  absence  of  oxygen — 
contraction  of  the  chest,  tickling  of  the  eyes,  fatigue,  weakness,  and 
anxiety;  we  breathe  more  heavily  and  frequently,  and  are  compelled  to 
make  more  exertion  at  work,  while  perspiration  and  thirst  ensue." 
(Wehrle.) 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  deprivation  of  oxygenated  air  cannot 
be  endured  by  man  for  more  than  two  or  three  minutes.  Those  men  who 
dive  for  sponges  in  the  Mediterranean  *  probably  carry  this  endurance  as 
far  as  any;  the  usual  duration  of  the  dive  is  two  minutes,  and  three  and  a 
half  is  its  utmost  extent.  It  is  known  to  ph\'siologists  that  an  increased 
amount  of  oxygen  can  be  introduced  into  the  blood  by  simply  accelerat- 
ing the  breathing,  without  altering  the  dejjth  of  inhalation.  Putting  this 
principle  into  practice,  "  the  diver,  standing  naked  in  the  boat,  with  the 
greatest  earnestness  practises  inflating  his  chest  to  the  utmost  for  about 
ten  minutes,  and,  when  the  blood  is  thoroughly  oxygenated  by  this  means, 
seizes  the  stone,  and  plunges  headlong  into  the  sea.  "When  he  is  at  a 
great  depth,  he  often  remains  until  he  feels  the  sensation  of  drowning, 
the  desire  to  sleep.  Alarmed  by  this  last  symptom  of  exhausted  nature, 
he  jerks  the  rope,  and  is  hastily  pulled  to  the  surface  by  his  companions 
in  the  boat  above;  if  he  loses  the  rope,  he  is  usually  too  heavily  weighted 
with  sponges,  and  is  drowned.  The  return  to  the  surface,  where  the 
pressure  is  so  much  reduced,  causes  the  blood  to  flow  from  mouth,  nostrils, 
and  eyes;  and  this,  and  the  absence  of  normal  respiration  for  so  long  a 
time,  brings  on  a  fainting-fit,  which  lasts,  according  to  the  depth,  for  a 
shorter  or  longer  time." 

The  sensible  effects  of  an  atmosphere  which  is  gradually  becoming 
polluted  by  the  human  breath  and  perspiration  are  well  described  by 
R.  A.  Smith,  from  whom  the  following  is  extracted.  The  experiment 
was  made  in  a  closed  chamber  of  lead,  containing  (allowing  for  one  per- 
son and  a  chair  and  table)  170  cubic  feet  of  air  ; 

"  The  first  trial  of  the  chamber  was  made  by  simply  sitting  down  for 
an  hour  and  forty  minutes.  This  produces  about  one  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonic acid.  The  day  was  clear  and  the  air  pleasant;  the  temperature 
45°  F.  Xo  difference  was,  to  a  certainty,  perceptible  for  twenty-five 
minutes.  Then,  when  the  air  was  drawn  from  the  top  by  means  of  an 
umbrella,  it  seemed  like  a  soft  wind,  and  had,  to  some  extent,  a  pleasant 

'  A.  Hyatt:  G-uides  to  Science-teaching,  No.  III.,  published  by  the  Boston  So- 
ciety of  Natural  Historj^,  1879. 


620  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

feeling,  but  was  entirely  devoid  of  a  faculty  of  cheering.  A  du-U,  cheer- 
less air  is  well  known.  Here  we  had  it  produced  at  once.  The  air  was 
very  moist,  and  deposited  water  when  drawn  out  through  a  tube  on 
taking  a  specimen.  After  an  hour  the  unpleasant  smell  of  organic  mat- 
ter, such  as  is  so  well  known  in  a  crowded  school,  was  perceptible  on  step- 
ping rapidly  from  one  end  to  tlie  other,  or  on  moving  the  air  rapidly. 
Here  we  learn  that  when  a  current  of  air  blows  on  us  the  chemical  actions 
accumulate,  and,  although  if  continued  for  one  instant  only,  they  may  be 
imperceptible,  if  repeated  for  many,  they  culminate  in  a  sensation.  .  ,  . 
If  the  chemical  action  began  at  the  first  so  violently  as  to  produce  decided 
sensations,  he  might  be  able  to  avoid  it  at  once  before  it  produces  any 
abiding  impression.  For  this  reason  a  bad  climate  is  more  dangerous 
than  the  fumes  of  vitriol,  when  we  are  at  all  able  to  move  out  of  the  way." 

"  It  was  very  decidedly  perceived,  after  remaining  an  hour,  that  the 
air  was  soft  when  made  to  move  in  this  chamber.  This  arose  from  the 
moisture,  and  shows  us  at  least  that  a  soft  air  may  be  a  very  impure  one. 
Soft  air,  air  with  a  good  deal  of  vapor,  is  very  soothing;  it  calms  the  mind 
and  the  body  and  [checks]  the  burning  of  a  candle  or  a  fire.  In  this  state  it 
cannot  be  very  cold,  as  the  warmth  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  vapor. 
This  air  has  a  tendency  to  leave  the  skin  and  its  action  unchanged;  it 
causes  little  evaporation ;  and  perhaps  an  influence  is  due  to  this,  that  the 
amount  of  oxygen  introduced  into  the  lungs  is  diminished,  whilst  no  in- 
jurious ingredient  is  added.  I  think  I  hear  the  question.  Will  not  the 
air  in  the  lungs  decide  for  itself  at  once  how  much  vapor  there  shall  be, 
as  there  is  such  an  abundant  moist  surface'?  The  entrances  to  the  lungs — 
that  is,  the  nostrils  and  the  mouth — feel  the  moisture  with  great  clearness; 
and  when  the  air  is  dry  they  are  dried  up.  But  the  lungs  seem  to  feel  it 
also;  and  it  seems  a  common  thing  to  know  the  difference  in  the  respira- 
tion. Dry  air  stimulates  the  skin,  because  it  removes  the  moisture;  and 
the  skin  must  set  to  work  to  renew  it.  Dry  air,  therefore,  would  in  this 
respect  be  in  its  first  action  cheering,  and  in  its  last  irritating.  Moist  aii* 
would,  from  this  point  of  view,  be  calming  in  its  action,  and  often  at  once 
calming  to  languor,  probably  preservative  of  the  vital  powers  which  are 
not  frittered  away  by  a  constant  irritation.     I  speak  only  as  a  chemist. 

"  After  staying  in  the  chamber  for  100  minutes,  the  air  had  an  un- 
pleasant flavor  or  smell,  and  I  came  out;  three  persons  entered  at  once, 
and  pronounced  it  very  bad;  I  entered  after  a  minute,  and  found  it  very 
bad.  It  seemed  to  me,  however,  that  we  are  frequently  exposed  to  air 
equally  bad,  although  I  have  not  found  any  in  daily  life  so  much  deprived 
of  oxygen  as  this  must  have  been,  reduced,  that  is,  to  twenty  per  cent. 

"  I  was  extremely  glad  of  the  escape  from  this  impure  air;  this  glad- 
ness not  arising  from  any  previous  discomfort,  I  was  not  uncomfortable. 
T  chose  that  time  of  coming  out,  as  it  was  the  moment  when  the  organic 
matter  was  most  distinctly  perceptible;  still,  to  perceive  it  when  quiet 
required  attention.  The  pleasure  on  coming  out  was  one  wholly  unex- 
pected; although  I  now  recognize  it  as  exactly  that  which  one  has  when 
walking  home  on  a  fine  evening  after  leaving  a  room  which  has  been 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  621 

crowded — it  was  the  reassertiou  of  tlie  rights  of  oxidation;  the  blood  was 
evidently  in  active  change  desirous  to  take  up  a  position  tliat  was  lost, 
else  why  was  this  feeling  of  unusual  delight  in  the  mere  act  of  breathing, 
which  feeling  continued  for  four  hours  ?  Dinner  seems  to  have  first  re- 
moved it.  From  the  long  time  required  to  bring  the  functions  of  breath- 
ing to  their  former  state,  we  may  of  course  argue  that  they  had  been 
much  disturbed.  ...  In  about  four  hours  the  lungs  recovered  their 
tone.  By  the  tone  is  meant  their  unconscious  working.  Food  seemed  to 
be  more  than  usually  required,  and  was  followed  with  unusual  rapidity 
by  the  feeling  of  refreshment.  Now,  as  there  was  no  unusual  bodily  ex- 
ertion, the  demand  could  not  arise  from  an  unusual  wear  of  the  system, 
and  indeed  the  peculiar  feeling  was  rather  a  need  of  support  than  actual 
hunger  demanding  food." 

In  other  experiments  upon  persons  sitting  in  the  "hermetically  closed 
room,  Smith  found  that  "  carbonic  acid  and  other  emanations  from  the 
person  diminish  the  circulation,  and  hasten  the  respiration,  and  that 
the  effect  is  perceiDtible  in  a  very  short  time,  when  the  percentage  of 
carbonic  acid  reaches  .18  [=18  in  10,000],  or  say  one-fifth  of  a  per  cent, 
certainly.  If,  however,  we  do  not  wish  to  infer  too  much  from  one  beat 
of  the  pulse,  let  us,  for  rough  practice,  say  ^  per  cent.  We  may  infer  also 
that  smaller  quantities  will  show  their  consequences  after  a  longer  time." 

The  result  of  continued  breathing  of  air  in  confined  spaces  is  well 
known  to  be  fatal  after  a  certain  time.  In  the  year  1846,  a  large  number 
of  English  troops  perished  thus  on  board  of  the  transport  "Maria  Somes," 
having  been  confined  below  hatches  during  a  storm,  without  fresh  air. 
Two  hundred  passengers  on  the  English  steamer  "  Londonderry,"  in  1848, 
were  confined  in  so  small  a  space  that  each  person  had  scarcely  four  cubic 
feet  of  air;  of  these,  seventy -two  died.  The  "Black  Hole  "  of  Calcutta 
has  passed  into  a  proverb. 

The  symptoms,  systematically  analyzed,  of  such  poisoning  are  as  fol- 
lows (Eulenberg): 

1st  stage:  Oppression  in  breathing  and  anxious  restlessness.  In  many 
persons  the  first  symptoms  are  giddiness,  noise  in  the  ears,  photopsia. 
Confusion  and  oppression  of  the  head  increase  until  the  jDerson  cannot 
stand.  Sometimes  with  this  there  is  associated  a  kind  of  hilarious  intoxi- 
cation with  hasty  speech  and  restless  gestures,  which  may  give  place  to 
heavy  sleep  when  the  person  is  recovering. 

2d  stage:  Spasms.  These  are  not  usually  so  characteristic  as  in  the 
case  of  carbonic  oxide. 

3d  stage:  Asphyxia. 

4th  stage:  If  removed  from  the  bad  air,  recovery  occurs  speedily  and 
perfectly.  Miners,  however,  observe  certain  after-symptoms,  including 
gastric  disturbances,  headache,  photopsia  and  ringing  in  the  ears. 

"  When  air  more  moderately  vitiated  by  respiration  is  breathed  for  a 
longer  period,  and  continuously,  its  effects  become  complicated  with  those 
of  other  conditions.  Usually  a  person  who  is  compelled  to  breathe  such 
an  atmosphere  is,  at  the  same  time,  sedentary,  and,  perhaj^s,  remains  in  a 


622  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

constrained  position  for  several  hours,  or  possibly  is  also  under-fed  or  in- 
temperate. But  allowing  the  fullest  effect  to  all  otlier  agencies,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  breathing  the  vitiated  atmosphere  of  respiration  has  a 
most  injurious  effect  on  the  health.  Persons  soon  become  pale,  and  par- 
tially lose  their  appetite,  and  after  a  time  decline  in  muscular  strength 
and  spirits.  The  aeration  and  nutrition  of  the  blood  seem  to  be  interfered 
with,  and  the  general  tone  of  the  system  falls  below  par.  Of  special 
diseases  it  appears  pretty  clear  that  pulmonary  affections  are  more  com- 
mon."    (Parkes:   Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene.) 

Transfer  of  oxygen  to  the  system,  and  excretion  of  carbonic  acid. — 
This  is  effected  in  the  act  of  respiration.  The  air  parts  with  oxygen, 
which  by  the  usual  process  of  endosmosis  passes  through  the  walls  of  the 
pulmonary  vesicles  and  the  capillaries  to  the  red  corpuscles,  in  which  it 
enters  into  a  loose  combination  with  the  haemoglobin,  in  the  proportion 
of  l.TG  c.c.  to  1  grm.  of  the  latter.  By  an  equally  facile  change,  the  gas 
is  given  off  to  the  tissues  of  the  body  in  exchange  for  carbonic  acid.  The 
deadly  effects  of  carbonic  oxide  are  due  to  the  fact  that  it  combines  with 
the  ha?moglobin  with  such  eagerness  as  almost  to  prevent  the  oxygen 
from  entering  into  combination  when  inhaled,  even  after  the  poison  has 
been  removed  from  the  air.  It  "paralyzes"  the  red  blood-corpuscles 
(Bernard),  and  the  result  is  death  by  suffocation.  The  relief  of  asphyxia 
by  carbonic  oxide  is  effected  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  drowning, 
viz.,  by  artificial  respiration,  whereby  successive  though  small  quantities 
of  oxygen  are  introduced  into  the  system,  until  the  poison  is  eliminated. 

Sulphuretted  liydrogen  produces  effects  resembling  those  of  carbonic 
acid,  but  in  a  different  manner;  it  acts  as  a  reducing  agent. 

"  It  is  believed  that  the  blood-corpuscles  possess  the  power  of  ozonizing 
the  oxygen  inhaled,  peroxide  of  hydrogen  being  formed  by  its  combina- 
tion with  water.  This  compound  is  again  decomposed  into  water  and 
oxygen,  which  oxygen  in  its  nascent  state  serves  for  the  purposes  of  oxi- 
dation (of  tissue).  It  is  certain  that  both  blood  and  haemoglobin  have 
the  power  of  setting  free  the  oxygen  absorbed  by  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
that  blood-globules  act  similarly  on  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  The  nascent 
oxygen  thus  evolved  is  capable  of  acting  on  such  bodies  as  potassic  iodide 
and  starch,  tincture  of  guaiacum,  etc.  In  fact,  Schonbein  taught  that 
the  function  of  the  blood-corpuscles  was  the  chemical  excitement  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  respired  air.  If  haemoglobin  be  mixed  with  alcohol  or 
heated  to  212°  F.,  it  then  loses  the  power  of  decomposing  the  peroxide. 
Thus  it  is  held  that  there  is  perpetually  going  on,  in  the  animal  organism, 
the  formation  and  destruction  of  ozone  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  The 
solution  of  the  corpuscles  and  their  alteration  into  other  products  is  be- 
lieved to  be  due  to  the  ozone.  These  products  have  no  longer  any 
plastic  property,  and  in  this  way  Schmidt  believes  that  the  fluidity  of 
blood  is  maintained.  (Schonbein,  Schmidt,  Schreiber,  etc.) ' "  These 
statements  may  be  considered  as  questionable, 

>  C.  Meymott  Tidy,  1.  c. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  623 

-It  would  appear  that  the  injurious  effects  of  carbonic  acid  in  respired 
air  are  due  to  the  fact  that,  for  purely  physical  reasons,  it  lessens  the  ex- 
change of  carbonic  acid  for  oxygen,  in  the  red  globules.  It  does  not  do 
this  by  pre-occupying  the  latter,  for  it  seems  to  be  held  in  solution  in  the 
entire  blood  or  in  the  serum,  indifferently,  and  under  the  general  laws  of 
solution  ;  and  as  soon  as  a  pure  air  is  supplied,  it  is  ready  to  pass  off  at 
once.  The  addition  of  oxygen  in  excess,  furthermore,  counteracts  an 
excess  of  carbonic  acid.  Regnault  and  Reiset  found  that  animals,  in  air 
containing  one  and  a  half  or  two  times  the  ordinary  proportion  of  ox^^gen, 
even  if  the  carbonic  acid  equalled  17-23  per  cent,  of  the  air,  suffered  no 
injury  after  the  lapse  of  22-26  hours. 

The  effects  of  inhalation  of  carbonic  oxide  are  described  as  follows  by 
Eulenberg  : 

1st  stage :  Stupefaction.  Sometimes  begins  with  great  restlessness, 
increased  breathing,  accelerated  beat  of  the  heart,  followed  in  animals  by 
giddiness,  tottering  gait,  and  tendency  to  fall.  Sometimes  the  animal 
picks  himself  up  again  ;  at  last  he  is  unable  to  do  so. 

2d  stage  :  Convulsions.  These  are  very  frequent,  and  are  only  absent 
when  the  quantity  inhaled  is  very  small  and  the  period  protracted.  They 
may  be  partial  or  general. 

3d  stage  :  Asphyxia,  which  comes  on  with  a  rapidity  proportioned  to 
the  dose. 

The  chemist  Chenot,  having  accidentally  inhaled  a  single  breath  of 
gas,  fell  on  his  back  to  the  ground  as  if  struck  by  lightning;  his  eyes 
were  rolled  in  their  sockets,  and  his  extremities  drawn  up.  In  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  external  sensation  returned,  with  a  feeling  of  cold  and  suffo- 
cation. A  heavy  sweat  covered  his  whole  body;  while  a  peculiar  hyperees- 
thesia  of  the  brain  existed. 

Carbonic  oxide  is  known  to  be  often  present  in  minute  quantities  in 
the  air  of  inhabited  rooms,  proceeding  from  defects  in  furnaces  or  stoves, 
and  to  some  extent  from  the  imperfect  combustion  of  illuminating  ma- 
terial. Being  a  frequent  ingredient  of  illuminating  gas,  it  may  enter  a 
room  through  a  leak,  or  through  the  sides  of  flexible  tubes.  It  has  been 
found  in  tobacco-smoke.  Many  people  suffer  from  small  amounts;  the 
effects  commonly  attributed  to  its  action  in  ordinary  life  are,  giddiness, 
headache,  and  prostration  of  strength.  It  exists  in  the  smoke  of  a  glow- 
ing candle-wick.  Death  occasionally  results  from  the  careless  use  of 
braziers  containing  charcoal,  so  commonly  used  in  Southern  Europe :  King 
Alfonso  very  nearly  lost  his  life  from  this  cause,  a  few  years  ago,  in  Spain. 
The  danger  of  closing  the  chimney-draught  of  a  stove  arises  chiefly  from 
the  probability  that  quantities  of  this  gas  will  be  thrown  back  into  the 
room.  The  fuel  (anthracite,  wood,  coke,  charcoal,  soft-coal),  which  burns 
readily  and  without  carbonic  oxide  while  abundant  fresh  air  is  supplied, 
gives  rise,  when  the  draught  is  checked,  to  the  half -oxidized  product  (CO 
instead  of  CO2).  In  no  case  can  we  say  that  a  given  fire  produces  no 
carbonic  oxide.  For  example,  in  a  bed  of  live  coals,  ten  inches  deep,  we 
know  that  it  exists  in  abundance  in  the  central  layers,  where  oxygen  is 


624  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

deficient  in  amount  ;  it  issues  in  quantities  from  the  upper  layer,  where, 
again  meeting  with  air,  it  becomes  further  oxidized  or  burnt,  making  a 
blue  or  yellowish  flame,  characteristic  of  the  perfect  combustion  of  anthra- 
cite and  charcoal,  and  forming  carbonic  acid. 

The  best  method  of  determining  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the 
air  is  that  of  Pettenkofer,  as  given  in  Lange  (Ueber  natiirliche  Ventila- 
tion) and  in  Parkes'  Hygiene,  originally  in  Pettenkofer  (Ueber  Liif tung 
und  Heizung  von  Eisenbahnwagen) ;  also  in  Wolffhiigel:  Ueber  die  Prii- 
fung  von  Ventilations- Apparaten.  The  process  consists  in  absorption  of 
the  carbonic  acid,  contained  in  a  bottle  of  given  size  filled  with  the  air  to 
be  tested,  by  the  hydroxide  of  an  alkaline  earth,  and  titration  with  oxalic 
acid.  Lime-water  may  be  used,  but  baryta-water  is  preferable.  A  more 
simple  method,  however,  is  desirable,  and  will  be  here  described,  being 
sufficient  to  determine  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  number  of  parts  in 
10,000  without  fractions.     It  is  given  as  proposed  by  Lange: 

The  test  depends  firstly  on  the  fact  that  carbonic  acid,  in  lime-water 
or  baryta-water,  causes  a  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime  or  barium,  which 
becomes  manifest  by  turbidity  of  the  solution,  previously  clear;  and,  sec- 
ondly, that  the  eye  does  not  jDerceive  this  turbidity  until  it  has  reached  a 
certain  point — which  may  vary  with  different  observers,  but  may  be  estab- 
ished  by  each  one,  arbitrarily,  for  himself.  The  richer  the  air  in  carbonic 
acid,  the  less  air  will  be  required  to  impart  a  distinct  turbidity  to  a  de- 
finite quantity  of  baryta-water.  In  making  the  test  he  uses  six  bottles, 
containing  respectively  450,  350,  300,  250,  200,  and  150  c.c.  The  bottles 
being  made  perfectly  clean  and  dry,  15  c.c.  of  clear  fresh  lime-water  is  put 
into  the  smallest,  the  cork  replaced,  and  the  bottle  Avell  shaken.  We 
next  observe  whether  a  turbidity  has  appeared;  if  not,  we  take  the  next 
larger  bottle,  go  through  the  same  process,  and  so  on,  until  a  bottle  is 
found  in  which  a  distinct  turbidity  appears.  It  is  well  to  acquire  by  pre- 
vious experiment  a  notion  of  the  appearance  of  a  fluid  which  is  just  be- 
coming turbid;  this  can  easily  be  done  by  performing  the  experiment  re- 
peatedly in  the  open  air,  in  the  garden,  etc.,  where  the  air  contains  just 
enough  to  give  rise  to  the  appearance.  Such  air  will  contain  say  4  or  5 
volumes  of  carbonic  acid  in  10,000;  certainly  not  so  much  as  6.  ^  The  air 
of  a  chamber  will  rarely  be  as  pure  as  that;  we  must  be  content  if  we  have 
to  use  the  second  bottle  (of  350  c.c),  before  opacity  occurs;  the  air  will 
then  contain  about  7  of  carbonic  acid  to  10,000,  and  we  may  perhaps  be 
content  with  even  the  third  (300  c.c),  which  indicates  8  parts.  But  if  the 
fourth  (250  c.c.)  is  made  turbid,  an  amount  of  nearly  10  in  10,000  is  in- 
dicated; the  fifth  (200  c.c.)  shows  12,  and  if  the  sixth  and  smallest  (150 
c.c.)  should  be  made  turbid,  there  are  at  least  16  volumes  of  carbonic 
acid  in  10,000  of  air,  which  renders  it  needless  to  employ  smaller  bottles. 
A  small  piece  of  paper,  marked  on  the  inside  with  a  cross  in  lead-pencil, 
may  be  gummed  to  the  side  of  the  bottle  at  the  lower  part;  the  fact  of 


'  But  compare  De  Chaumont's  table,  p.  613. 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE.  625 

turbidness  may  be  judged  of  by  the  cross  becoming  invisible  when  looked 
at  through  the  water. 

Another  method  requires  the  use  of  only  one  bottle,  of  the  size  of  50 
CO.,  with  a  cork  pierced  by  two  glass  tubes.  Seven  centimetres  of  baryta- 
water  (6  grms.  to  the  litre)  are  put  into  the  bottle,  and  successive  charges 
of  air  are  sucked  through  the  fluid  by  means  of  a  rubber-tube  and  ball- 
syringe  of  known  size  (wliich  gives  23  c.c.  of  air  when  pressed).  At  every 
successive  introduction  of  air  into  the  bottle,  the  latter  is  shaken  to  cause 
the  contained  carbonic  acid  to  combine  with  the  baryta.  The  gradations 
observed  are  finer  than  in  the  other  method,  being  as  follows  (beginning 
at  the  second  charge)  :  22,  17.6,  14.8,  12.6,  11,  9.8,  8.8,  8.0,  7.4,  6.8,  6.3, 
5.8,  5.4,  5.1,  4.9  parts  per  10,000.  The  method  is  given  with  details  by 
Lange,  op.  cit.  It  may  be  better  to  introduce  the  air  by  an  aspirator,  which 
is  a  tin  box  of  water,  with  a  tube  at  the  top,  which  can  be  connected  with 
the  bottle;  when  a  cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  turned,  a  measured 
amount  of  water  escaping  will  suck  an  equivalent  amount  through  the 
bottle. 

The  presence  of  carbonic  oxide  in  the  air  may  be  recognized  by  the 
spectroscopic  test,  as  given  by  H.  W.  Vogel.^  The  following  is  quoted 
from  Lange  :  "A  bottle  of  abovit  100  c.c.  capacity,  filled  with  water,  is 
emptied  in  the  room  of  which  the  air  is  to  be  tested  ;  then  2  or  3  c.c.  of 
water,  containing  blood,  are  poured  into  the  bottle.  The  amount  of  blood 
should  be  just  sufficient  to  impart  a  tinge  of  red,  but  should  give  the  well- 
known  absorption-band  in  the  spectroscope,  when  held  in  a  test-tube  of 
1.8  to  2  ctm.  in  thickness.  If  this  solution  be  shaken  in  the  bottle  for  a 
minute,  any  carbonic  oxide  that  may  be  present  will  demonstrate  its  exist- 
ence by  changing  the  color  of  the  blood,  which  will  become  of  a  stronger 
red  (rosa).  The  absorption-bands,  at  the  same  time,  are  a  little  paler, 
more  obliterated,  and  a  little  further  to  the  left,  than  in  pure  blood.  These 
appearances  are  enough  to  determine,  for  a  skilled  spectroscopic  analyst, 
the  presence  of  CO;  but  those  less  experienced  may  satisfy  themselves 
by  adding  three  or  four  drops  of  strong  sulphuret  of  ammonium,  which 
makes  the  two  lines  disappear  in  blood  which  is  free  from  carbonic  oxide, 
their  places  being  supplied  by  a  broad,  pale  (verwaschen)  shadow  ;  while 
the  bands  in  blood  impregnated  with  carbonic  oxide' are  unaffected  by  sul- 
phuret of  ammonium." 

Ktihne  '^  states  that  carbonic  oxide-gas,  combined  with  haemoglobin, 
causes  the  absorption-band  a  to  move  toward  the  line  E  of  Frauenhofer: 
blood  containing  this  element  is  not  darkened  by  any  of  the  reducing 
agents,  and  the  bands  a  and  (3  remain  without  the  appearance  of  the 
shadow  y. 

Bottcher's  reaction '  for  carbonic  oxide  depends  on  the  production  of 
a  black  color  in   a  strip  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  first  saturated  with  a 

'  Berichte  der  deutschen  chemischen  G-esellschaft,  1877,  No.  8,  p.  793. 
'  Lehrbuch  der  physiologiscben  Chemie,  1868. 
s  Journ.  fiir  prakt.  Chemie,  Bd.  76,  pp.  233  and  234. 
VoT..  I.— 40 


6SJ6  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

moderately  concentrated  solution  of  cliloride  of  palladium,  then  superfici- 
ally dried  between  blotting-paper,  and  then  exposed  to  the  air  to  be  tested. 
The  blacking  should  appear  within  a  few  minutes.  Gottschalk  '  has  modi- 
fied this;  he  uses  sodio-chloride  of  palladium,  and  passes  the  air  by  aspira- 
tion through  a  solution  of  the  salt. 

MiSCELLAIfEOUS    ImPUEITIES    IX    THE    AlR. 

This  part  of  the  subject  is  by  no  means  free  from  complexity.  The 
number  of  substances  already  known  to  exist,  in  various  ways,  in  the  air, 
is  very  great.  Some  of  them  are  found  in  a  form  and  under  circumstances 
which  enable  us  to  state  that  their  origin  is  inorganic;  such,  for  instance, 
are  the  chloride  of  sodium  and  other  salts,  found  in  the  purest  sea-air. 
Others,  though  composed  of  the  same  (inorganic)  elements,  are  traceable 
to  the  decomposition  or  combustion  of  organic  matter;  such  are  the 
chlorides  and  sulphates  found  near  large  cities.  In  fact,  the  changes  un- 
dergone in  the  air  by  many  substances  are  so  rapid,  that  it  is  not  possible 
to  classify  them  strictly  by  reference  to  their  origin.  We  shall,  therefore, 
first  enumerate  the  substances  found  in  air,  according  to  their  condition, 
as  solid,  gaseous,  or  in  solution. 

Solid  Impurities. 

Foreign  ingredients  in  the  solid  form  are  brought  into  the  air  in  vari- 
ous ways.  As  dust,  they  are  taken  up  from  the  soil  by  the  wind,  and  are 
thus  often  transported  for  hundreds  of  miles.  African  organisms  have 
been  found  in  the  air  of  Berlin.  In  certain  parts  of  the  world,  the  prev- 
alence of  winds  in  a  given  direction  for  long  periods  has  effected  a  change 
in  the  natural  features  of  the  landscape,  and  has  produced  a  stratified 
deposit  of  great  thickness  (loess),  ascribed  to  the  accumulation  of  solid 
particles  conveyed  by  the  wind  from  distant  plains.  Depositing  its  burden 
of  dust,  the  air  in  process  of  time  fills  up  the  valleys,  and  converts  the 
country  into  a  nearly  level  plain,  rising  gently  to  the  central  continental 
elevation.  Such  an  origin  is  ascribed  to  the  great  plains  which  extend 
from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  the  steppes  of  China 
and  Central  Asia  (Von  Richthofen). 

The  discharge  from  volcanoes,  as  is  well  known,  may  also  travel  sev- 
eral hundreds  of  miles  through  upper  strata  of  air,  finally  appearing  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  as  showers  of  dust. 

The  debris  of  vegetation,  in  a  pulverulent  state,  occurs  in  large 
amounts  in  the  air,  and  both  animal  and  vegetable  organisms  abound.  It 
is  next  to  impossible  to  obtain  air  that  is  quite  free  from  some  of  this  class 
of  impurity. 

The  injury  inflicted  on  the  system  by  these  substances  is  difficult  to 
state  ;  but,  while  we  know  the  desirableness  of  pure  air,  we  must  also 


Ueber  die  Nachweisbarkeit  des  Kohlenoxydes,  1877. 


THE    ATMOSPIIEIIE.  G27 

admit  that  a  moderate  amount  of  mineral  impurity  of  a  neutral  sort  is 
borne  without  manifest  injury.  Of  the  injury  received  by  inhaling 
certain  special  matters — carbon,  arsenic  (arseniuretted  hydrogen  ?),  lead, 
antimony,  and  other  poisonous  or  irritating  substances  in  powder, — an 
account  will  be  given  in  another  part  of  this  work,  under  Diseases  of 
Occupation. 

Among  the  substances  found  in  dust,  are  to  be  named  silica,  silicate 
of  alumina,  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  peroxide  of  iron,  and  other 
minerals,  from  the  soil,  in  an  unchanged  condition.  Particles  of  iron 
stripped  or  rubbed  from  the  rails,  may  be  detected  in  the  air  of  a  railroad- 
train.  Paint,  cement,  ashes,  stone-dust,  shell-dust,  and  various  metals  in 
a  minutely  subdivided  form,  may  be  similarly  found  in  certain  workshops 
and  offices,  giving  rise  to  a  variety  of  special  diseases. 

From  the  burning  of  soft  coal  come  large  quantities  of  tar  and  soot, 
estimated  by  Smith  to  equal  one  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  fuel. 
These  are  very  slow  in  passing  off,  being  too  heavy  to  rise  high  or  drift 
far.  iVs  a  rule  (Parkes),  the  particles  of  carbon  are  not  found  higher 
than  600  feet. 

The  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  furnish  a  great  variety  of  material 
for  "  dust." 

Among  these  may  be  mentioned  certain  minute  animals,  that  live  in  the 
air,  or  may  have  been  lifted  from  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  ascen- 
sional force  of  evaporation.  Fragments  of  insects  are  found.  Ehrenberg 
has  discovered  individuals  of  the  rhizopods,  tardigrades,  and  anguillulas, 
which,  when  dried,  retain  their  vitality  for  months  and  years  ;  and  in 
dust-showers  he  has  found  some  hundreds  of  forms,  classed  as  polygastrica, 
phytolithari^e,  etc. 

Bacteria,  vibriones,  and  monads,  are  found  very  frequently. 

From  the  vegetable  kingdom  come  the  seeds  and  debris  of  vegetation ; 
pollen,  cutic^^la^  scales,  vegetable  fibres  and  hairs,  seed-capsules,  globular 
cells,  etc.,  etc.;  the  spores,  rarely  the  mycelium,  of  fungi;  mycoderms 
and  mucedines,  volatile  substances  and  odors,  the  cells  of  protococcus  plu- 
viatilis,  and  perhaps  of  other  alga3.  And  of  the  lowest  orders  of  life  we 
find  diatoms  and  living  infusoria,  and  those  extremely  minute  and  oval 
cells,  probably  growing  by  cleavage,  called  microzymes. 

The  air  of  streets  often  contains  considerable  quantities  of  vegetable 
fibre  from  horse-droppings. 

In  enclosed  spaces,  where  many  persons  are  living,  we  may  find  scaly 
epithelium,  round  cells  resembling  nuclei,  animal  and  vegetable  fibres 
(wool  and  cotton),  starch,  and  other  elements  of  food,  hair,  wood,  coal, 
pus-globules,  fatty  crystals,  and  bacteria,  both  free  and  in  the  zoogloeal 
form.  Under  more  special  conditions  we  find — in  skin- wards,  achorion, 
the  spores  and  mycelium  of  trichophyton,  variolous  corpuscles  ;  in  phthisi- 
cal wards,  cells  like  those  seen  in  tuberculous  matter  (Watson). 

Some  amorphous  substances  may  be  the  remains  of  animal  bodies  or 
animal  discharges. 

The  power  of  vital  resistance  possessed  by  certain  low  organisms  is 


628  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

most  remarkable.  Messrs.  Dallinger  and  Drysdale^  have  found  that  the 
sporules  of  certain  cercomonads  resist  an  exposure  to  a  dry  heat  above 
that  of  boiling  water,  in  one  case  retaining  life  at  250°  F.,  in  another  at 
300°  F.  These  germs  are  of  excessive  minuteness,  not  exceeding  YTowiTo 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  repeating  the  experiments  a  few  years  sub- 
sequently,^  a  similar  result  was  reached;  the  S23ores  of  a  certain  form  of 
cercomonad  lived  at  248°  dry  heat,  and  220°  moist  heat;  the  adult  forms 
were  killed  at  142°. 

According  to  Carpenter  ^  the  rotifers,  tardigrades,  and  anguillulje 
possess  the  power  of  revival  after  desiccation  for  however  remote  a  time. 

Petit  *  has  found  that  diatoms,  collected  with  the  soil  which  bore  them, 
and  allowed  to  dry  under  exposure  to  the  sun  for  six  and  eight  months, 
preserved  their  vegetative  power.  It  seemed  to  be  necessary,  however, 
that  the  drying  should  be  gradual,  as  is  the  case  in  nature. 

These  statements  will  remind  the  reader  of  the  aj^plication  which  T^m- 
dall  and  others  have  made  of  our  knowledge  of  minute  organisms,  in 
establishing  a  "  germ  theory  "  of  disease.  Tyndall  ^  holds  that  the  pas- 
sage of  a  powerful  beam  of  light  through  air  is  the  best,  if  not  the  only 
absolute  test,  for  showing  the  presence  of  minute  particles,  such,  for  ex- 
ample, as  the  spores  previously  mentioned,  which  would  almost  certainly 
have  eluded  microscopical  search  if  they  had  not  been  watched  for  in  the 
act  of  escaping  from  the  j)arent  cell.  The  motes  in  the  air  are  what  ren- 
der the  beam  of  light  visible;  and  when  air  is  allowed  to  purify  itself  by 
simple  rest,  giving  the  motes  time  to  settle  and  adhere  to  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  containing  vessel,  it  is  found  that  the  beam  ceases  to  be  visi- 
ble. It  is  also  found  that  air  thus  purified,  by  standing  three  or  four  days, 
no  longer  possesses  the  power  of  exciting  putrefaction  in  infusions  of 
animal  and  vegetable  substances  previously  heated  to  a  sufficient  degree. 

The  bearings  of  this  discovery,  and,  in  fact,  of  the  whole  controversy 
concerning  "spontaneous  generation,"  are  obvious.  Lister  has  made  the 
practical  inference  that  by  exclusion  of  germs  from  the  large  surfaces  left 
after  amputations,  the  health  and  rapid  union  of  the  parts  can  be  secured; 
he  attains  his  object  by  operating  in  a  cloud  of  the  vapor  of  carbolic  acid 
and  by  the  purification  of  all  his  instruments  and  appliances  from  germs. 

Tyndall,  assisted  by  a  number  of  coadjutors,  experimented  upon  the 
effect  which  exposure  to  the  air  has  in  setting  up  the  process  of  decom- 
position in  animal  infusions  or  broths.  In  these  experiments  different 
series  of  test-tubes  were  exposed  in  various  places,  in  different  towns. 
In  all  that  were  exposed  to  the  air,  before  the  latter  had  been  purified  by 

^  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  Vols.  X.  and  XT. 

-  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  No.  187,  1878.  American  Journal  of  Micros- 
copy, Vol.  III.,  No.  8. 

^  The  Microscope  and  its  Revelations. 

■*  American  Journal  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  III. ,  No.  4. 

^  On  the  Optical  Deportment  of  the  Atmosphere  in  Reference  to  the  Phenomena  of 
Putrefaction  and  Infection.  Abstract  of  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  Janu- 
ary 13, 1876,  by  Prof.  Tyndall,  F.R.S.     American  Journal  Microscopy,  Vol.  I.,  No.  4. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  629 

settling,  there  were  found  bacteria,  or  penicillium.  As  a  general  rule, 
those  exposed  during  the  autumn  remained  for  two  days  or  more  per- 
fectly clear.  Doubtless  from  the  first,  germs  fell  into  them,  but  they  re- 
quired time  to  be  hatched.  This  period  of  clearness  may  be  called  the 
"period  of  latency,"  and,  indeed,  it  exactly  corresponds  with  what  is 
understood  by  this  term  in  medicine.  Toward  the  end  of  this  period  of 
latency,  the  fall  into  a  state  of  disease  is  comparatively  sudden,  the  in- 
fusion passing  from  perfect  clearness  to  cloudiness  more  or  less  dense  in 
a  few  hours. 

Another  remarkable  point  is  the  inequality  with  which  different  test- 
tubes  (in  a  series  of  100  exposed  at  once,  side  by  side)  seem  to  be  attacked 
by  these  germs.  In  one  experiment,  on  the  third  day,  twenty-seven  tubes 
had  been  attacked,  scattered  at  various  points  in  the  set.  On  the  next 
day  all  were  attacked,  but  the  differences  in  their  contents  were  extraor- 
dinary. All  of  them  contained  bacteria,  some  few  others  in  swarms.  In 
some  tubes  they  were  slow  and  sickly  in  their  motions,  in  some  apparently 
dead,  while  in  others  they  darted  about  with  rampant  vigor.  These  dif- 
ferences are  to  be  referred  to  changes  in  the  germinal  matter,  for  the  same 
infusion  was  presented  everywhere  to  the  air.  Here,  also,  we  have  a 
picture  of  what  occurs  during  an  epidemic.  The  air  which  communicates 
infection  to  the  test-tubes  may  be  supposed  to  contain  the  germs,  not  in 
uniform  diffusion,  but  in  masses  which  may  be  compared  to  clouds. 
Ehrenberg,^  in  1838,  made  the  same  comparison.  The  air  which  conveys 
the  infection  of  fevers  or  of  gangrene  may  be  similarly  presumed  to  con- 
tain, now  great  quantities,  and  now  scarcely  any,  of  the  organisms  in 
question  ;  and  in  a  room  containing  the  infection,  a  portion  of  the  air  may 
be  loaded,  while  other  portions  are  nearly  free,  which  would  explain 
anomalous  cases  of  escape  from  septic  or  zymotic  influences. 

Gaseous  Impurities. 

The  following  gaseous  compounds,  found  as  impurities  in  the  air,  are 
mentioned  by  Parkes: 

Of  carbon. — Carbonic  acid  (abnormal  if  exceeding  5  in  10,000  parts), 
carbonic  oxide,  carburetted  hydrog'en,  and  peculiar  substances  (gaseous) 
in  sewer  air. 

Of  sulphur. — Sulphurous  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
ammonium  sulphide,  and  carbon  bisulphide. 

Of  chlorine. — Hydrochloric  acid  from  alkali-works. 

Of  nitrogen. — Ammonia  and  ammonium  acetate,  sulphide,  and  car- 
bonate (normal  in  small  amount  ?),  and  nitrous  and  nitric  acids. 

Of  p>hosphoriis. — Phosphoretted  hydrogen. 

Sulphur  compounds. — Sulphur  exists  in  most  animal  substances,  and 
during  their  decomposition  forms  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphide  of 
ammonium.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  has  very  few  inorganic  sources,  and, 
leaving  out  coal,  may  be  taken  as  an  index  of  the  decomposition  of  ani- 

'  Infusions-Thierchen,  p.  525. 


630  THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 

mal  and  vegetable  matter.  ^Vhen  in  the  air,  freely  exposed  to  the  con- 
tact of  oxygen,  it  becomes  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphide  of  ammonium  in  the 
same  circumstances  becomes  a  sulphate,  Avhich,  encountering  common 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  produces  sulphate  of  soda  and  chloride  of  am- 
monium. The  sulphates  form  a  characteristic  ingredient  of  the  air  in 
manufacturing  (soft-coal  burning)  disti-icts. 

JS^itric  acid  is  produced  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  acting  on  ammonia, 
or  on  the  oi'ganic  substances  which  contain  nitrogen,  and  are  capable  of 
giviBg  out  ammonia  by  their  decomposition  (Smith).  Its  amount  varies, 
but  in  general  it  increases  in  the  upward  direction,  and  in  proportion  as 
that  of  ammonia  diminishes.  It  probably"  does  no  harm,  unless  present 
in  excessive  quantities,  and  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  whole- 
some gaseous  forms  in  which  nitrogen  and  hj^drogen  pass  into  the  air. 

A.riimon(a  is  commonly  given  off  during  the  decomjDOsition  of  organic 
substances,  unless  strong  oxidizing  influences  are  present;  it  appears  in 
combination  chiefly  as  a  carbonate  or  a  sulphide.  The  presence  of  oxygen, 
and  that  of  sulphuric  acid  also,  in  the  air  with  which  it  mingles,  converts 
these  bodies  into  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  undergoes  a  further  change 
upon  meeting  with  chloride  of  sodium — as  was  mentioned  under  sulphur. 
This  ammonia  is  a  sign  that  decomposition  has  occurred;  it  is  abundant 
in  foul  places,  as  privies. 

Ammonia  by  itself  in  minute  quantities  cannot  be  classed  as  a  morbi- 
fic agent.  It  is  not  disagreeable  to  all.  But  it  "has  very  bad  relations, 
and  keeps  very  bad  company;  and  if  it  increases  so  as  to  be  perceptible  to 
the  senses,  it  becomes  unpleasant,  and  of  course  unwholesome."     (Smith.) 

The  term  "  albuminoid  ammonia  "  designates  that  which  is  obtained 
from  organic  substances,  either  alive,  or  dead  and  in  decay.  An  excess 
in  air  is  a  suspicious  cii^cumstance;  but  we  cannot  always  tell  to  what 
such  excess  is  due. 

The  following  tables  are  given  by  Smith  as  results  of  analj^ses  of  air 
from  places  widely  differing  in  character.  The  figures  are  only  relative, 
showing  the  amount  present,  as  measured  by  reference  to  that  contained 
in  pure  air  from  Innellan,  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  taken  at  100: 


Total 
Ammonia. 

Not 
Albuminoid. 

Albuminoid. 

Innellan 

100 
112 
179 
202 
205 
234 
395 

100 

117 

194 
150 
235 
138 
643 

100 

London 

A  bed-room 

Grlasa"OW 

109 
173 
221 

Inside  and  outside  of  office 

Underground  Railway  (Metropolitan) 
A  midden 

193 
271 
301 

One  of  the  readiest,  though  not  in  all  senses  the  most  exact,  of  tests 
for  the  presence  of  organic  matter  in  air  consists  in  the  use  of  solutions 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  631 

of  permanganate  oC  potassium — a  salt  wliich  readily  parts  with  some  of 
its  oxygen  to  the  organic  matter,  and  in  doing  so  loses  the  rich  purple 
color  it  possesses  even  when  much  diluted.  In  one  respect  the  test  is  ex- 
act, for  we  can  state  the  amount  of  oxygen  which  has  been  subtracted; 
but  this  does  not  inform  us  whether  the  oxygen  has  been  taken  up  by 
sulphurous  acid  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  nitrous  acid,  tarry  matters, 
etc.;  or  whether  organic  matter  has  been  the  active  agent.  In  cases 
Avhere  organic  matters  alone  are  concerned,  the  process  is  one  not  suited 
to  the  use  of  non-professional  persons. 

There  are  several  ways  of  applying  the  principle.  One  is  to  use  a 
bottle  of  given  size,  and  find  the  amount  of  a  solution  of  permanganate 
(of  known  strength)  that  is  decomposed  by  the  air  contained.  Another 
Avay  is  to  pass  successive  volumes  of  air  through  a  solution,  and  noting 
the  amount  of  air  required  to  produce  the  decomposition;  here  the  im- 
purity of  the  air  will  be  inversely  proportioned  to  the  bulk  required. 
The  aspirator  may  projDerly  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

However  imperfect  this  method,  it  certainly  yields  valuable  indications, 
and  with  tolerable  constancy. 

A  ready  way  of  jDointing  out  the  existence  of  impurity  to  unskilled 
persons  is  to  wash  successive  volumes  of  air  with  the  same  water.  A 
milkiness  is  soon  observed  if  the  air  is  impure.  With  a  good  country  air 
the  test  invariably  requires  many  more  bottles  to  produce  the  impurity  in 
water,  than  is  the  case  in  poor  air. 

Aubnal  Exhalations. 

That  these  substances  probably  form  an  important,  though  minute, 
part  of  the  air  of  close  rooms,  and  also  that  they  are  in  some  way  closely 
connected  with  watery  vapor,  seems  to  be  admitted. 

Lange  states  that  water  collected  from  the  windows  of  ill-ventilated 
schools  and  barracks  becomes  putrid  after  standing  a  short  time.  In 
such  water  are  contained  the  elements  which  affect  our  senses  unpleasantly 
when  we  enter  confined  places,  whether  they  have  been  recently  occupied, 
or  whether  they  have  been  long  disused  and  shut  up.  Very  few,  if  any, 
places  exist  which  do  not  possess  their  own  special  odor,  perceptible  to 
those  who  have  a  fine  organization  in  respect  to  smell.  Whence  this 
odor  comes  is  often  extremely  hard  to  decide.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  it  may  in  part  be  traced  to  animal  deposits  on  furniture  and  walls, 
in  carpets,  cushions,  and  curtains.  The  freshness  of  a  kitchen  or  hospital 
ward  that  is  often  and  well  scrubbed  proceeds  from  the  frequent  removal 
of  surface  impurity,  whereby  the  air  of  the  room  is  brought  to  a  condition 
resembling  that  of  the  outer  air.  Furniture  that  has  been  long  neglected, 
when  polished,  may  be  stripped  of  a  dusky  glutinous  coating.  The  wood 
of  gymnastic  apparatus,  and  even  in  school-rooms,  if  not  washed  well,  has 
a  smell  of  perspiration  highly  characteristic. 

The  sources  of  this  organic  deposit  are  chiefly  the  perspiration  and 
the  breath. 


632  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

The  perspiration  contains  chloride  of  sodium  and  small  quantities  of 
other  inorganic  salts.  A  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  exhaled  in  this 
way:  10  grms.  in  twenty-four  hours,  according  to  Scharling,  4  grms.  ac- 
cording to  Aubert.  Among  the  substances  which  give  it  odor,  and  which 
are  noxious,  are  included  the  following  list  (and  others),  viz.:  acids  of 
the  fatty  series,  as  formic,  acetic,  butyric,  and  probably  propionic,  caproic, 
and  caprylic,  and  various  other  volatile  acids  in  small  quantity;  also,  neu- 
tral fats,  and  cholesterin;  ammonia  (urea),  and  possibly  other  nitrogenous 
bodies.     (Foster.)     This  statement  refers  only  to  the  condition  of  health. 

In  respiration,  various  imjDurities  in  small  amount  are  thrown  ofP, 
many  of  which  are  of  an  unknown  nature.  According  to  Lehmann,  such 
substances  as  alcohol,  phosphorus,  camphor,  and  ethereal  cils,  which  have 
been  taken  with  the  food,  are  not  infrequent  in  the  breath;  and  even 
when  no  such  substances  can  be  detected  in  the  food,  small  quantities  of 
an  organic  hydrocarbon  are  found  in  the  expired  air.  A  little  ammonia 
and  a  good  deal  of  water  are  also  jDresent.  But  the  jDoisonous  ingredients 
are  those  whose  j^recise  nature  is  unknown. 

The  organic  matter  from  the  lungs,'  when  drawn  through  sulphuric 
acid,  darkens  it  ;  through  permanganate  of  potash,  decolorizes  it ;  and 
through  pure  water,  renders  it  offensive.  Collected  from  the  air  by  con- 
densing the  watery  vapor  on  the  sides  of  a  globe  containing  ice  (as  by 
Taddei  in  the  wards  of  the  Santa  Maria  Novella),  it  is  found  to  be  pre- 
cipitated by  nitrate  of  silver,  to  decolorize  potassium  permanganate,  to 
blacken  on  platinum,  and  to  yield  ammonia.  It  is,  therefore,  nitrogenous 
and  oxydizable.  It  has  a  very  foetid  smell,  and  this  is  retained  in  a  room 
for  so  long  a  time  (sometimes  for  four  hours,  even  when  there  is  free  ven- 
tilation), as  to  show  that  it  is  oxydized  slowly.  It  is  probably  in  com- 
bination with  water,  as  the  most  hygroscopic  substances  absorb  most  of  it. 
It  is  absorbed  most  by  wool,  feathers,  damp  walls,  and  moist  paper,  and 
least  by  straw  and  horse-hair.  .  .  .  It  is  probably  not  a  gas,  but  is 
molecular  and  floats  in  clouds  through  the  air,  as  the  odor  is  not  always 
equally  diff'ased  through  a  room.  In  a  room  the  air  of  which  is  at  first 
perfectly  ]3ure,  but  is  vitiated  by  respiration,  the  smell  of  organic  matter 
is  generally  perceptible  when  the  CO,  reaches  7  per  10,000  parts,  and  is 
very  strong  when  it  amounts  to  10  parts. 

From  the  air  of  inhabited  rooms — and,  indeed,  from  air  in  general — 
when  drawn  througli  pure  water,  free  ammonia  and  ammonia  in  combina- 
tion with  organic  bodies  (albuminoid  ammonia)  may  be  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation with  alkaline  permanganate,  in  the  method  of  "SVanklyn.  A 
series  of  observations  upon  the  wards  of  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  by  De  Chau- 
mont,  gave,  in  milligrammes  per  cubic  metre  of  air,  0.3519-0.6680  of  free 
NH3  and  0.4710-0.6915  of  albuminoid  NH3,  the  external  air  containing 
0.3574  and  0.5280  respectively;  at  another  time  the  wards  contained  from 
0.000  to  0.0497  free,  and  from  0.2824  to  0.5259  albuminoid,  the  outer  air 
containing;  0.0163  and  0.5206.     Smith  found  in  the  air  of  a  bed-room,  at 


'  Parkes'  Hygiene. 


THE    ATMOSPHEKE.  633 

9  P.M.,  0.1901,  and  at  7  a.m.,  0.3340  inilligrms.  to  tlie  cubic  metre  =  83.074 
and  140.210  (/rains  to  a  iiiilllon  cubic  feet. 

The  animal  exhalations  in  the  air  of  crowded  rooms,  when  condensed 
upon  cold  glass,  together  with  the  atmospheric  vapor,  will  form,  if  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  some  time,  a  thick,  apparently  glutinous  mass;  but, 
■when  this  is  examined  by  the  microscope,  it  is  seen  to  be  a  closely-matted 
confervoid  growth,  or,  in  other  words,  the  organic  matter  is  converted 
into  conferva,  as  it  jDrobably  would  have  been  converted  into  any  kind  of 
vegetation  that  happened  to  take  root.  Between  the  stalks  of  these  con- 
fervfe  are  to  be  seen  a  number  of  greenish  globules  constantly  moving 
about,  various  species  of  volvox  accompanied  also  by  monads  many  times 
smaller.  Before  this  occurs,  the  odor  of  perspiration  may  be  distinctly 
perceived,  esj)ecially  if  the  vessel  containing  the  liquid  be  placed  in  boil- 
ing water. 

"  When  this  exhalation  from  animals  is  condensed  on  a  cold  body,  it 
in  course  of  time  dries  up,  and  leaves  a  somewhat  glutinous  organic 
plaster;  we  often  see  a  substance  of  this  nature  on  the  furniture  of  dirty 
houses,  and  in  this  case  there  is  always  a  disagreeable  smell  perceptible."  * 

This  substance  is  organic;  it  is  capable  of  oxidation,  and  doubtless 
undergoes  oxidation  in  the  air,  forming  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia. 

In  great  contrast  with  these  animal  organic  deposits,  stand  those  of 
vegetable  origin.  They  were  collected  in  the  dew  from  a  flower  garden, 
which  was  found  to  present,  on  boiling  down,  no  disagreeable  odor.  The 
small  solid  residuum,  when  exposed  to  heat,  had  a  smell  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter with  very  little  trace  of  any  nitrogenized  substance;  it  was  rather 
agreeable  than  otherwise.  The  dew  was  beautifully  clear  and  limpid;  the 
condensed  vapor  from  rooms,  on  the  other  hand,  was  thick,  oily,  and 
smelling  of  perspiration. 

The  escape  of  odors  into  the  air  is  facilitated  by  moisture,  as  is  well 
known.  Moisture  seems  also  to  increase  the  virulence  of  such  animal 
effluvia  as  may  be  connected  with  the  production  of  certain  hospital  dis- 
eases; for  instance,  in  military  ophthalmia,  erysipelas,  and  hospital  gan- 
grene. The  practice  of  frequently  washing  the  floors  of  hospitals  is  well 
known  to  increase  the  chance  of  erysipelas  (Parkes),  and  a  similar  practice 
on  ships  is  believed  to  favor  the  development  of  pulmonary  and  zymotic 
affections.      (Th.  J.  Turner.) 

It  is  remarked  by  Smith  that  air  soon  reaches  its  point  of  saturation 
with  the  organic  vapors  of  perspiration  and  breathing.^  His  inference  is 
that  their  poisonous  action  does  not  probably  increase,  after  a  certain 
point,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  breath  discharged  into  a  given 
volume  of  air;  the  excess  of  these  vapors  being  precipitated  in  a  liquid 
form  on  the  walls,  windows,  etc.,  in  the  room.  It  must,  however,  not  be 
overlooked,  that  such  precipitates  are  liable  to  become  the  source  of 
still  worse  mischief,  by  becoming  putrid  by  stagnation  in  a  warm  atmos- 

'  R.  A.  Smith :  Air  and  Rain. 

"^  Pettenkofer  :  Annalen  fiir  Chemie  und  Pharmacie,  18G2.     Sappl.  Bd. 


634  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

phere.  And  such  putrescence,  indicated  by  the  characteristic  sour  smell 
(fresh  perspiration  not  being  necessarily  offensive),  is  developed  in  a  very 
few  minutes,  either  in  the  air  or  upon  the  surface  of  the  body. 

In  such  cases  we  ought  to  discountenance  the  use  of  perfumes  or 
aromatic  fumigations,  and  to  la}^  all  the  stress  on  frequent  scrubbing,  on 
free  admission  of  air  and  sunlight.  The  first  of  these  measures  removes, 
the  second  dilutes,  the  third  chemically  disinfects,  the  organic  impurities. 
Cleanliness  of  the  person  and  clothes  is  a  most  important  factor  in  purity 
of  atmosphere;  it  is  very  hard,  even  with  abundant  means  of  ventilation, 
to  keep  the  air  of  a  school-room  in  a  wholesome  state  if  the  children  are 
dirty. 

Gaseous  impurity  arises  from  a  variety  of  decompositions  occurring  in 
soil,  in  rubbish,  in  animal  exhalations  and  excreta,  in  dead  organic  matter 
generally.  Wherever  men  are  massed  together,  such  impurity  is  likely 
to  exist.  It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that  such  is  an  inevitable  con- 
sequence of  crowding.  If  certain  limits  are  observed,  very  large  and  dense 
populations  may  retain  a  fair  degree  of  health,  provided  that  the  laws  of 
private  cleanliness  are  observed,  and  the  soil  and  air  protected  from 
public  nuisances. 

Among  the  natural  agencies  by  which  air  is  purified,  one  of  the  chief 
consists  of  the  dilution  consequent  on  the  process  of  diffusion.  An  open 
vessel  full  of  carbonic  acid  gas  will  be  found  in  a  few  hours  to  have 
emptied  itself  by  this  process.  Currents  of  air  and  winds  are  much  more 
important  than  diffusion  in  confined  and  frequented  places.  Neither  dif- 
fusion nor  winds,  however,  effect  a  purification,  strictly  speaking;  that  is 
accomplished,  to  a  large  extent,  by  re-combinations  occurring  in  the  air. 
by  which  noxious  gases  form  innocent  ones,  and  also  by  the  agency  of 
rain,  which  washes  out  almost  all  impurity,  and  deposits  it  in  the  soil, 
where  it  serves  as  food  for  plants. 

We  are  so  nearly  ignorant  of  the  exact  nature  of  the  morbific  ingre- 
dients in  bad  air,  that  we  are  obliged  to  be  content  with  analyses  which 
determine  a  few  of  the  principal  ingredients,  and  some  of  these  in  the 
roughest  way.  The  term  "albuminoid  ammonia,"  for  instance,  stands 
for  a  great  deal  of  ignorance  of  the  minute  composition  of  the  organic 
impurities  in  air.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  of  most  analyses  of  air  that 
they  chiefi}"  inform  us  in  regard  to  the  degree  to  which  dilution  of  the 
impurity  with  fresh  air  has  been  effected.  This  is  practically  a  most 
valuable  piece  of  knowledge,  for  whatever  may  be  the  materies  morbi, 
the  products  of  decay  become  harmless  if  sufficiently  diluted  with  fresh 
air. 

Main. — This  great  purifier  of  the  air  may  be  made  useful  by  the 
chemist  as  an  index  of  the  matters  suspended  in  air.  It  does  for  him  that 
which  he  does  less  effectually  with  his  bottle  and  aspirator.  As  illustrat- 
ing the  histor}^  of  the  impurities  of  air,  the  following  resume  of  conclu- 
sions by  R.  A.  Smith  is  here  given: 

1st.  The  rain  from  the  sea  (Western  Islands)  contains  chieflj  common 
salt,  which  crystallizes  clearly. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  635 

2d.  The  rain  contains  sulphates  in  larger  proportion  to  the  chlorides 
than  is  found  in  sea-water.  This  is  true  from  central  Germany  to  the 
most  northern  Hebrides. 

3d.  The  sulphates  increase  inland  before  large  towns  are  reached. 
They  seem  to  be  a  measure  of  the  products  of  decomposition,  the  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  from  organic  compounds  being  oxidized  in  the  atmos- 
jjhere  [and  forming,  first  SOo,  and  then  SO3].  In  other  words,  just  as  I 
believe  chlorides,  with  proper  deductions,  to  be  a  measure  of  the  sewage, 
however  old,  in  water,  so  I  believe  sulphates  to  be  a  measure  of  the  sew- 
age in  air,  unless  when  coal  interferes  too  much  to  permit  allowance  to  be 
made. 

4th.  The  sulphates  rise  very  high  in  large  towns,  because  of  the 
amount  of  sulphur  in  the  coal  used  as  well  as  of  decomposition.  [This 
statement  is  applicable  rather  to  "  soft,"  or  bituminous  coal,  than  to  that 
commonly  used  in  America,  anthracite.  The  atmosphere  of  our  cities, 
w^ith  few  exceptions,  is  very  little  contaminated  with  SO3.] 

5th.  As  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphide  of  ammonium  oxidize  in 
the  atmosphere,  the  sulphates  may  be  expected  to  increase  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  decomposing  organic  matter  containing  sulphur,  such  as 
albuminoid  compounds,  called  conveniently  by  a  name  now  less  used — 
protein. 

6th.  When  the  sulphuric  acid  increases  more  rapidly  than  the  ammo- 
nia, the  rain  becomes  acid. 

7th.  When  the  air  has  so  much  acid  that  two  or  three  grains  are  found 
in  a  gallon  of  the  rain-water,  or  forty  parts  in  a  million,  there  is  no  hope 
for  vegetation  in  a  climate  such  as  we  have  in  the  northern  parts  of  this 
country  (England). 

8th.  The  acid  is  calcvilated  as  dry  sulphuric,  but,  to  some  extent,  the 
agent  may  be  hydrochloric  rendered  free  by  the  suljohuric  acid  decompos- 
ing the  common  salt. 

9th.  Sulphate  of  soda  increases  in  the  rain  as  coals  are  burnt ;  and  if 
the  salts  are  heated,  chloride  of  ammonium  comes  off,  and  sulphate  of 
soda  remains. 

10th.  Chlorides  increase  with  the  burning  of  coal  to  a  perceptible  ex- 
tent, although  not  so  much  as  in  places  where  salt  is  decomposed,  whether 
in  alkali  or  other  works. 

11th.  Free  acids  are  not  found  with  certainty  where  combustion  or 
manufactures  are  not  the  cause. 

12th.  The  chlorides  and  sulphates  may  be  found  neutralized  even  where 
there  are  manufactures. 

13th.  By  attending  to  these  facts,  it  may  be  found  if  the  plants  in  any 
place  are  hurt  by  acid,  and  by  which  acid.  Other  acids  may  probably  be 
found  as  readily  as  the  two  mentioned. 

14th.  By  attending  to  the  amount  only  of  the  sulphates  and  chlorides, 
great  injustice  may  be  done.  The  acidity  and  the  average  of  the  district 
must  be  known. 

15th.  Ammoniacal  salts  increase  in  the  rain  as  towns  increase.     Thev 


636  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

come  partly  from  coal  and  partly  from  albuminoid  substances  or  protein 
decomposed. 

IGth.  The  albuminoid  substances  maybe  found  in  the  rain  even  by  the 
rude  experiment  of  burning  the  residue,  which  renders  unmistakable  their 
peculiar  odor;  but  they  may  also  be  recognized  and  estimated  by  the 
method  used  by  "Wanklyn  for  potable  water. 

17th.  Experiments  in  the  direction  here  indicated  may  enable  us  to 
study  and  express  in  distinct  language  the  character  of  a  climate,  and 
certainly  of  the  influence  of  cities  on  the  atmosphere. 

Combustion  of  coal. — The  products  of  the  combustion  of  coal  are  : 
carbon,  in  the  form  of  soot;  carbonic  acid,  and  carbonic  oxide,  elsewhere 
mentioned;  sulphur,  usually  oxidized,  and  rapidly  changing  from  SOj  to 
SO3 ;  carbon  bisulphide  ;  ammonium  sulphide  or  carbonate  ;  sometimes 
suljohuretted  hydrogen  ;  water. 

Some  of  these  vapors  are  most  destructive  to  vegetation.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  manufacturing  towns  in  the  north  of  England,  on  fields 
much  exposed  to  the  vapors,  it  is  said  that  handfuls  of  dead  grass  can  be 
pulled  ujj  in  the  spring  smelling  strongly  of  the  vapor  (Rothwell).  A 
remarkable  result  is  observed  in  wheat  exposed  to  acid  gases.  The  crop 
may  be  to  appearance  full  and  ripe  when  scarcely  a  trace  of  grain  is  to  be 
found.  This  dies  at  an  early  stage  and  withers  up,  while  the  rest  of  the 
plant  takes  its  apparently  usual  course.  Mosses  may  be  seen  to  grow  in 
the  acid-rain  of  towns  when  trees,  shrubs,  and  grasses  disappear.  "  Some- 
times in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind  we  have  observed  the  yoke- 
elm  and  the  wych-elm  damaged  at  a  distance  of  about  2,000  metres  from 
a  focus  of  acid  gas."     (Belgian  Commission,  1854-'55.) 

Another  nuisance,  perhaps  still  worse,  is  the  effect  upon  buildings. 
The  stones,  bricks,  and  mortar,  crumble;  iron  oxidizes,  and  cannot  be 
used  for  roofing;  bronze  is  rapidly  blackened,  and  articles  of  brass  are 
affected  to  a  great  depth,  losing  their  strength. 

Seioer-gas — or,  more  properly,  sewer-air — "  is  a  continually  varying 
mixture  of  the  gases  which  make  up  the  atmosphere,  and  a  relatively 
small  prof)ortion  of  certain  other  gases  which  are  formed  by  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  sewage,  together  with  aqueous  vapor  and  vapor  of  organic 
compounds;  this  mixture  of  gases  and  vapors  carries  with  it  a  greater  or 
less  amount  of  minute  solid  particles  held  in  suspension.  As  in  the  case 
of  all  gaseous  mixtures,  each  of  the  various  gases  diffuses  into  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere  independently  of  the  others,  and  when  exposed  to 
water  each  dissolves  according  to  its  own  degree  of  solubility.  The  or- 
ganic vapors  and  solid  particles  diffuse  much  less  readily,  and  deposit 
upon  various  solid  objects."     (Nichols.) 

In  sewers  the  products  of  decomposition  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
material  conveyed.  The  principal  gases  are  carbonic  acid  ;  marsh  gas, 
and  other  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  ;  ammonia;  carbonate  and 
sulphide  of  ammonium;  sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  nitrogen;  carbonic  oxide; 
and  organic  vapors,  compounds  of  carbon  and  ammonia.  The  proportions 
also  vary  very  greatly,  being  influenced  by  the  quantity  of  water,  the  tem- 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  637 

perature,  the  rate  of  flow,  the  amount  of  ventilation,  the  presence  of  ac- 
cumulated solids,  etc.  Marsh  gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  are  especially  found  when  access  of  fresh  air  is  impeded,  as  in 
close  sewers,  cesspools,  9,nd  privies. 

Some  of  these  gases  are  known  as  actively  poisonous;  they  have  re- 
peatedly produced  rapid  death,  or  dangerous  illness,  in  persons  engaged 
in  cleaning  out  the  places  where  they  were  generated.  In  a  well-arranged 
system  of  sewers  this  should  not  occur;  in  their  normally  perfect  condi- 
tion these  places  are  not  excessively  offensive,  nor  immediately  dangerous 
to  persons  entering  them.  Rapid  discharge  of  their  contents  before 
putrefaction  occurs,  frequent  floodings,  and  free  ventilation,  reduce  the 
sensible  foulness  of  sewers  to  a  trifling  point,  and  doubtless  diminish 
the  danger  of  "filth-disease."  But  no  amount  of  cleanliness  in  sewers 
can  make  it  safe  to  let  their  gases  leak  into  dwelling-houses.  We  possess 
at  present  no  chemical  tests  which  will  assure  us  that  a  given  specimen 
of  air  is  free  from  dangerous  ingredients.  The  "  materies  morbi,"  what- 
ever it  may  be,  of  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  typhoid,  etc.,  is  inferentially 
traced  to  sewer-air;  and  it  would  not  be  safe  to  suppose  that  such  mate- 
ries is  absent,  even  in  comparatively  pure  air  of  such  origin.  So  little 
can  be  considered  as  known,  that  even  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  a  most 
characteristic  product,  is  often  present  in  so  minute  a  quantity  as  to  be 
indistinguishable  by  analysis. 

We  are  not  obliged  to  suppose  that  the  ordinary  compounds  of  sul- 
phur, nitrogen,  etc.,  constitute  the  specific  cause  of  zymotic  disease  ;  for 
such  a  cause  we  may  rather  look  to  the  organic  vapors,  and  putrid  or- 
ganic solids  giving  rise  to  vapors,  and  perhaps  to  low  septic  forms  of 
organic  life. 

"We  know,"  says  R.  A.  Smith,  "that  the  minute  diminution  of  oxy- 
gen is  not  the  sole  cause,  although  it  may  not  be  entirely  harmless.  We 
know,  also,  that  this  impure  air  contains  more  carbonic  acid  than  pure 
air,  but  it  has  been  made  clear  that  this  carbonic  acid  is  not  the  cause  of 
infection.  We  may  give  up  the  ammonia-salts  and  nitrates,  because  we 
know  their  action  to  be  such  as  not  to  produce  infectious  diseases,  fevers, 
or  putrefaction,  or  even  special  diseases,  although  they  may  in  some  re- 
spect be  injurious  after  a  long  time.  None  of  the  gases  or  vapors  known 
to  us  can  be  imagined  to  be  guilty  from  any  property  of  theirs  hitherto 
found.  It  is  true  that  they  may  lie  low,  or  be  washed  down,  or  brought 
down,  by  rain  or  vapor,  so  as  to  be  found  in  the  evening  fogs.  Some  of 
these  may  be  injurious  to  health,  but  none  of  them  have  the  character  of 
albumen  capable  of  putrefaction,  and  they  can  be  included  neither  in  the 
Liebig  nor  in  the  Pasteur  theory,  while  their  characters  known  to  us  do 
not  throw  light  on  the  beginnings  or  progress  of  marsh-fevers  or  epidemics. 
We  may  speak  with  some  certainty  as  to  the  latter,  but  on  the  former — 
namely,  the  marsh-fevers — there  is  more  ignorance  to  be  acknowledged. 
.  .  .  That  some  evil  will  result  is,  however,  likely  enough,  from  the  great 
mixture  of  substances  in  the  evening  dew  of  a  rich  clime,  leaving  results 
independently  of  the  albuminous  decompositions  and  organisms,  but  the 


638  THE    ATMOSPHEKE. 

exact  knowledge  is  not  with  us.  Gases,  vapors,  albuminoid  substances, 
plants  and  animals,  must  all  jJroduce  their  peculiar  effect  on  the  atmos- 
phere." 

Illuminating  gas  is  now  so  much  used  that  its  manufacture  and  com- 
bustion must  be  ranked  as  important  sources  of  contamination  of  the 
air. 

In  the  manufacture  it  has  to  be  purified  from  carbonic  acid  (which 
lowers  its  illuminating  power),  and  from  gaseous  compounds  of  sulphur, 
which  give  rise,  in  burning,  to  the  corrosive  sulphurous  and  sulphuric 
acids.  The  removal  of  these  from  the  gas  is  effected  either  by  passing  it 
through  milk  of  lime,  or  through  moistened  slaked  lime  placed  in  trays. 
These  processes  are  resjDectively  called  the  moist  and  the  dry;  they  are 
very  effective,  but  give  rise  to  noxious  and  offensive  odors  upon  removal 
of  the  lime.  Another  process  consists  in  passing  the  gas  through  some 
mixture  containing  sesquihydrate  of  iron.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  so  effective 
as  the  lime  process,  but,  as  it  acts  by  fixing  the  sulphur,  there  is  little 
nuisance  produced;  besides  it  is  very  economical. 

Gas  thus  made  consists  (E.  S.  Wood)  chiefly  of  hydrogen  (40-50  per 
cent.),  marsh  gas  (35-45  per  cent.),  carbonic  oxide  (4:|— 7^  per  cent.), 
olefiant  gas  and  other  hydrocarbons  (4-8  per  cent.),  and  usually  very 
small  amounts  of  carbonic  acid  and  air.  Cannel  gas  has  about  the  same 
composition,  the  proportion  of  the  hydrogen,  marsh  gas,  and  olefiant  gas 
being  a  little  different.  The  last-named  gas  is  the  chief  illuminating 
ingredient. 

Parkes  gives  an  analysis  nearly  approaching  this,  as  follows  : 

"  Coal  gas,  when  fairly  purified,  is  composed  of — 

Hydrogen 40       -45 .  58 

Marsh  gas  (light  carb.  hydrogen) 35       -40 

Carbonic  oxide 3       -6.6 

Olefiant  gas  (ethylene) 3       -4 

Acetylene 2       -3 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 0.29-  1 .0 

Nitrogen 2       -2.5 

Carbonic  acid 3       -  3 .  75 

Sulphurous  acid ^      0.5-1.0 

Ammonia,  or  ammonium  sulphide. .  .   >■  (or,  in  the  best  cannel 
Carbon  bisulphide )  coal-gas,  only  traces). 

"  In  some  analyses  the  carbonic  oxide  has  been  found  as  high  as  11 
per  cent.,  and  the  light  carburetted  hydrogen  56  ;  in  such  cases  the 
amount  of  hydrogen  is  small.  As  much  as  60  grains  of  sulphur  have  been 
found  in  100  cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  Parliamentary  maximum  is  20  grains 
in  100  cubic  feet,  but  absolute  freedom  from  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  re- 
quired. In  badly  purified  gas  there  may  be  a  great  number  of  other  sub- 
stances in  small  amount." 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


639 


Roscoe  gives  the  analysis  of  gas  from  cannel  and  from  common  coal, 
as  follows  : 


Cannel  gas 

Common  coal-gas. 


Illuminating       | 

power  compared    

to  sperm  candle 
burning:  120  grs.    : 
per  hour,  the  gas  i  Hydrogen 
burning  5  cubic    i        H. 
feet. 


Composition  in  100  Volumes. 


Marsh 
gas, 
CH4 


34.4 
13.0 


25.83 
47.60 


51.20 
41.53 


Carbonic 
oxide, 
CO. 


Heavy 
hydro- 
carbons, 
(CH2)n. 


7.85 
7.83 


13.06 
3.05 


Nitrogen, 
oxygen, 

and 

carbonic 

acid. 


2.07 


The  existence  of  sulphur  compounds  in  burning-gas  is  to  be  regretted 
as  a  nearly  unavoidable  evil;  the  only  remedy  seems  to  be  the  discharge 
of  the  products  of  combustion  through  chimneys  or  flues,  for  which  a 
variety  of  devices  exist.  (See  article  on  Hospitals  in  this  work.)  "The 
sulphurous  and  sulphuric  acids  which  are  produced  in  burning  may  injure 
delicate  structures,  such  as  books,  gilding,  silks,  etc.,  that  may  be  exposed 
to  the  air  of  a  room  in  which  gas  is  burned.  Where  large  quantities  of 
impure  gas  are  burned,  it  causes  a  rapid  destruction  of  textile  fabrics, 
with  a  very  acid  condition  of  them.  This  was  especially  noticed  in  the 
large  public  libraries  of  London  many  years  ago  ;  the  covers  of  many  of 
the  books  in  the  Athenfcum  club-house,  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and 
elsewhere,  becoming  destroyed  by  the  sulphuric  acid  from  the  burning 
gas.  The  amount  of  this  acid  was  so  great  that  it  could  easily  be  tasted 
by  applying  the  exposed  portions  of  the  books  to  the  tongue  "  (Wood). 

Analyses  of  decayed  bindings  of  books  from  public  libraries  in  Boston, 
made  recently  by  Prof.  Gibbs,  have  not  demonstrated  the  presence  of  sul- 
phur compounds.  It  remains  to  test  the  question  by  very  protracted  ex- 
posure of  books  to  sulphur  fumes  under  conditions  resembling  those  of 
libraries. 

The  acid  products  of  burning-gas  are  deleterious  to  house-plants,  pro- 
ducing instant  injury  in  healthy  individuals. 

Nearly  all  of  the  sulphur  is  converted  into  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  a 
vapor  readily  condensed  on  the  walls  and  other  objects  contained  in  a 
room.  Gas  not  infrequently  contains  30  grains  of  sulphur  per  100  cubic 
feet,  which  in  burning  gives  rise  to  90  grains  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  this 
is  the  amount  which  would  be  produced  by  five  four-foot  burners,  durino- 
five  hours. 

Other  noxious  effects  of  gas,  burnt  without  ventilation,  may  be  traced 
to  the  presence  of  great  quantities  of  carbonic  acid, — one  burner  produ- 
cing several  times  as  much  as  a  man  in  a  given  time, — of  watery  vapor  from 
the  hydrogen  and  compounds  of  hydrogen,  and  to  the  great  heat  pro- 
duced by  the  cheap  light. 

When  gas  is  partly  burnt  (Parkes)  a  considerable  quantity  of  car- 
bonic oxide  is  also  produced,  which  usually  escapes  into  the  air  of  the 
room,  and  constitutes  a  more  serious  impurity  than  the  others. 


640  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

That  which  is  known  as  "  water-gas  "  is  produced  by  passing  steam 
over  incandescent  carbon,  which  has  a  very  powerful  attraction  for  oxy- 
gen, abstracts  it  from  the  steam  and  unites  with  it,  to  form  at  first  a 
mixture  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid;  the  latter  afterward  loses  one- 
half  its  oxygen  and  becomes  carbonic  oxide.  These  gases  burn  without 
light,  and  require  the  addition  of  about  ten  per  cent,  of  petroleum-  or 
naphtha-gas.  This  mixture  contains  from  thirty  to  forty  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonic oxide,,  and  would  be  excessively  dangerous  to  life  if  it  were  inodor- 
ous, as  in  some  instances  it  is. 

Effects  of  Bad  Air. 

It  remains  a  desideratum  to  ascertain,  by  the  methods  of  experimental 
physiology,  the  effect  of  bad  air  ^>er  se,  as  compared  with  that  of  concomi- 
tant bad  circumstances  (diet,  filth,  etc.),  in  producing  disease.  The  facts 
we  have  are  statistical.  In  the  absence  of  "  exact "  proof,  our  most  deli- 
cate test  of  the  unhealthiness  of  a  condition  is  furnished — first,  by  the 
health  returns  of  large  masses  of  persons  living  under  those  conditions; 
and  second,  by  returns  from  specially  sensitive  or  specially  exposed  classes. 
The  reader  will  at  once  recall  many  classes  specially  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ences of  crowding  and  close  air.  Specially  sensitive  classes  exist  in  the 
case  of  the  wounded  of  an  army,  and  of  patients  after  amputation  or 
child-bed,  and  also  in  the  infant  population. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  effects  of  an  insufficient  supply  of  air  is  the 
discomfort  occasioned  in  those  who  are  not  habituated  to  the  deprivation. 
This  discomfort  is  an  evidence  of  positive  injury,  and  may  increase  till 
headache,  prostration  of  strength,  gastric  disorder,  and  fainting  occur. 
Closeness  of  air,  not  producing  such  marked  symptoms,  may  cause  dys- 
pepsia and  impairment  of  the  general  nutrition — symptoms  which  are  now 
recognized  as  related  to  the  development  of  phthisis. 

In  the  British  army,  previous  to  1836,  it  was  stated '  that  the  mortality 
from  consumption  was  very  considerable.  In  the  Household  Cavalry  it 
was  81;  in  the  Dragoons  and  Dragoon  Guards,  77;  in  the  West  India 
depots,  96;  but  in  the  Foot  Guards  it  was  141  in  10,000;  the  deaths  from 
cdl  causes  among  the  Metropolitan  Police  being  only  90.  At  the  same 
time,  "in  the  metropolitan  barracks,  a  room,  32  feet  long  and  20  broad, 
was  all  the  convenience  then  afforded  for  the  eating,  sleeping,  and  gen- 
eral living  of  twenty  men  and  non-commissioned  officers,  some  two  or  three 
of  the  men  being  in  all  probability  married."  Such  a  room  would  probably 
not  afford  to  each  inmate  more  than  from  250  to  300  cubic  feet  of  air,  or 
from  a  fourth  to  a  third  of  the  prison  allowance.  Some  barracks  were 
very  much  worse  than  this. 

A  similar  excess  of  phthisis  occurs  in  the  armies  of  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean states,  and  cannot  be  accounted  for  except  by  referring  it  to  the 
bad  air  in  barracks.  In  the  English  navy  similar  facts  are  pointed  out, 
forming  an  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  excellent  climatic  conditions, 

1  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society,  Vol.  II.,  1839,  p.  250. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  641 

with  nearly  perfect  arrang-ements  in  respect  to  daily  life,  may  be  vitiated 
by  the  one  factor  of  bad  air. 

Two  prisons '  in  Vienna  arc  thus  compared: 

In  that  of  Leopoldstadt,  which  was  very  badly  ventilated,  there  died, 
in  the  years  1834-'4T,  378  prisoners  out  of  4,280,  or  86  per  1,000;  and  o£ 
these  no  less  than  2.20,  or  51.4  per  1,000,  died  from  phthisis;  there  were 
no  less  than  42  cases  of  acute  miliary  tuberculosis. 

In  the  well-A^entilated  House  of  Correction  there  were,  in  five  years 
(1850-'54),  3,037  prisoners,  of  whom  43  died,  or  14  per  1,000;  and  of 
these  24,  or  7.9  per  1,000,  died  of  phthisis.  The  comparative  length  of 
sentences  is  not  given;  but  no  correction  on  this  ground,  if  needed,  could 
accoiTnt  for  this  discrepancy. 

Prison  life,  even  under  good  conditions  as  to  ventilation,  often  impairs 
the  health. 

Bad  air  in  mines  produces  its  effects  upon  the  respiratory  organs; 
thoug'h  here  the  cause  is  complicated  by  the  existence  of  dust  and  pecu- 
liar gases.  It  was  stated  by  Simon  (in  the  Fourth  Report  of  the  Medical 
Officer  of  the  Privy  Council)  that  English  miners,  as  a  class,  were  broken 
down  by  bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  especially  after  the  age  of  thirty-five; 
but  that  in  the  mines  of  Durham  and  Northumberland,  where  ventilation 
was  good,  this  did  not  occur. 

Hospital  gangrene,  it  is  believed,  can  be  entirely  avoided  by  treatment 
in  the  open  air  or  under  tents.  Pytemia  and  erysipelas  are  diseases  of 
similar  origin,  and  haunt  old  hospitals.  (See  remarks  under  "  Ventila- 
tion "  and  "  Hospital  Construction.")  The  widest  contrasts  possible,  as 
regards  results,  are  furnished  by  the  records  of  the  old  and  by  those  of 
the  new  method  of  treating  army  patients  and  civil  surgical  cases.  In  the 
Crimean  war,  for  instance,  the  hospital  at  Scutari  at  one  time  contained 
2,500  sick  and  wounded,  of  whom  two  in  five  died  ;  the  annual  mortality 
from  disease  in  the  British  and  French  armies,  in  the  same  war,  was  23.2 
and  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  strength;  while  in  the  American  war  the 
corresponding  mortality  was  less  than  6  per  cent. 

Stromeyer  observed  the  remarkable  effect  of  ventilation  in  arresting 
military  granular  conjunctivitis. 

Camp-fever  may  be  almost  banished  by  cleanliness  and  fresh  air. 
Among  the  earlier  experiments  in  this  direction,  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing is  that  made  by  Dr.  Brocklesby. 

In  1758,  when  the  wounded  were  sent  from  France  to  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  Dr.  Brocklesby  built  an  open  one-story  shed  for  a  hospital,  large 
enough  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  patients.  He  found  that  "  remark- 
ably fewer  died,  though  treated  with  the  same  medicine  and  the  same 
general  regimen,  than  died  anywhere  else."  In  1760  he  constructed  an- 
other shed-hospital  in  the  same  place,  for  forty  patients,  during  a  fever 
epidemic.  The  mortality  was  very  slight,  and  he  says  of  it:  "I  candidly 
ascribe  their  fortunate  escape  more  to  the  benefit  of  a  pure,  keen  air  they 

^  Parkes'  Hygiene. 
Vol.  L— 41 


642 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


breathed  therein  every  moment  than  to  all  the  medicines  they  took  every 
six  hours  or  oftener." 

The  following  table  illustrates  to  the  eye  the  effects  of  various  degrees 
of  overcrowding  in  certain  notorious  instances.     It  is  given  by  Guy,  I.e. : 


Cubic  feet. 
20 


Effects  of  Overcroxoding. 


Black  Hole,  Calcutta. 


Of  146  persons,  23  left 
alive  after  10  hours. 
Fatal  fever  in  survivors. 


30 

to 

00 

,^    ,,  1     TT  T>    1     r  130  fever  patients  sent  to 

Marlborough    House     Peck- J      London  Fever  Hospital 
^f  ^^      City     of     London  ^      .^  ^^^  one-Mk  of 

Union  Workhouse.  '      total  in  hospital. 


(  Great     mortality     among 
Church  Lane,  St.  Giles's.        <      children      and      adults. 
(      Fever.     Cholera. 


Village  in  Dorsetshire. 


Fatal  fever. 


100 


Parish  House  near  Launces-  ]  rii,„igj.„ 

ton.  y 


Drouet's    Establishment   for  )  i  i-a  /i     j-i,    *  -u  i 

r>  riu-ij  J- rp J-   f  1 /O  deaths  irom  cholera  in 

Pauper  Children,  at  Toot-  )■      ,,  , 

ing,  January,  1849.  )      *^^^®  '^^®^^- 


Cambridge  Town  Bridewell,  |  x  •,  n 
-j  nnA  c  "  an  lever. 


202 


Printing  Office. 


Consumption. 


288 


Christchurch       Workhouse,  ^ 

Children's      Sick      Ward,  >  Gangrene  of  the  mouth. 
1848.*  ) 


Prison  allowance,  1,000  cubic  feet. 


*  In  one  ward  132  cubic  feet.     288  cubic  feet  is  the  average  of  a  number  of  wards. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  643 

The  deprival  of  fresh  air  produces  phthisis,  in  like  manner,  in  some  of 
the  lower  animals.  Dr.  Neill  Arnott  relates  the  following  story  about  the 
monkeys  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London  :  "  A  new  house  was 
built  to  receive  the  monkeys,  and  no  expense  was  sjoared  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  those  intrusted  with  its  management,  could  insure  to  those  na- 
tives of  a  warm  climate  all  attainable  comfort  and  security.  Unhappily, 
however,  it  was  believed  that  the  object  would  be  best  secured  by  making 
the  new  room  nearly  like  what  an  English  gentleman's  drawing-room  is. 
For  Avarming  it,  two  ordinary  drawing-room  grates  were  put  in,  as  close 
to  the  floor  as  possible,  and  with  low  chimney  openings,  that  the  heated 
air  in  the  room  should  not  escape  by  the  chimney,  while  the  windows  and 
other  openings  in  the  walls  above  were  made  as  close  as  possible.  Some 
additional  warm  air  was  admitted  through  openings  in  the  floor  from 
around,  hot-water  pipes  placed  beneath  it.  For  ventilation  in  cold 
weather,  openings  were  made  in  the  skirting  of  the  room  close  to  the 
floor,  with  the  erroneous  idea  that  the  carbonic  acid  produced  in  the  respi- 
ration of  the  animals,  being  heavier  than  the  other  air  in  the  room,  would 
separate  from  this  and  escajae  above.  When  all  this  was  done,  about 
sixty  healthy  monkeys,  many  of  which  had  already  borne  several  winters 
in  England,  were  put  into  the  room.  A  month  afterward  more  than  fifty 
of  them  were  dead,  and  the  few  remaining  ones  were  dying.  ...  It 
was  only  necessary  to  open,  in  the  winter,  part  of  the  ventilating  appara- 
tus near  the  ceiling,  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  summer,  and  the 
room  became  at  once  salubrious."  The  cause  of  this  mortality  was  con- 
sumption. 

The  horses  in  the  Fi'ench  army  formerly  sujffiered  an  enormous  mor- 
tality. Before  1836,  the  loss  was  from  180  to  197  per  1,000  annually.  En- 
largement of  the  stables  and  an  increased  allowance  of  air  reduced  this 
loss  during  the  next  ten  years  to  C8  in  1,000. 

Similar  facts  are  stated  in  regard  to  the  English  cavalry  horses.  The 
losses  are  at  present  reduced,  by  improved  stabling,  to  20  in  1,000.  In 
tlie  Prussian  cavalry,  it  is  15  per  1,000.  In  the  North  German  army,  the 
allowance  of  cubic  space  per  horse  is  from  31  to  39  ctm.,  say  1,100-1,400 
cubic  feet,  nearly. 

About  thirty  years  ago,  a  severe  epidemic  of  influenza  appeared  in 
Boston.  At  the  instigation  of  Prof.  H.  I.  Bowditch,'  every  stable  in  the 
city  was  investigated,  and  classified  as  "  excellent,"  "  imperfect,"  or 
"  wholly  unfit,"  in  respect  to  warmth,  dryness,  light,  ventilation,  and 
cleanliness.  It  was  found  that  in  the  first-class  fewer  horses  were  attacked, 
and  the  disease  was  milder,  while  in  the  third-class  every  horse  was  at- 
tacked, and  more  severe  and  fatal  cases  occurred.  In  respect  to  the  num- 
ber attacked  and  the  general  cliaracteristics  of  the  disease,  the  three 
classes  stood  to  one  another  as  1  :  3  :  5. 

In  the  four  years  ending  in  1784,  of  7,550  infants  born  at  the  ill-ven- 
tilated Dublin  Lying-in  Hospital,  2,944  died  of  epidemic  disease;  while, 

'  Seventh  Report  of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  1876. 


644  THE    ATMOSPHEKE. 

after  a  thorough  system  of  ventilation  had  been  adopted,  only  279  died 
in  the  same  number  of  years. 

At  the  same  time,  scrofula  (or  more  correctly,  tuberculosis)  was  so 
common  in  public  institutions  as  to  be  commonly  considered  a  contagious 
disease.     Its  cause  was  plainly  overcrowding. 

The  sensitiveness  of  the  digestive  organs  to  foul  air  in  the  hot  season 
is  well  known.  It  is  not  the  heat  of  itself  that  produces  diarrhoea,  I£ 
heat  does  not  act  as  a  debilitant,  and  thus  predispose,  the  bowels  are  not 
deranged.  Pure,  very  dry  and  hot  air,  in  countries  like  Arizona  and 
Arabia,  is  compatible  with  perfect  health;  but  a  certain  comparatively 
moderate  heat  in  close  cities,  where  atmospheric  moisture  and  general 
filth  are  present,  with  imj)erfect  circulation  of  air  among  the  houses,  is 
sure  to  be  productive  of  infantile  bowel  complaints,  and  is  very  likely  to 
engender  them  in  adults,  though  with  less  quickness,  in  proportion  to  the 
sujjerior  j^ower  of  resistance. 

Heat  and  Moistuee. 

The  atmosphere  has  a  very  important  influence  upon  the  health  and 
character  of  man  in  other  ways  than  by  supplying  him  with  suitable  or 
unsuitable  chemical  elements.  The  physical  condition  of  the  air,  in 
respect  to  temperature,  moisture,  pressure,  motion,  and  precipitation  are 
factors  of  the  highest  importance.  Taken  collectively,  they  may  be 
grouped  under  the  title  of  climatic  influences. 

In  explaining  this  part  of  the  subject,  care  will  be  taken  to  make  such 
statements  as  seem  required  for  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  elements 
of  climate;  and  afterwards  an  enumeration  of  the  classes,  the  characteris- 
tics, and  the  sanatory  effects  of  special  "climates"  will  be  attempted, 
with  some  directions  regarding  meteorological  observations. 

Sowces  of  heat. — The  chief  part  of  the  heat  employed  in  natural 
processes  ujDon  the  earth's  surface  is  derived  from  the  sun.  With  this 
must  be  included  heat  obtained  from  combvistibles — mineral  coal,  wood, 
oils,  etc. — all  of  which  represent  stored-up  force,  originally  derived  from 
the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  in  promoting  vegetable  life.  The  chemical 
actions  which  produce  animal  heat  derive  their  forces  ultimately  from  the 
same  source. 

The  earth  itself,  as  is  well  known,  possesses  an  internal  store  of  heat, 
which  at  present  is  undergoing  an  extremely  slow  diminution  by  conduc- 
tion through  the  upper  strata.  In  descending  the  shafts  of  mines,  the 
temperature  is  found  to  rise  constantly,  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  F.  to  every 
53  feet  of  descent.  In  six  of  the  deepest  mines  of  Northumberland  and 
Durham  the  rate  is  1°  F.  for  44  feet;  in  the  Saxon  argentiferous  lead- 
mines  it  was  found  to  be  1°  in  60  feet,  and  the  same  in  boring  the  well  of 
Grenelle  at  Paris,  A  boring  at  Louisville,  2,086  feet  in  depth,  gives  an 
increase  of  1°  in  76  feet-  one  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  of  2,575  feet,  gives  1°  in 
71  feet. 

The  crust  of  the  earth   is,  however,  a  very  ]30or  conductor  of  heat. 


THE    AT.^[OSPHERE.  645 

Owing  to  this  fact,  the  internal  temperature  influences  the  surface  to  the 
extent  only  of  -^^°  or  -^°  C.  (Tli.  Langer),  say  1^-2^3°  F. 

The  atmospheric  fluctuation,  taken  by  the  clay,  the  month,  or  the  year, 
produces  a  like  fluctuation  in  the  temperature  of  the  upper  strata;  this 
extends  to  depths  bearing  definite  relations  to  the  length  of  the  jDeriod 
observed;  and  there  is  at  last  a  point  reached  where  the  temperature  is 
invariable  by  night  and  day,  by  winter  and  summer.  This  point  lies  from 
80  to  100  feet  below  the  surface  in  temperate  latitudes. 

The  measurement  of  temperature  by  the  thermometer  requires  certain 
precautions,  which  are  described  hereafter. 

Trcmsmissio?i  of  Heat. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  all  theoretic  views  as  to  the  absolute 
nature  of  heat,  it  is  evident  that  its  transmission  from  one  body  to  an- 
other is  effected  in  three  distinct  ways;  and  these  three  are  denominated 
Conduction,  Convection,  Radiation. 

Conduction  occurs  in  solids;  in  fluids  it  occurs  to  so  very  slight  an  ex- 
tent that  it  may  practically  be  said  not  to  exist,  except  in  the  case  of  mer- 
cury. In  gases  conduction  occurs  to  a  slight  extent,  but  in  variable 
degrees.  It  consists  in  a  gradual  transference  or  propagation  of  heat 
from  particle  to  neighboring  particle,  proceeding  only  so  far  as  immediate 
contact  exists,  and  arrested  by  solution  of  continuity. 

The  metals  are  among  the  best  conductors  of  heat.  The  worst  conduc- 
tors are  bodies  in  a  porous  or  pulverized  state,  such  as  straw,  down,  wood, 
sand,  sawdust;  this  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  air  con- 
fined, in  the  meshes  of  the  fabric  or  between  the  particles  of  the  powder,  air 
itself  being  an  extremely  poor  conductor.  Gypsum,  asbestos,  and  glass, 
furnish  well-known  instances  of  solid  bodies  which  are  very  slow  conductors. 

Convection  occurs  in  liquids  and  gases.  It  signifies  a  transference  of 
heated  particles,  in  the  form  of  currents,  arising  at  the  point  where  the 
gas  or  liquid  is  in  contact  with  a  heated  body,  and  circulating  through  the 
entire  mass.  Such  currents  are  familiarly  known  in  the  case  of  boiling 
water;  and  every  one  has  seen  them  in  the  air  around  hot  stoves.  The 
portion  which  is  heated  expands,  rises,  and  is  immediately  replaced  by  a 
fresh  portion,  so  that  the  mass  is  heated  by  having  every  particle  brought 
in  actual  or  approximate  contact  with  the  source  of  heat.  The  heat  is 
further  equalized,  and  communicated  to  remote  parts,  by  the  process  of 
circulation. 

In  the  distribution  of  terrestrial  heat,  i.  e.,  of  heat  which  has  been  com- 
municated to  the  earth  from  the  sun,  convection  plays  a  most  important 
part.  The  atmosphere  is  kept  in  a  state  of  constant  motion,  almost  ex- 
clusively by  this  process.  The  ground,  heated  by  the  sun's  rays,  imparts 
heat  to  the  air  above;  the  air  expands,  rises,  and  its  place  is  filled  by  air 
from  some  less-heated  spot,  which  in  its  passage  is  called  wind. 

Upon  the  sea-coast,  and  in  islands  in  the  sea,  this  phenomenon  occurs 
with  regularity  during  the  warm  season.  When  the  morning  sun  has 
acted  a  certain  number  of  hours  upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  it  becomes 


646  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

warmer  than  the  sea;  the  air  above  the  soil  rises,  and  fresh  air  pours  in 
from  the  sea  on  all  sides.  This  produces  what  is  called  a  sea-breeze;  in 
summer  it  begins  in  the  early  forenoon,  is  strongest  an  hour  or  two  after 
noon,  and  ceases  at  sunset. 

In  the  evening,  the  reverse  takes  place,  the  land  cooling  rapidly,  and 
sending  off  currents  called  a  land-breeze  towards  the  water,  which  is  not 
subject  to  these  diurnal  fluctuations  of  temperature. 

The  trade-winds  are  produced  in  a  similar  way.  The  equatorial  belt 
of  the  earth's  surface  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature  by  the  sun;  its 
atmosphere  rises  in  a  mass,  and  is  replaced  by  cooler  air  from  the  north 
and  south.  Thus  there  are  formed  pairs  of  currents:  from  the  north  and 
south  there  come  cool  under-currents,  along  the  surface  of  the  earth;  and 
to  the  north  and  south  there  pass  warm  upper-currents,  at  a  distance  of 
many  thousands  of  feet  above  the  earth's  surface.  In  high  latitudes  the 
warmer  currents  descend  in  places  to  the  earth,  producing  those  south- 
westerly winds  which  are  known  for  their  mildness  in  many  parts  of  the 
world.  Thus  the  earth's  atmosphere  is  furnished  with  a  circulatory  sys- 
tem precisely  analogous  to  that  which  exists  in  a  chamber  warmed  b}'  a 
porcelain  stove. 

The  importance  of  this  arrangement,  in  furnishing  warmth  to  the  re- 
gions near  the  poles,  and  coolness  to  the  equatorial  zone,  cannot  be  over- 
estimated; it  forms  one  of  the  principal  chapters  in  the  history  of  climates. 
The  trade-winds  blow  constantly  from  the  north-east,  in  a  belt  be- 
tween the  equator  and  the  32d  parallel  of  north  latitude;  and  from  the 
south-east  in  the  corresponding  region  south  of  the  equator.  This  change 
of  direction  from  that  of  due  north  and  south  is  accounted  for  by  con- 
sidering that  the  air,  in  coming  near  the  equator,  is  continually  passing 
to  greater  and  greater  circles  (parallels).  Each  successive  parallel  attained 
by  the  wind  is  greater  than  the  cne  left  behind;  consequently,  the  velocity 
of  rotation  of  the  surfaces  passed  over  by  the  wind  is  constantly  increas- 
ing. Before  the  air  can  acquire  the  increased  velocity  by  contact  with 
the  earth,  the  earth  has  whirled  away  from  under  it  some  distance  to  the 
east,  which  gives  the  effect  of  a  wind  moving  to  the  west — or  (combining 
this  with  its  equatorial  tendency)  to  the  south-west  or  north-west. 

As  regards  the  upper,  or  "  equatorial "  current,  its  existence  is  demon- 
strated upon  the  summits  of  many  intertropical  mountains,  as  the  peak 
of  Teneriffe,  12,180  feet  high,  and  Mauna  Kea,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
18,400  feet  high.  Its  rapidity  of  movement  gradually  diminishes  toward 
the  poles,  at  which  point  the  motion  almost  vanishes. 

Other  currents,  producing  winds  of  contrary  direction  in  the  temper- 
ate zones,  will  be  described  under  climate. 

The  North-east  and  the  South-east  trades  are  separated  by  a  belt  of 
calm,  averaging  6°  in  width,  upon  the  equator.  This  belt,  and  the  range 
of  the  trades  to  the  north  and  south,  varies  with  the  seasons,  being  a  few 
degrees  further  south  in  our  winter  than  in  our  summer. 

The  ocean  water  undergoes  a  similar  influence,  but  the  currents  pro- 
duced are  very  much  less  regular,  though  their  general  effect  is  to  trans- 


THE    ATMOSPIIEIIE.  <J47 

port  warm  water  O'.i  the  surface  toward  the  colder  parts  of  the  earth,  and 
cold  water  at  a  lower  level  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  effects  in  miti- 
gating the  severity  of  winter  are  manifest  along  the  western  coasts  of 
Europe,  and  impart  to  the  climate  of  the  British  Tsles  a  rare  mildness  and 
aptitude  for  supporting  life. 

Radiation  is  entirely  different  from  either  conduction  or  convection. 
In  this  process  heat  is  conveyed  through  space  without  the  intervention 
of  any  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous  substance  known  to  chemical  science,  i.  e., 
through  a  vacuum.  Radiation  takes  place  also  through  certain  solids, 
liquids,  and  gases,  and  when  this  occurs  they  may  be  said  to  be  transpar- 
ent to  heat  (diathermanous).  But  in  the  latter  case  the  transmission  is 
much  retarded;  heat  moves  through  a  vacuum  three  times  as  rapidly  as 
through  air.  It  will  be  easy  to  see  that  the  passage  of  radiant  heat  does 
not  necessarily  imj^ly  the  warming  of  the  body  it  passes  through,  although 
this  occurs  to  some  slight  extent  in  many  bodies,  in  proportion  to  the 
absorption  of  heat  that  occurs.  The  atmosphere,  for  instance,  when  free 
from  moisture,  permits  the  sun's  rays  to  pass  to  the  earth  with  but  a 
slight  loss  from  absorption;  it  does  not  become  directly  warmed  to  any 
great  extent  by  the  sun's  rays.  It  is  estimated  that  four-fifths  of  the 
heat-rays  of  a  perpendicular  sun  pass  the  atmosphere  without  absorption, 
in  very  clear  weather.      (Langer.) 

Conditions  of  radiatio)i. — In  general,  rough  bodies,  those  of  a  dull 
surface  and  of  high  density,  part  readily  with  heat  by  radiation,  while 
polished  and  light  substances  radiate  slowly.  The  surface  of  the  earth  is 
a  very  good  radiator,  and  parts  with  heat  rapidly  vehen  uncovered.  Ab- 
sorption of  radiant  heat  is  also  effected  most  readily  by  a  dull,  rough  sur- 
face. The  color  of  a  substance,  which  does  not  affect  the  process  of 
radiation,  is  very  important  in  absorption.  Franklin  observed  that  snow 
melted  most  rapidly  when  covered  with  black  cloth,  and  in  a  successively 
diminishing  rate  under  blue,  green,  purple,  red,  yellow,  and  white  cloth. 

The  comparative  radiating  power  of  a  large  number  of  substances  is 
given  by  Loomis;  the  following  are  extracted  : 

Hare  skin 1316 

White  raw  wool  on  grass 1222 

Raw  silk '' 1107 

Long  grass . 1000 

Grass  less  than  an  inch  in  height 870 

Glass ' 864 

Wood 773 

Iron 642 

Sawdust 610 

Garden-mould 472 

River  sand 454 

Stone 390 

Brick 372 

Gravel 288 


6-iS  THE    AT.MOSPIIEKE. 

Radiant  heat  may  be  reflected,  absorbed,  or  transmitted ,'  and  as  trans- 
mitted it  may  also  be  refracted.  Of  reflection  of  heat  it  is  unnecessary  to 
speak  at  length. 

The  conditions  of  transmission  are  the  following  : 

The  capacity  of  a  given  body  to  transmit  heat  varies  with  the  source 
of  heat.  The  solar  heat  is  transmitted  by  glass,  while  the  heat  of  a  fire 
is  almost  wholly  cut  off.  Ice  acts  in  a  similar  way.  Pure  water  arrests 
radiant  heat  almost  wholly.  The  atmosphere  lets  the  sun's  heat  pass 
freely  to  the  earth;  but  when  the  heat  has  been  absorbed  by  the  earth  a 
change  seems  to  have  come  over  it,  for  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  ab- 
sorbs a  very  large  part  of  the  radiant  heat  of  the  earth.  This  points  to 
an  essential  difference  in  the  Quality  of  the  heat  from  different  sources, 
which  is  further  confirmed  by  finding  that  different  sources  of  terrestrial 
heat — i.  e.,  the  flames  of  different  substances — radiate  heat  in  unequal 
proportions  through  media  which,  in  other  respects,  have  similar  conduc- 
tive powers. 

The  cajDacity  of  different  bodies  to  transmit  radiant  heat  also  varies 
with  the  same  source  of  heat,  and  this  in  a  paradoxical  way.  Black  glass 
transmits  heat-rays  with  facility,  while  transparent  glass  cuts  them  off. 
Brown  rock-crystal  and  opaque  rock-salt  also  transmit  well.  The  power 
of  a  body  to  transmit  radiant  heat  is  called  diathermancy. 

To  illustrate  this  point  the  following  statements  are  quoted  from 
Melloni  :  "The  heat  of  a  naked  flame  is  directed  through  plates  of  vari- 
ous substances,  0.102"  thick.  The  percentage  of  the  total  amount  that 
jiasses  through  is  :  for  rock-salt,  92.33;  for  plate-glass,  39;  for  sugar- 
candy,  8.  A  sheet  of  liquid  of  given  thickness  (0.362")  transmits  as  fol- 
lows :  turpentine,  31  i^er  cent,;  olive  oil,  30;  ether,  21;  alcohol,  15;  dis- 
tilled water,  11.  Of  the  gases,  air,  when  perfectly  dry  and  pure,  trans- 
mits all  of  the  heat;  and  so  do  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  Carbonic 
acid,  however,  transmits  only  gJ^  of  radiant  heat,  street  gas  g^,  and  am- 
monia YiWb'  Atmospheric  moisture  greatly  increases  the  absorbent 
powers  of  air;  when  saturated,  air  has  its  diathermanous  power  diminished 
-^.  The  presence  of  vapors  of  ether  and  ammonia  in  vapor  has  a  similar 
effect,  and  so  have  the  perfumes  of  flowers,  which  have  a  specific  value  in 
retaining  the  sun's  heat  during  inflorescence,  where  great  heat  is  required. 

In  connection  with  these  statements,  the  reader  will  recall  the  fact  that 
the  refraction  of  a  sunbeam  analyzes  it  into  three  components:  rays  of 
light,  red,  green,  and  violet;  rays  of  heat;  and  rays  possessing  chemical 
activity  (actinism),  both  the  latter  being  invisible.  These  three  sets  of 
rays  overlap  each  other,  but  in  such  a  way  that  the  actinic  rays  are  more 
powerful  near  the  violet  end  of  the  light-spectrum,  while  the  heat  rays  are 
strongest  near  the  red  end.  Each  of  the  two  latter  forms  its  own  (in- 
visible) spectrum  ;  it  is  susceptible  of  analysis  into  rays  of  greater  or  less 
refrangibility.  And  it  is  found  that  heat  from  feeble  sources  is  much  less 
refrangible  than  that  from  more  energetic  bodies.  The  heat  of  the  sun  is 
the  most  refrangible,  its  rays  covering  the  whole  spectrum  of  light,  and 
reaching  far  beyond  the  red  ray;  then  follow  in  order  that  from  the  flame 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  64^ 

of  a  lamp,  from  incandescent  platinum,  from  copper  at  750°,  and  from 
water  at  212°  F.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  glass,  while  transmitting- 
all  the  rays  of  color,  transmits  only  that  portion  of  the  rays  of  heat  which 
is  most  refrangible. 

Heat  of  Composition. 

It  is  necessary  to  state  that  temperature,  or  sensible  heat,  is  a  very 
different  thing  from  actual  heat.  Two  bodies  of  equal  weight  containing 
very  different  amounts  of  heat  may  give  the  same  temperature,  as  tested 
by  the  thermometer.  In  explaining  this,  we  have  first  to  consider  what  is 
called  latent  heat,  or  heat  of  composition. 

In  passing  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid  state,  a  large  quantity  of  heat 
may  be  poured  into  a  body  without  any  appreciable  rise  of  temperature. 
If  ice  at;  32°  be  placed  over  a  lamp,  the  heat  of  which  can  be  measured,  it  will 
be  found  that  during  the  act  of  melting,  a  quantity  of  heat  is  used  suffi- 
cient to  have  raised  the  temperature  of  a  corresponding  quantity  of  water 
to  182°  F.,  while  at  the  end  of  the  melting,  the  water  produced  is  not 
sensibly  warmer  than  32°.  We  say,' therefore,  that  the  ice  has  absorbed 
140°  of  heat.  A  similar  absorption  occurs  in  the  melting  of  all  solid 
bodies.  The  heat  which  thus  enters  into  composition  with  a  body,  and  is 
required  to  maintain  it  in  a  liquid  form — heat,  whose  energy  is  diverted 
to  the  maintenance  of  a  new  molecular  condition — is  called  heat  of  com- 
position; it  becomes  imperceptible  to  ordinary  tests,  like  the  water  of 
composition  in  mineral  bodies. 

The  heat  thus  absorbed  is  termed  latent  heat  of  liquefaction^  or  fu- 
sion ^  or  heat  of  fluidity.  And  that  which  is  absorbed  when  fluids  pass 
into  a  gaseous  state  (for  the  same  thing  occurs  here)  is  called  the  latent 
heat  of  vaporization.  Water  at  212°  requires  the  addition  of  967°  F. 
(Rodwell)  to  bring  it  into  the  state  of  vapor  by  boiling;  water  at  ordinary 
temperatures  requires  much  more  to  evaporate  it  without  ebullition. 

In  all  cases  this  heat  is  recovered,  and  appears  as  an  agent  sensible  to 
the  thermometer,  when  gaseous  bodies  ai'e  reduced  to  liquids,  or  liquids  to 
solids. 

Evaporation  is  due  to  the  presence  of  heat;  and  it  will  aid  our  con- 
ceptions if  we  consider  heat  as  the  sole  cause  of  evaporation.  It  occurs 
with  perfect  readiness  in  vacuo,  and  its  total  amount  is  very  slightly 
affected  by  the  presence  of  air.  Its  rapidity  is,  however,  greatly  modi- 
fied by  this  and  certain  other  circumstances.  Rapid  motion  of  the 
air  in  contact  with  the  fluid,  and  a  great  extent  of  evaporating-surface, 
hasten  the  process  very  much;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  retarded  in 
proportion  to  the  pressure  under  which  it  occurs.  When  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  is  entirely  removed,  water  boils  at  70°  F. ;  under  one  at- 
mosphere (14.6  lbs.  to  the  inch),  it  boils  at  212°;  under  an  additional 
atmosphere,  at  250° ;  under  three,  at  275° ;  under  four,  at  294°. 

Evaporation  takes  place  more  readily  in  a  vacuum  than  in  air,  on  ac- 
count of  the  reduced  pressure,  because  pressure  of  necessity  tends  to  keep 
the  molecules  of  the  liquid  together,  and,  when  that  pressure  is  removed, 


650 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


the  molecules  can  more  readily  assume  the  gaseous  condition  (Rodwell). 
A  liquid  evaporates  far  more  slowly  in  a  space  containing  air,  or  gas  of 
any  kind;  but  the  ultimate  amount  is  the  same. 

The  elastic  force  or  tension  of  aqueous  vapor  increases  with  its  tem- 
perature; the  fact,  familiar  in  the  case  of  steam  above  212°,  is  also  true 
at  the  lower  temperatures  of  the  atmosphere  we  inhabit.  Hence,  as  the 
temperature  rises,  a  greater  capacity  to  resist  the  atmospheric  pressure  is 
developed,  and  more  vapor  is  formed  from  the  water  which  happens  to  be 
at  hand.  That  is,  evaporation  is  increased.  This  is  illustrated  in  the 
next  table,  in  columns  3,  4,  5. 

The  addition  of  aqueous  vapor  to  air  lessens  its  specific  gravity, 
though  but  slightly.  As  is  seen  in  columns  2  and  3,  the  addition  of  vapor 
causes  a  considerable  expansion  of  volume,  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
vapor  is  not  sufficient  (it  is  less  than  that  of  air)  to  bring  the  weight  up 
to  what  it  was  in  the  dry  state. 

Air,  as  its  temperature  rises,  loses  greatly  in  weight;  and  this,  of 
course,  is  equally  true  of  saturated  air,  as  seen  in  column  6. 

As  the  temperature  rises,  the  amount  of  vapor  capable  of  retaining 
the  gaseous  state  increases  very  rapidly,  as  seen  in  column  3.  And  cor- 
relatively,  the  depression  of  a  few  degrees  in  temperature,  when  very 
warm  air  is  saturated,  will  produce  a  great  precipitation  in  water.  This 
explains  the  great  copiousness  of  the  rains  which  characterize  the  season 
of  changeable  weather  in  the  tropics  (rainy  season,  corresponding  to 
winter). 

AMOUNTS    OF  AQUEOUS   VAPOR   IN   1,000  VOLUMES  OF   AIR  WHEN   SAT- 
URATED.   (TIDY.) 


One  Cubic  Foot  op  Aik 
(Barom.  30  in.) 

Saturated 

1,000  vols,  of  dry 
air  become  when 

1,000  vols,  of 
saturated    air 

Degrees 

Fakr. 

saturated  fvol- 

contain  aq.  va- 

Contains aqueous  vapor. 

umes) 

por  (volumes) 

Weighs  in 
grains. 

Cubic  inches. 

Grains. 

10... 

1002.3 

1.12 

1.9354 

0.84 

592.94 

20  ... 

1003.6 

2.29 

3.9571 

1.30 

580.26 

30... 

1005.6 

5.57 

9.6250 

1.97 

567.99 

40... 

1008.3 

8.23 

14.2214 

2.86 

556.03 

50  ... 

1012.0 

11.76 

20.3213 

4.10 

544.36 

60  ... 

1017.3 

17.06 

29.4797 

5.77 

532.84 

70... 

1024.4 

23.82 

41.1610 

8.01 

521.41 

80  ... 

1034.1 

32.98 

56.9890 

10.98 

509.97 

90  . .  . 

1047.0 

43.93 

75.9110 

14.85 

498.43 

100  .. . 

1063.9 

60.07 

103.8010 

19.84 

486.65 

The  practical  consequence  of  the  above  statements  is  further  seen  in 
the  case  of  water.     The  cooling  of  water  is  accomplished  by  hastening 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  651 

evaporation.  The  porous  jars  called  "  monkeys  " — the  alcazzarras  of  the 
Spaniards — when  hung  up  in  the  wind,  sweat,  and  are  cooled  by  the 
evaporation  of  their  sweat.  The  human  body  is  cooled  in  the  same  way; 
hence  the  value  of  a  frequent  supply  of  water  to  men  engaged  in  severe 
toil,  at  forges  and  foundries. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  large  bodies  of  water  do  not  readily 
grow  hot  when  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  is  ex- 
pended very  largely  in  evaporating  the  water.  Such  heat  as  is  expended 
in  raising  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  useful  (paradoxical  as  it  seems)  in 
keeping  down  the  temperature  of  the  air;  for  it  serves  to  maintain  in  the 
vaporous  state  the  moistiire  already  evaporated,  and  permits  the  rise  of 
still  larger  quantities  with  renewed  cooling  effects.  It  is  popularly  said 
that  air  has  a  capacity  for  absorbing  the  vapor  of  water;  and  this  expres- 
sion may  be  retained,  though  strictly  incorrect.  Air  does  not  absorb  the 
vapor,  but  is  mingled  with  it,  each  under  its  own  independent  law. 

The  atmosphere  is  estimated  to  contain  50,000,000,000,000  tons  of 
water  in  the  form  of  vapor,  but  in  a  state  of  constant  transition  to  rain  or 
fog,  snow  or  hail.  The  amount  of  precipitation  annually  is  estimated  at 
188,450,000,000,000  tons;  of  which  the  chief  part  falls  upon  the  earth,  and 
furnishes  the  supply  of  rivers. 

Precipitation  may  be  produced  by  several  causes.  Warm  currents  in 
the  upper  air,  laden  with  moisture,  when  they  strike  against  the  sides  of 
mountains,  are  rapidly  cooled,  and  take  the  form  of  clouds,  and  rain  or 
snow.  This  process  may  be  observed  in  perfectly  clear  days.  The  moun- 
tain does  not  "gather"  the  clouds;  but  the  clouds  form  from  the  passing 
wind,  and  may  be  seen  drifting  away  to  leeward.  It  is  thus  that  the 
mountains  become  the  sources  of  water-supply  for  continents.  Forests, 
possessing  a  high  radiating  power,  readil}^  receive  deposits  of  moisture  on 
the  leaves;  they  thus  increase  the  humidity  of  a  country,  and,  by  conse- 
quence, the  annual  rain-fall. 

On  some  occasions  a  warm,  moist  stratum  may  be  supposed  to  meet  a 
cold  stratum,  and  become  chilled  by  the  contact.  The  extent  to  which 
this  occurs  is  doubtful. 

An  extremely  common  cause  of  the  precipitation  of  moisture  consists 
in  the  expansion  which  air  and  vapor  undergo  from  rapid  elevation  into 
the  upper  regions  of  air,  as  is  explained  further  on,  under  Specific 
Heat. 

Another  form  of  precipitation  constitutes  dew.  The  current  explana- 
tion of  this  phenomenon  is  the  following:  During  the  day  the  earth  re- 
ceives heat  from  the  sun,  which  it  rapidly  loses  by  radiation  after  sunset. 
Being  chilled,  it  is  in  a  position  to  condense  upon  its  own  surface  the 
vapor  contained  in  the  air,  which  assumes  the  form  of  drops  of  water. 
Rough  surfaces,  like  hairy  leaves,  form  the  best  radiators,  and  are  conse- 
quently liberally  provided  with  dew.  On  a  cloudy  night  dew  is  prevented 
from  forming,  owing  to  the  fact  that  radiation  is  arrested  by  the  clouds. 
Wind  also  hinders  the  deposition,  as  it  prevents  the  formation  of  a  layer 
of  cool  air  in  contact  with  the  radiatins:  surface. 


652  THE    ATOIOSPHEEE. 

Hoar-frost  consists  of  a  precipitation  of  vapor  in  a  frozen  state  directly 
upon  the  surface. 

This,  the  accepted  theory  of  tlie  origin  of  dew,  is  doubted  by  Professor 
Stockbridge,^  who  has  obtained  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  The  temperature  of  the  soil,  taken  during  seven  months  (May  to 
November),  averaged  at  night  56.370°  F.,  and  that  of  the  air,  49.664°. 
For  the  latter  four  months,  average  at  4  a.m.:  air,  41.036°  ;  surface  of 
dry,  cultivated  soil,  50.282°;  of  wet,  cultivated  soil,  48.895°;  of  land  in 
grass,  between  53°  and  54°. 

2.  Moisture  condenses  on  the  under  side  of  boards  and  stones  lying  on 
the  ground  when  the  upper  is  dry. 

3.  The  soil  in  summer  discharges  moisture  into  the  air,  instead  of  ab- 
sorbing from  it. 

4.  Plants  exude  immense  quantities  of  water  by  day  and  night,  which, 
being  chilled  by  the  night-air,  forms  dew  on  their  surface.  Weighed  with 
the  "  dew"  on,  they  are  found  lighter  than  they  were  the  evening  before. 

The  process  of  forming  dew  is  imitated  by  an  artificial  cooling  in  the 
hygrometers  of  Daniell  and  Regnault. 

The  fonner  consists  of  a  glass  tube  bent  at  right-angles  at  two  points; 
the  middle  portion  is  horizontal,  and  the  two  end  branches  hang  vertically 
downward,  with  a  bulb  at  the  extremity  of  each.  One  bulb  contains  a 
delicate  thermometer,  dipping  into  a  small  quantity  of  ether.  The  second 
bulb  is  covered  with  muslin.  When  an  observation  is  to  be  made,  the 
muslin  is  wetted  with  a  few  drops  of  ether;  rapid  evaporation  from  the 
muslin  follows,  and  the  vapor  of  ether  within  the  first  bulb  is  cooled  and 
condensed.  The  pressure  on  the  ether  being  thus  diminished,  it  evap- 
orates freely,  and  its  temperature  is  thus  further  reduced,  reaching  at 
length  a  point  at  which  a  ring  of  dew  begins  to  be  formed  outside  the 
bulb.  This  is  the  dew-point,  or  point  at  which  the  air  deposits  moisture.^ 
When  coincident  with  the  temperature  of  the  air,  it  would  indicate  abso- 
lute saturation.  This,  however,  is  of  rare  occurrence.  Regnault's  hygro- 
meter deposits  dew  on  a  polished  silver  surface,  which  is  cooled  by  a 
current  of  air  passing'  over  ether. 

The  psychrometer,  or  dry  and  wet  bulb  instrument,  consists  of  a  pair 
of  thermometers,  mounted  for  convenience  on  a  single  piece  of  wood — 
one  to  measure  the  temperature  of  the  air,  the  other  the  temperature  pro- 
duced by  the  free  evaporation  of  water.  Evaporation  in  this  case  is  pro- 
duced by  covering  the  bulbs  with  a  single  layer  of  light  cotton  cloth,  kept 
wet  by  a  piece  of  wicking,  which  rests  with  one  end  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  bulb,  and  dips  with  its  other  end  into  a  vessel  of  water.  This  instru- 
ment does  not  mark  the  dew-point;  its  dry  bulb'  gives  the  atmospheric 
temperature,  and  the  wet  bulb  the  number  of  degrees  of  cold  which  may 


■  Investigations  made  at  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station, 
Amherst,  Mass. 

'■^  Or,  point  of  demarcation  between  the  temperatures  at  which  water  is  deposited 
and  those  at  which  it  is  not  deposited. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  653 

be  produced  by  free  evaporation.  Its  value  depends  on  the  fact  that  a 
dry  atmosphere  evaporates  vs^ater  quickly,  and  causes  a  greater  depression 
of  the  thermometer  than  a  moister  air.  From  the  reading  of  the  two 
thermometers,  the  dew-point  for  each  degree  of  atmospheric  temperature 
may  be  calculated,  and  also  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air — the  latter 
being  usually  expressed  as  the  ratio  (percentage)  of  the  vapor  actually 
present  to  that  which  the  air  would  contain  at  the  same  temperature  if 
saturated. 

Pressure  being  an  important  factor  in  the  rapidity  of  evaporation,  the 
height  of  the  barometer  must  also  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating 
the  atmospheric  moisture. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  the  General  Meteorological  Instructions, 
issued  by  the  War  Department,  Surgeon-General's  Office,  Washington, 
August  10,  1868: 

"  The  most  accurate  indications  with  the  wet  bulb  thermometer  are  ob- 
tained when  the  bulb  is  swung,  or  whirled  briskly  with  its  bulb  fully  ex- 
posed, in  which  case  its  temperature  falls  until  the  cooling  produced  by 
evaporation  is  counterbalanced  by  that  taken  up  from  the  air.  ,  .  . 
For  each  condition  of  the  atmosphere  as  to  warmth  and  moisture,  a  tem- 
perature exists  below  which  water  cannot  be  made  to  fall  by  its  own 
evaporation.  This  temperature  is  ascertained  by  swinging  a  wet  bulb 
thermometer  until  its  reading  becomes  stationary,  that  is,  until  it  ceases 
to  fall  any  lower,  however  rapid  a  motion  may  be  communicated  to  it. 

"  A  psychrometer  exposed  to  very  slow  currents  of  air,  as  when  placed 
with  its  bulb  free  on  all  sides,  in  a  louvre-boarded  box,  gives  a  some- 
what different  reading,  but  still,  one  that  can  be  used  in  the  calculation 
of  humidity,  although  with  less  accurate  results." 

A  modification  of  the  dry  and  wet  bulb  instrument,  called  the  hygro- 
deik,  contains,  in  addition  to  the  two  thermometers,  a  sort  of  mechanical 
computing-table,  which  enables  an  observer  to  estimate  immediately  the 
relative  humidity. 

Specific  Heat. 

Specific  heat  is  defined  as  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  a  given  substance  one  degree  Fahrenheit,  as  compai'ed 
with  that  required  to  raise  an  equal  weight  of  water  by  the  same  amount. 

Different  substances  in  the  same  category  (solids,  or  fluids,  or  gases) 
require  very  different  amounts  of  heat  to  produce  corresponding  tlier- 
mometric  indications.  This  is  not  a  fact  of  ordinary  observation,  but  its 
importance  in  nature  is  very  great.  To  take  an  example:  If  one  pound 
of  water  at  40°  and  one  pound  at  100°  be  mixed,  the  product  is  two 
pounds  at  70°,  because  the  specific  heats  are  the  same.  But  if  one  povmd 
at  40°  be  added  to  a  pound  of  mercury  at  100°,  the  result  will  be  a  tem- 
perature of  41f°  in  each.  In  this  experiment  water  appears  to  have  a 
great  power  of  absorbing  heat,  or  of  cooling  surrounding  objects. 

The  stone  and  earth  composing  the  surface  of  the  land  have  a  much 


654  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

lower  specific  heat,  and  become  warm  much  quicker  under  the  influence 
of  a  given  insolation,  than  the  water  of  the  sea.  The  surface  of  the  sea 
never  becomes  heated  as  the  land  does,  and  is  not  capable  of  imparting 
an  excessive  temperature  to  the  air;  hence  the  comparative  coolness  of 
summer  winds  from  the  sea. 

Liebenberg  (quoted  in  Gohren)  gives  the  following  as  specific  heat  of 
soils  (that  of  water  being  =  1.0),  for  equal  volumes  of  dry  soil: 

Coarse  tertiary  sand 0.464 

Diluvial  marl 0.349 

Loess-loam 0.321 

Granite  soil 0.437 

Tertiary  clay 0.192 


On  an  average,  the  specific  heat  of  the  land  may  be  taken  as  =  0.35. 

If  the  converse  experiment  be  tried,  it  will  be  found  that  a  pound  of 
water  at  100°,  added  to  the  same  weight  of  mercury  at  40°,  will  lose  very 
little  of  its  heat,  and  the  combined  heat  will  stand  at  98^°  F.  The  water 
having  in  this  case  already  absorbed  a  great  quantity  of  heat,  is  in  a  posi- 
tion to  spare  enough  to  raise  the  mercury  to  98°  without  itself  losing- 
more  than  If  °.  So  the  ocean,  in  winter,  spares  a  great  deal  of  heat  to 
the  cold  wind  without  becoming  much  chilled;  and  winds  off  the  water 
are  apt  to  be  warmer  than  land  breezes  at  that  season. 

The  ocean  may  thus  be  regarded  as  a  vast  reservoir  of  heat,  for  equal- 
izing the  local  temjjerature  and  that  of  the  globe.  Although  water 
warmed  bv  the  sun  remains  at  the  surface,  nevertheless  the  total  effect 
of  one  day's  warming  is  so  little  perceptible  that  the  diurnal  variation  of 
temperature  is  only  two  or  three  degrees  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  four  or 
five  in  the  temperate  zones.  There  are  very  few  climates,  and  those  strictly 
oceanic,  where  the  atmosphere  is  limited  to  such  narrow  ranges  of  varia- 
tion. The  entire  range  of  temperature  (Loomis)  for  the  middle  of  the 
Atlantic  during  the  year,  near  the  equator,  is  about  10°;  near  30°  N.  lat. 
it  is  15°;  near  40°  it  is  20°,  and  near  50°  it  is  24°,  which  is  scarcely  one 
half  the  annual  range  of  temperature  of  the  most  equable  climates  in  the 
same  latitude  on  land. 

The  following  tables  are  taken  from  Regnault: 

SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  EQUAL  WEIGHTS  BETWEEN  32°  AND  212°. 


Water 1. 

Carbon 0.24150 

Glass 0.19768 

Iron 0.11379 

Zinc ; 0.09555 

Copper 0.09515 

Brass 0.09391 


Silver 0.05701 

Tin 0.05623 

Mercury 0.03332 

Platinum 0.03243 

Gold 0.03244 

Lead 0.03140 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  655 


SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  LIQUIDS. 

Water 1.00000  i  Bisulphide  of  carbon 0.2303 

Oil  of  turpentine 0.43593  \  Bromine 0.1060. 

Alcohol 0.615      I  Chloroform 0.3293 

Ether 0.5113    I 

SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  GASES. 


Gases,  equal  weights.  Water  the  Standard. 


Water 1.0000 


Watery  vapor. 
Air 


0.4570 
0.3377 


Oxygen : i  0.3183 

Nitrogen j  0.3440 

Hydrogen 3.4046 

Protoxide  of  nitrogen 0.3238 

Heavy  carb.  hydrogen 0.3694 

Oxide  of  carbon |  0.2479 

Carbonic  acid 0.3308 


The  specific  heat  of  bodies  is  inversely  proportioned  to  the  pressure 
under  which  they  are  placed.  A  solid  like  copper,  compressed  by  force 
of  blows,  not  only  becomes  heated  (which  is  in  part  due  to  the  transference 
of  the  momentum  of  the  hammer  with  change  into  heat),  but  its  specific 
heat  is  permanently  lessened,  until  it  is  brought  back  to  its  former  density 
by  annealing.  Gases  from  which  the  pressure  is  removed  become  sensi- 
bly colder:  the  heat  contained  is  not  lost,  but  is  withdrawn  from  observa- 
tion. A  gas  under  slight  pressure,  therefore,  resembles  water  in  having  a 
high  specific  heat;  while  under  a  strong  pressure  it  resembles  mercury  in 
having  a  low  specific  heat.  Accordingly,  air  at  elevated  points,  under 
lessened  pressure,  has  increased  power  to  abstract  heat  from  bodies  in 
contact  with  it.  When  brought  in  contact  with  mercury  in  a  thermome- 
ter, this  rarefied  air  exti'acts  more  heat  from  it;  the  thermometer  "falls," 
and  the  fall  is  an  indication  of  the  power  of  rarefied  air  to  extract  more 
heat  than  condensed  air  from  all  neighboring  bodies — which  is  what  is 
meant  by  temperature.  This  fall  of  the  thermometer  occurs  at  about  the 
rate  of  1°  F.  for  every  300  feet  of  elevation.'  Hence,  the  coolness  of 
table-lands  and  mountain  peaks;  hence,  the  great  cold  which  aeronauts 
have  to  suffer. 

The  formation  of  clouds  by  condensation  of  vapor  may  evidently  be 

'  In  pure  air,  expansion  alone  would  lower  the  temperature  at  the  rate  of  1°  C.  for 
every  100  metres.  But  the  condensation  of  vapor  occurring  at  these  elevations  sets 
free  so  much  heat  as  to  reduce  this  to  the  rate  of  0.5"  or  0.6°  C,  say  1°  F.  for  every 
328  feet.    (Gohren.) 


656  THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 

caused  by  simply  raising  the  vapor  to  a  sufficient  height  above  the  earth ; 
and  this  rise  is  constantly  occurring  under  the  influence  of  the  superior 
levity  of  the  vapor,  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays.  Hence,  in  tropical  regions, 
where  the  sun  is  constantly  at  work  upon  large  masses  of  water,  a  con- 
stant transfer  of  heat  takes  place  from  the  surface  of  the  sea  to  the  higher 
regions  of  the  air.  The  heat  ascends  and  does  not  redescend;  it  is  carried 
of£  in  vapor,  and  is  not  returned  in  the  rain.  It  results  from  this  fact, 
that  in  some  tropical  regions  of  the  earth,  where  water  abounds,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  never  rises  so  high  by  many  degrees  as  it  does  in  cer- 
tain comparatively  northern  countries  where  the  air  is  dry.  At  Singapore 
(lat.  1°  17'  N.)  the  highest  range  of  the  thermometer  is  95°  F. 


Climatology. 

The  remarks  contained  in  the  few  preceding  pages  have  related  to  cer- 
tain points  in  meteorology — that  is,  to  the  general  laws  of  atmospheric 
phenomena.  As  applied  to  the  special  circumstances  of  given  districts, 
countries,  or  seas,  these  laws  constitute  climatology. 

In  describing  the  climate  of  any  place,  the  leading  facts  to  be  stated 
are  those  regarding  temperature  y  then,  moisture  y  and  afterward,  vnncl, 
rain,  harometrie  pressure.  These  elements,  however,  are  so  closely  re- 
lated that  it  will  be  well  to  treat  of  them  as  forming  one  connected  sys- 
tem. The  first  point  to  be  known  in  regard  to  a  climate  will  be  assumed 
to  be  its  temperature.  The  others  will  be  spoken  of  as  subordinates, 
either  as  contributing  to  raise  or  depress,  to  steady  or  to  vary  the  tem- 
perature of  a  place,  or  else  as  dependent  upon  the  temperature. 

The  thermotneter  chiefly  used  in  this  country  is  that  of  Fahrenheit, 
which  has  a  scale  of  180°  between  the  freezing-point  and  the  boiling- 
point  of  water  (32°  and  212°).  The  centigrade  thermometer  divides  the 
same  scale  into  100°;  it  numbers  the  freezing-point  0°,  the  boiling-point 
100°.  To  reduce  degrees  of  the  latter  (also  called  the  Celsius  thermom- 
eter) to  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9  and  divide  by  5,  and  add 
32  to  the  quotient.  If  a  minus  quantity  in  degrees  centigrade  is  to  be 
expressed  in  Fahrenheit's  scale,  subtract  the  above  quotient  from  32°. 

The  Reaumur  scale  is  reduced  to  Fahrenheit's  by  multiplying  by  9  and 
dividing  by  4,  and  adding  the  quotient  to,  or  subtracting  it  from,  32°, 
according  as  the  quantity  is  positive  or  negative. 

In  recording  temperatures,  it  is  of  use  to  have  three  instruments:  one 
ordinary  upright  thermometer,  and  two  of  the  self -registering  sort — one 
for  maxima,  and  one  for  minima. 

The  sun-tnaximum,  or  "  solar  radiation,"  thermometer  measures  the 
heat  which  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  capable  of  imparting  to  solids. 
The  bulb  is  blackened;  the  instrument  is  mercurial,  and  is  contained  in  a 
glass-case  which  shelters  it  from  currents  of  air.  A  constriction  in  the 
neck  of  the  bulb  holds  the  column  of  mercury  at  the  maximum  point. 

The  following  directions  will  be  found  of  practical  use  to  observers: 


THE    AT.MOSPIIEKE.  657 

"The  thermometer'  should  be  placed  in  the  open  air,  but  under  a 
roof  of  some  kind,  and  should  be  well  sheltered  toward  the  south.  It 
should  be  protected  not  only  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  but  from 
the  influences  of  all  surfaces  which  strongly  reflect  the  sun's  heat,  and  of 
all  larg-e  bodies,  such  as  thick  walls,  large  rocks,  etc.,  which  become  great 
reservoirs  of  heat  during  the  day  and  of  cold  during  the  night. 

"  "What  it  is  desirable  to  ascertain  by  thermometer  is  the  general  tem- 
perature of  the  air  at  some  given  distance  above  the  ground,  and  to  do 
this  properly  the  instrument  must  be  freely  exposed  to  the  external  atmos- 
phere, but  protected  from  local  radiations. 

"  Besides  the  circumstances  alluded  to  above  as  affecting  the  thermom- 
eter, the  height  of  the  instrument  above  the  ground  must  be  taken  into 
account,  and  also  the  character  of  the  ground  immediately  beneath  it — 
both  mattei's  of  some  importance.  The  height  which  it  is  deemed  best 
to  fix  upon  is  that  of  four  feet  from  the  ground  to  the  thermometer  bulb, 
and  the  surface  under  the  thermometer  should  be  of  short  grass,  suf- 
ficiently exposed  to  the  sun  and  wind  to  keep  it  from  habitual  damp- 
ness. 

"  A  thermometer-box,  in  which  most  of  the  instruments  used  and  re- 
corded at  the  station  are  suspended,  is  generally  used  for  the  best- 
conducted  meteorological  observations,  and  one  should  be  made  and  set 
up  at  every  post  where  there  are  means  of  constructing  it.  This  box, 
which  shoiild  be  at  least  two  feet  square,  is  preferably  made  of  louvre- 
boards  or  overlapping  slats;  but  ordinary  boards  pierced  with  numerous 
half-inch  holes  may  be  used  instead.  It  should  be  open  at  the  bottom, 
and  have  a  roof  which  will  shed  rain.  One  of  the  sides  should  be  hinged 
for  convenience  of  access  to  the  interior,  or  the  box  may  be  left  perma- 
nently open  towards  the  north,  a  piece  of  board  or  of  canvas  being  used 
to  protect  it  against  driving  winds  from  that  quarter.  This  box  is  to  be 
well  secured  on  posts,  at  the  proper  height  from  the  ground.  It  should  be 
sheltered  from  the  sun  between  sunrise  and  7  a.m.,  and  between  11  a.m. 
and  3  p.m.,  special  screens  being  erected  for  the  purpose,  if  necessary. 
These  screens,  as  well  as  the  box  itself,  should  be  whitewashed  or  painted 
white. 

"  Thermometers  now  made  for  the  medical  department  are  so  mounted 
as  to  give  the  freest  exposure  to  the  air  and  the  least  opportunity  for  the 
retention  of  moisture  about  the  bulb. 

"  As  a  general  thing,  thermometers  which  have  been  kept  for  some 
time  will  read  higher  than  a  new  standard,  and  if  the  thermometer  has 
been  originally  an  inferior  one  the  amount  of  its  error  will  vary  at  dif- 
ferent temperatures." 

The  point  of  33°  F.  should  be  verified  each  year,  at  a  time  when  there 
is  a  slight  thaw  going  on  in  the  shade.  The  thermometer  should  be 
plunged  for  half  an  hour,  nearly  to  the  32°  mark,  in  a  vessel  full  of  wet 


'  General  Meteorological  Instructions,  War  Department,  Surgeon-General's  Office, 
Washington,  August  10,  1868. 
Vol.  I.— 42 


658  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

snow  or  ice  that  is  beginning  to  melt,  with  only  enough  water  to  fill  up 
the  interstices. 

A  large  number  of  observations,  systematically  made,  form  a  basis  for 
calculating  means,  variations,  and  ranges  of  temperature,  and  their  laws. 

The  mean  height  for  any  given  place  is  ascertained  from  hourly  obser- 
vations, taken  day  and  night  for  a  series  of  years.  The  mean  may  be  cal- 
culated either  for  the  whole  year  or  for  the  separate  months,  or  for  each 
day  in  the  year.  The  mean  temperature  for  the  whole  year  is  of  impor- 
tance, but  by  itself  is  far  from  conveying  the  information  desired  by  a 
person  about  to  reside  in  a  place;  such  a  jDerson  wishes  to  know  the  tem- 
perature for  the  months  he  intends  to  spend  there. 

The  yearly  mean  for  a  given  place  is  the  leading  fact  in  respect  to  its 
climate  as  a  lohole,  and  this  mean  is  very  nearly  the  same  from  year  to 
year.  A  variation  of  four  or  five  degrees  is  suificient  to  constitute  a  very 
cold  or  a  very  hot  year;  and  a  corresponding  difference  in  the  annual 
mean  of  two  places  represents  a  difference  in  climate  corresponding  to 
that  between  New  York  and  Richmond,  whose  means  are  respectively 
51.7^  F.  and  56.2°  F.  In  most  places  the  difference  between  extremely 
cold  and  extremely  hot  years  is  much  less  than  10°.  It  has  rarely  been 
greater  at  any  place. 

A  useful  chart  of  the  temperature  of  a  given  place  may  be  made  con- 
taining three  curves:  first,  that  of  the  mean  of  each  month;  second,  that 
of  the  highest  observation  in  each  month;  and,  third,  that  of  lowest  ob- 
servations. The  first  shows  the  general  amount  of  heat  and  its  rate  of 
increase  and  decrease  (monthly  variation)  during  the  seasons;  the  second 
and  third,  taken  together,  show  the  monthly  oscillation — a  fact  of  extreme 
importance  to  all  delicate  persons. 

The  curve  of  monthly  variation  represents  a  complete  natural  cycle  of 
time.  Another  natural  cycle  is  that  of  the  day;  and  the  hourly  variation 
in  temperature  constitutes  another  most  important  element  in  climate. 
This  factor  is  extremely  regular  for  a  given  place.  It  is  usual  to  find  that 
the  curve  touches  its  lowest  point  about  an  hour  before  sunrise,  and  its 
highest  about  two  hours  after  noon.  This,  however,^  is  not  the  same  at 
different  seasons  and  for  different  places. 

Where  the  annual  range  is  great,  the  monthly  and  daily  ranges  are 
also  usually  great. 

It  will  be  useful  to  note  the  reason  why  the  time  of  greatest  heat  does 
not  fall  at  noon,  when  the  earth  is  receiving  the  greatest  amount  of  heat 
from  the  sun.  The  fact  is  a  universal  one,  and  serves  to  illustrate  the 
way  in  which  the  atmosphere  receives  its  heat  indirectly  from  the  upper 
layers  of  the  earth,  and  not  to  any  great  extent  from  the  direct  action  of 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  These  upper  layers  of  the  soil  require  time  to  be 
warmed,  and  they  continue  for  some  hours  after  noon  to  add  their 
stored-up  heat  to  that  which  the  sun  pours  upon  them.  In  a  precisely 
analogous  way  the  yearly  cycle  of  heat  depends  upon  the  effect  which  is 
produced  on  the  atmosphere  by  the  accumulated  heat  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face.    The    accumulation    is  not  greatest   on  the  day  when    the   sun  is 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  659 

highest,  but  goes  on  increasing  for  four  or  more  weeks,  making  the 
warmest  weeks  fall  in  the  months  of  July  or  August.  In  our  climate, 
July  is  the  hottest  month. 

The  coldest  hour  is  several  hours  past  midnight,  and  the  coldest  week 
is  in  January  usually,  because  the  process  of  cooling  continues  some  time 
after  the  shortest  day  is  past. 

The  mean  temperature  of  a  day  is  obtained  in  several  ways:  [a)  from 
the  average  of  hourly  observations  for  the  day;  {b)  from  the  average  of 
the  two  extremes,  obtained  by  self-registering  instruments,  which  differs 
little  from  the  preceding;  (c)  by  selecting  some  hour  in  the  day  which 
experience  has  shown  to  possess  a  temperature  equal  to  the  average  of 
the  twenty-four  hours;  (c?)  from  the  avei-age  of  two  hours  of  the  same 
name  [e.g.,  7  a.m.  and  7  p.m.);  and,  finally  (with  greater  certainty  than 
by  any,  except  the  first  method),  (e)  from  the  average  of  three  daily  ob- 
servations. The  mean  obtained  in  this  way  has  to  be  submitted  to  a 
correction,  ascertained  by  experience,  and  differing  with  the  season  and 
the  location.  The  hours  recommended  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  are 
7  A.M.,  2  P.M.,  and  9  p.m. 

A  self-registering  photographic  tracing  of  the  thermometer  may  be 
taken,  representing  every  moment  of  the  day. 

It  has  been  already  observed  that  the  mean  temperature  is  not  the 
fact  which  most  concerns  an  invalid.  It  is  not  absolute  cold  or  heat,  so 
much  as  fluctuation,  that  tries  the  endurance  of  delicate  constitutions 
and  annoys  even  robust  persons.  We  classify  climates  by  their  ranges. 
A  great  range  for  the  year  or  for  the  day  is  characteristic  of  climates 
deprived  of  the  equalizing  influence  of  water — that  is,  of  continental 
climates.     A  small  range,  on  the  other  hand,  is  found  in  marine  climates. 

The  temperature  of  a  place  is  affected  by  many  circumstances.  The 
three  most  important  are  the  latitude,  the  height  above  the  sea,  and  the 
presence  of  water  or  of  atmospheric  vapor.  Other  conditions  of  great 
importance  are  the  neighborhood  of  forests,  the  conformation  of  the  sur- 
face, the  composition  of  the  soil,  the  wind,  sunshine,  and  so  forth. 

Latitude. — This  is  on  the  whole  the  most  important  factor.  At  the 
equator,  the  distribution  of  heat  among  the  seasons  is  most  equal,  while 
beyond  the  tropics  the  year  is  characterized  by  six  months  of  increase, 
with  a  very  gradual  and  retarded  warming  of  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  six  months  of  the  reverse.  "  Near  the  equator,  the  entire  annual 
variation  of  temperature  is  very  small,  and  the  greatest  cold  may  occur  in 
any  month  from  November  to  March,  or  even  from  July  to  September. 
At  some  places  near  tlie  equator  there  are  two  annual  maxima  of  tempera- 
ture and  two  minima.  In  the  extreme  south  of  the  United  States  the 
greatest  cold  usually  occurs  in  December;  near  the  parallel  of  40°  it  oc- 
curs about  the  middle  of  January;  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States,  about  the  1st  of  February;  at  Toronto  it  occurs  as  late  as  the 
middle  of  February;  and  in  latitude  78°  the  greatest  cold  occurs  in 
March.  Throughout  most  of  the  United  States  the  maximum  tempera- 
ture occurs  about  the  middle  of  July;  but  at  some  places  north  of  the 


660  THE    ATMOSPHEKE. 

United  States  the  maximum  does  not  occur  until  the  10th  of  August." 
(Loorais.) 

The  sun  in  winter  [i.  e.,  in  what  is  winter  to  the  northern  hemisphere) 
is  in  perihelion,  and  gives  a  greater  amount  of  heat  to  the  earth,  which  is 
to  the  amount  in  summer  as  1.034  to  0.967.  For  us,  however,  this  is  more 
than  made  up  by  the  great  advantage  of  a  more  vertical  radiation. 

The  distance  of  a  place  from  the  equator  is,  on  the  whole,  the  most 
potent  factor  in  determining  the  climate  of  a  place.  It  is  modified  very 
much,  however,  by  the  altitude,  or  elevation,  of  the  site  above  the  sea- 
level.  The  lower  strata  of  air,  especially  in  summer,  are  much  warmer 
than  the  upper.  iVt  a  height  of  about  six  miles  it  may  be  assumed  that 
the  air  is  no  longer  affected  by  the  radiation  from  the  earth  (Langer), 
and  is  alike  summer  and  winter.  Glaisher  found  that  the  temperature, 
measured  from  a  balloon,  fell  1°  F.  for  every  162  feet  in  a  clear  day,  and 
for  every  223  feet  in  a  cloudy  day,  \inder  1,000  feet.  At  10,000  feet  ele- 
vation, the  depressions  were  1°  for  417  and  455  feet;  at  20,000  feet,  1°  for 
nearly  1,000  feet. 

The  same  lowering  of  temperature  occurs  on  mountains  and  plateaux. 
It  does  not  follow  exactl}'  the  same  rules  as  in  the  free  air,  for  the  tem- 
perature near  the  surface  is  greatly  affected  by  the  ascending  currents 
and  the  aerial  moisture. 

An  actual  yearly  mean  for  an  elevated  place  may  be  reduced  to  what 
would  be  its  mean  if  at  the  level  of  the  sea  by  subtracting  a  certain  num- 
ber of  degrees  Fahrenheit,  to  be  ascertained  by  dividing  the  altitude  (in 
feet)  by  300.  It  is  this  reduced  or  theoretical  mean  temperature  which  is 
tised  in  drawing  isothermal  lines. 

A  correct  representation  of  the  heat  of  a  place  is  not  given  by  stating 
merely  its  latitude.  The  annual  mean  of  a  large  number  of  places  being 
given,  and  those  of  an  identical  mean  being  selected,  a  line  drawn  through 
such  a  selected  series  will  form  an  irregular  curve,  which,  in  some  cases, 
may  sweep  through  twenty  or  more  degrees  of  latitude.  Such  a  curve  is 
called  an  isothermal  line.  To  illustrate  this:  the  isothermal  of  50°  passes 
through  Puget's  Sound,  Burlington  (Iowa),  Pittsburg,  New  Haven,  Dub- 
lin, Brussels,  Vienna,  near  the  northern  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  a 
little  north  of  Pekin — thus  passing  through  a  range  of  twelve  degrees  of 
latitude. 

Isothermal  lines  have  been  made  to  represent,  not  only  the  yearly 
temperature,  but  that  for  each  month  of  the  year. 

Water. — The  presence  of  a  large  body  of  water  equalizes  temperatures 
in  a  way  above  explained.  The  mildness  of  sea-side  climates,  i.  e.,  their 
equability,  is  well  known.  Travellers  in  the  forests,  in  cool  weather,  seek 
the  neighborhood  of  a  lake  for  their  night  bivouac.  The  effect  may  be 
seen,  for  instance,  in  the  climate  of  Monach,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  with  a 
full  exposure  to  the  sea  winds,  where  the  mean  for  January  is  43.4°  F., 
and  for  July  55°  F.  In  Moscow,  on  the  contrarj^,  which  presents  a  typical 
continental  climate,  the  means  for  these  months  are  —  10.9°  C.  and  19.2° 
C.  (=  12.4°  and  66.6°  F.).     In  the  one  case  a  difference  of  11.6°  F.,  in 


THE    ATMOSPHEKE.  661 

the  other  of  54.2°,  between  the  means  of  the  coldest  and  the  hottest 
months.  The  difference  is  equally  palpable  wlicn  the  absolute  range  is 
taken — that  is,  the  difference  between  the  extremes  at  any  time  observed; 
in  Moscow  it  equals  141°  F.  (between  —  47°  and  +  94°)  ;  in  Yakutsk, 
Siberia,  162°  F.  These  two  are  typical  illustrations  of  a  continental 
climate. 

Owing  to  the  slowness  with  which  the  sea  receives  heat,  the  maximum 
temperature  of  sea-air  is  not  attained  till  a  month  or  two  later  than  the 
air  of  the  land.  This  also  has  its  influence  on  the  autumnal  climates  of 
sea-side  places. 

The  effect  of  ocean  currents  upon  climate  is  best  seen  in  the  west  of 
Europe.  Shetland  enjoys  a  winter  temperature  of  39°  F. ;  it  would  be 
3°,  if  its  geographical  latitude  alone  determined  its  warmth :  and  London 
has  a  winter  of  38°,  which  would  be  17°,  were  it  not  for  the  heat  brought 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  that  current  which  renders  Norway  habitable. 
Instead  of  estimating  the  climate  of  central  and  northern  Europe  by  its 
latitude,  we  may  reckon  that  it  grows  cold  from  west  to  east.  The  effect 
of  the  Gulf  Stream  upon  the  climate  is  perceptible  as  far  as  central  Ger- 
many. On  the  west  coast  of  North  America  a  similar  current  affects  in 
like  manner  the  climate  of  Alaska  and  British  Columbia. 

A  cold  (polar)  current,  running  next  our  own  Atlantic  coast,  prevents 
us  from  deriving  benefit  from  the  heat  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  To  this  add 
the  prevalence  of  north-west  winds  in  our  cold  season. 

Another  function  of  moisture,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  is  the  prevention 
of  the  escape  of  heat  by  radiation.  It  is  the  absence  of  this  "  blanket " 
that  makes  inland  climates  so  cold  in  winter.  Deserts,  or  tracts  where 
little  rain  falls,  are  among  the  hottest  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  by  day, 
but  are  sometimes  very  cold  by  night,  owing  to  the  excess  of  radiation ; 
when  situated  in  the  tropics,  they  give  rise  to  the  saying  that  the  night 
is  the  tropical  winter. 

The  amount  of  rain  falling  at  a  given  place  depends  upon  several 
circumstances. 

The  excessive  rainfall  in  certain  parts  of  the  tropics  has  been  men- 
tioned and  explained.     In  some  places  a  shower  is  expected  every  day. 

The  wind  is  the  bearer  of  rain — or  rather  of  vapor,  which  may  be  con- 
densed under  favoring  circumstances.  Its  influence  in  the  production  of 
rain  depends  on  several  circumstances  : 

1.  The  width  of  the  surface  of  water  it  has  traversed,  and  the  distance 
it  has  had  to  pass  over  land  before  i-eaching  the  place  in  question. 

2.  The  relative  temperature  of  the  place  the  wind  comes  from  and  of 
the  place  it  goes  to.  An  equatorial  current,  warm  and  vapor-laden,  de- 
posits rain  as  it  passes  to  the  north  and  east.  A  polar  current  is  cold, 
and  therefore  dry;  its  effect  on  the  lands  tying  to  the  south  is  drying. 
The  latter  case  is  exemplified  by  the  current  from  the  steppes  of  Russia 
and  Siberia,  which  furnishes  a  prevailing  wind  in  winter  over  a  large  part 
of  the  Eastern  Continent.  Another  instance  is  the  north  and  north-west 
wind  of  our  own  continent,  which  originates  in  the  vast  northern  plains, 


662 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


and,  coming  to  warmer  latitudes,  appears  as  a  dry  wind.  Again,  the  heat  of 
the  sandy  wastes  of  the  Sahara  is  so  excessive  that  the  moist  winds  coming 
from  the  Mediterranean  do  not  part  with  any  water  by  condensation. 

3.  Moist  winds  deposit  rain  upon  mountains,  especially  if  they  lie 
across  the  line  of  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  ;  and  in  many  cases 
the  air  is  so  exhausted  of  moisture  by  the  process,  that  the  country  lying 
beyond  is  almost  rainless.  The  winds  from  the  Atlantic  coast  are  thus 
exhausted  in  the  mountains  which  lie  to  the  south  of  the  Sahara;  those 
from  the  Mediterranean,  in  parts,  by  the  mountains  on  the  northern  coast. 

The  vast  tracts  of  land  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  labor  under 
a  similar  disadvantage,  which  is  mitigated  by  their  elevation  and  conse- 
quent coolness,  and  by  their  comparatively  northern  latitude. 

Forests  are  generally  credited  with  the  power  of  increasing  the  moisture 
of  a  neighboring  country.  It  is  evident  to  a  superficial  observation  that 
the  moisture  within  their  own  precincts  is  increased.  This  fact,  by  itself, 
though  interesting,  does  not  wholly  solve  our  doubts  ;  certain  things 
appear  to  be  settled,  however.  The  climate  of  a  forest  resembles  that  of 
an  island.  The  presence  of  much  moisture  in  the  air  prevents  the  rapid 
loss  of  heat  by  night,  and  enables  a  large  amount  to  become  latent  by  day. 
Hence  the  air  is  cooler  by  day,  both  in  summer  and  winter;  and  by  night 
it  is  warmer.  The  yearly  maximum  is  5.2°  C.  (—  9.4°  F.)  lower  than  in 
the  neighboring  open  air  (Ebermayer),  and  the  minimum  is  higher;  but, 
on  the  whole,  the  forest  air  is  decidedly  cooler  than  that  of  the  plain.  It 
seems  to  be  the  function  of  the  woods  to  store  up  moisture.  They  collect 
it  from  warm  moist  winds,  which  would  be  less  likely  to  give  it  up  to  the 
open  fields,  and  they  impart  it  to  dry  winds,  whether  cold  or  warm.  This 
is  more  certain  in  regard  to  mountain  forests  than  in  regard  to  those  on 
low  land. 

It  may  be  added  that,  by  protecting  the  snow  from  sudden  melting 
and  the  soil  from  the  devastation  of  torrents,  or  avalanches,  trees  play  a 
most  important  part  in  maintaining  a  country  in  a  habitable  state. 

The  following  statement  of  the  average  annual  rainfall  in  several 
places  is  from  Hann's  tables : 


Place. 


Suez 

Fort  Yuma,  in  the  Colorado  Valley 

Astrachan 

Madrid 

Coimbra,  west  coast  of  Spain 

New  York 

London 

Singapore 

Sierra  Leone 

Cayenne 

Cerra  Punjee 


Paris  inches. 

Millimetres. 

1.0 

28 

3.7 

75 

4.6 

124 

15.0 

407 

111.2 

3,010 

44.4 

1,201 

18.1 

490 

84.2 

2,280 

118.4 

3,195 

121.9 

3,301 

524.5 

14,198 

THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


663 


The  annual  amount  of  rain-fall  is  greatest  at  the  equator,  and  dimin- 
ishes with  some  regularity  toward  the  poles.  Roughly  stated,  it  equals, 
in  inches — 


At  latitude. 

Annual  fall  in  inches. 

At  latitude. 

Annual  fall  in  inches. 

0° 
30° 
30° 
40° 

100 
80 
60 
40 

i                50° 

60° 

70° 

!             80° 

30 

20 

10 

5 

The  distribution  of  the  rain-fall  through  the  year  differs  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent, latitudes.  At  the  equator  there  is  a  belt  of  a  few  degrees  where 
a  heavy  shower  with  thunder  occurs  every  day  between  noon  and  two 
o'clock.  Next  comes  a  tropical  zone,  with  periodical  rains  occurring 
when  the  sun  is  overhead,  i.  e.,  in  the  summer.  Then  a  sub-tropical  dry 
zone,  extending  from  about  24°  to  28°,  which  coincides  with  the  greatest 
part  of  the  deserts  on  the  earth's  surface.  Beyond  lies  the  temperate 
zone,  divided  into  three  belts  :  the  warm,  28°-35°,  with  semi-periodical 
winter  rains,  and  little  in  summer;  the  middle,  35°-45°,  with  equinoctial 
rains;  and  the  cooler,  45°-65°,  with  perennial  rains,  but  with  a  maximum 
in  summer.  The  polar  zone  has  a  dry  winter,  with  clear  sky,  but  in  sum- 
mer a  frequent  fall  of  light  ra,in.  None  of  these  zones  strictly  corresponds 
to  the  above  parallels,  any  more  than  the  isothermal  zones  do  to  theirs. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  amount  of  rain-fall  is  very  far  from 
being  an  index  of  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere.  In  fact,  these  two  are 
often  found  in  inverse  ratio  to  each  other.  A  showery  climate  is  a  disad- 
vantage when  it  keeps  people  in  the  house. 

A  full  description  of  the  method  of  taking  observations  of  rain-  and 
snow-fall  is  given  in  the  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections  (148).  The 
following  brief  note  is  from  instructions  issued  by  the  War  Department: 

"  The  rain-gauge  now  issued  by  the  Department  is  a  brass  cylinder, 
seven  and  a  half  inches  high,  with  a  diameter  at  its  mouth  of  one  and 
ninety-seven  hundredths  (1.97)  of  an  inch;  this  diameter  being  fixed  upon 
for  the  reason  that  one  inch  of  rain  falling  through  such  an  aperture 
will  measure  exactly  fifty  cubic  centimetres  (50  c.c). 

"  The  most  desirable  place  for  a  rain-gauge,  other  things  being  equal, 
is  at  the  surface  of  the  ground;  but,  since  it  is  not  easy  to  protect  an  in- 
strument in  that  situation,  the  gauge  will  be  placed  on  the  top  of  a  post 
eight  feet  high,  a  countersunk  hole  of  three  inches  in  depth  being  made 
to  receive  it." 

The  composition  of  the  soil  affects  the  temperature  greatly.  While 
water  equalizes  the  temperature,  dry  sand  produces  great  extremes. 
Owing  to  the  very  poor  conducting  power  of  this  substance,  it  retains  a 
great  deal  of  heat  in  its  uppermost  layer,  giving  a  very  high  temperature 
to  the  air  which  passes  over  it  by  day.     At  night  the  radiation  from  this 


664 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


shallow  surface  is  so  great  that  frost  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  in 
dry,  tropical  countries  where  trees  are  absent.  Loam  and  clay  soils,  re- 
taining moisture,  are  not  so  hot  at  the  surface,  nor  so  cold  by  night,  as 
sand  is.  In  parts  of  the  Sahara  and  the  deserts  of  Arabia  a  mean  sum- 
mer-heat of  95°  has  been  observed  with  a  surface-temperature  of  200°  F., 
or  125°  in  the  shade.  Similar  elevation  of  surface-heat  is  characteristic 
of  the  climate  of  India. 

Conformation  of  surface. — The  general  rule  of  diminished  tempera- 
ture with  increased  elevation  is  subject  to  a  special  exception  in  the  case 
of  low  land  surrounded  uy  hills.  The  early  frosts  of  autumn  attack  such 
spots  first,  unless  they  are  protected  by  the  presence  of  a  sheet  of 
water. 

The  air  at  higher  levels  on  the  hills  or  mountains,  becoming  chilled  at 
evening,  or  under  various  other  circumstances,  rushes  down  the  sides  into 
the  valleys,  producing  that  freezing  blast  which  the  traveller  often  en- 
counters at  the  entrance  of  a  pass.  A  lake  surrounded  by  hills  is  notori- 
ously squally.  In  choosing  the  site  o±  a  house,  therefore,  low  ground 
surrounded  by  hills  is  objectionable  for  other  reasons  than  that  of  ex- 
cessive moisture.  In  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  upper  Austria,  the  peasants 
have  discovered  that  a  house  is  warmer  if  built  upon  the  low  foot-hills 
than  if  placed  in  the  bed  of  a  valley. 

Tlie  wind — its  origin,  its  relations  to  barometric  pressure  and  mois- 
ture, and  other  points — need  not  be  further  dwelt  upon  here.  For  a 
description  of  the  anemometer,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  publications 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  The  direction,  force,  and  variations  of 
the  wind  for  given  periods  form  extremely  important  elements  in  the 
climate  of  a  place. 

VELOCITY  OF  WIND. 


Pressure  in  lbs. 

Descriptive  names  used  by 

Velocity. 

per  square  foot. 

British  Admiralty. 

0  =  calm. 

l=less  than  five  miles  an  hour. 

.125 

Light  air. 

2  =  between  five  and  ten. 
3=      "          ten  and  fifteen. 

.125  to      .50 
.5  "     1.12 

\  Light  breeze. 

4=      " 

fifteen  and  twenty. 

1.12  "     2.00 

Gentle  breeze. 

5=      " 

twenty  and  thirty. 

2.00  "    4.50 

Moderate  breeze. 

6=      " 

thirty  and  forty. 

4.50  "     8.00 

Fresh  breeze  to  stormy 

breeze. 
Moderate  gale. 

W—           u 

forty  and  fifty. 

8.00  "  12.50 

8=      " 

fifty  and  sixty. 

12.50  "  18.00 

Fresh  gale. 

9=      " 

sixty  and  seventy. 

18.00  "  24.50 

Strong    gale    to  whole 
gale. 

10= above 

seventy. 

Storm  to  hurricane. 

THE    ATMOSPHERE.  Q6o 

DESIGNATIONS  OF   WIND  ACCORDING  TO   ITS  VELOCITY  (PfiCLET).' 

Metres  per  second. 

0,5 wind  hardly  felt. 

1 sensible. 

2 moderate. 

5.0 quite  strong. 

10 high. 

20 very  high. 

22.5 storm. 

27 severe  storm, 

36 hurricane. 

45 hurricane  which  uproots  trees  and  overthrows  houses. 

Th^  regularity  of  the  winds  in  the  tropics  has  been  noticed.  In  the 
temperate  zones  the  upper  current  (equatorial  moist  wind)  conies  much 
nearer  the  earth,  and  often  descends  so  as  to  touch  its  surface.  This  pro- 
duces a  rapid  change  of  weather,  with  rain;  and  the  frequency  of  these 
changes  is  characteristic  of  temperate  zones  in  most  months  of  the  year. 

Jiarometric  pressure. — This  is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  weight  of  the 
atmospheric  air;  but  the  tension  of  the  watery  vapor  in  the  air  certainly 
afi'ects  the  barometric  pressure  also.  The  pressure,  lightened  where  the 
air  of  a  place  is  expanded  by  heat  and  increased  during  cold,  forms  the 
principal  cause  of  the  production  of  wind.  Foci  of  low  pressure  are  pro- 
duced over  continental  plains,  like  those  of  Asia  and  North  America,  in 
summer;  of  high  pressure,  in  the  same  places,  during  winter.  To  these 
foci  the  air  converges  in  summer,  and  from  them  it  diverges  in  winter. 

The  observations  of  the  barometer  are  classified  under  the  following 
heads,  which  correspond  to  those  belonging  to  thermometry: 

Mean  height  for  day,  for  month,  for  year,  and  that  for  a  place,  de- 
duced from  the  average  of  a  series  of  years. 

Hourly  variation,  or  diurnal  oscillation,"  derived  from  observations 
protracted  for  years.  There  are  two  fluctuations  daily  in  each  direction 
— giving  maxima  in  the  tropics,  at  about  9  a,m  and  10  p,m,,  and  minima 
at  4  A,M,  and  3  or  4  p,m.,  or  nearly  so. 

Monthly  oscillation  is  the  difference  between  the  extremes  observed 
during  the  month.     It  represents  accidental  changes  of  weather.     A  mean " 
monthly  oscillation  is  deduced  from  years  of  observation  of  a  given  month; 
if  great,  the  climate  is  a  bad  or  hard  one,  subject  to  great  fluctuations  of 
weather. 

The  yearly  oscillation  depends  less  on  latitude  than  on  the  presence 
or  absence  of  water.  In  continental  climates  the  maximum  and  minimum 
are  in  winter  and  summer.  In  the  sea  climates  of  western  Europe  there 
are  two  maxima:  at  the  beginning  of  the  autumn  and  in  winter;  and 
two  minima:  in  April  and  November. 

In  Pekin   there  is  a  steady  rise  from  January  to  July,  with  a  differ- 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  237.  •  Oscillation  =  extreme  range. 


666  THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 

ence  of  f  of  an  inch,  and  a  steady  fall  from  July  to  January.  In  London, 
Paris,  Boston,  the  difference  between  any  two  monthly  means  does  not 
exceed  -^^  of  an  inch.  The  extremes  of  fluctuation,  however,  are  much 
greater — in  London,  3  inches,  for  example.  In  summer,  maxima  of  pres- 
sure occur  over  oceans,  as  minima  occur  over  continents. 

Isobarometric  lines  are  lines  connecting-  places  with  the  same  mean 
annual  height  of  barometer.  The  height  at  the  sea-level  is  less  at  the 
equator  (29.974)  than  on  either  side  at  30°  north  and  south  latitude,  and 
lessens  again  toward  the  poles,  especially  toward  the  south,  from  63°  to 
74°  south  latitude,  where  the  depression  is  upward  of  an  inch.   (Parkes.) 


Of  all  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  a  climate, 
there  is  none  more  inimical  to  man's  health  than  great  variability.  Robust 
individuals  may  not  suffer,  but  the  weak  are  injured.  If  we  may  make 
inferences  from  facts  of  common  observation  and  the  testimony  of  travel- 
lers, the  health  of  man  may  be  maintained  unimpaired  at  a  temperature 
(in-doors)  of  40°  or  45°  F.,  at  upward  of  80°  F.,  and  at  all  points  be- 
tween.^ Not  only  do  native  races  flourish  in  such  extreme  climates,  but 
Europeans  are  found  to  enjoy  nearly  if  not  quite  as  good  health  as  at 
home — under  proper  regulations. 

This  point,  the  compatibility  of  the  most  various  climates  with  perfect 
health,  is  of  the  first  importance,  and  may  be  here  illustrated. 

One  of  the  finest  climates  in  the  world  is  found  in  the  Arabian  deserts. 
The  traveller  inhales  a  very  dry  and  pure  air,  and  is  exposed  to  abundance 
of  light.  The  effect  is  a  stimulant  one,  analogous  to  that  experienced 
on  high  mountain  plateaus.  Many  of  our  own  countrymen  are  perfectly 
acquainted  with  the  invigorating  action  on  the  nervous  system  of  some  of 
our  Rocky  Mountain  regions  and  parts  of  California.  Those  who  insist 
on  the  necessity  of  moisture  for  health  should  read  descriptions,  such  as 
this  by  Palgrave  :  ^ 

"  In  any  other  climate  such  an  establishment  (^.  e.,  a  slaughter-house) 
would  be  an  intolerable  nuisance  if  thus  placed  within  the  city  limits,  and 
right  in  the  centre  of  gardens  and  habitations.  But  here  the  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere  is  such  that  no  ill  consequence  follows;  putrefaction  being 
effectually  anticipated  by  the  parching  influence  of  the  air,  which  renders 
a  carcass  of  three  or  four  days'  standing  as  inoffensive  to  the  nose  as  a 
leather  drum;  and  one  may  pass  leisurely  by  a  recently  deceased  camel 
on  the  road-side,  and  almost  take  it  for  a  specimen  prepared  with  arsenic 
and  spirits  for  an  anatomical  museum." 

The  variation  between  the  temperatures  of  day  and  night,  which  char- 
acterizes these  regions,  is  not  necessarily  a  hurtful  element,  as  it  can  be 

'  The  winter  temperature  of  Cumberland  House  is  —  2°  F.  ;  the  summer  tempera- 
ture of  Gralveston  is  85°.  As  regards  arctic  temperature,  Dr.  Kane  considered  it 
desirable,  for  the  health  of  his  men,  to  keep  his  cabin  above  50°. 

-  Personal  Narrative  of  a  Year's  Journey  through  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia,  1871. 


I 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE.  667 

foreseen  and  provided  against ;  whereas  no  foresight  can  guard  a  person 
in  the  Northern  United  States  against  the  changes  which  give  us  for  one 
day,  or  a  succession  of  days,  the  climate  of  Richmond,  and  then,  at  an 
hour's  warning,  the  climate  of  Newfoundland  for  an  indefinite  period.  A 
moderate  amount  of  daily  variation,  indeed,  appears  to  be  consistent  with 
great  excellence  in  a  climate,  such  as  that  of  Florida,  for  example;  the  stimu- 
lating action  of  a  moderate  change  from  warm  to  cold  is  probably  desira- 
ble for  most  cases,  except  in  persons  of  very  feeble  powers  of  resistance. 

A  moist  and  warm  climate  is  felt  as  very  depressing  after  a  stay  in  a 
desert-air.  Nevertheless,  the  chief  danger  to  life,  in  such  a  climate,  does 
not  arise  from  this  depression,  but  from  malaria,  and,  when  the  latter  is 
avoided,  the  inhabitants  may  be  found  to  be  very  healthy. 

A  very  moist  and  hot  climate  is  found  in  the  tropics,  within  the  belt 
of  daily  rains,  and,  in  spite  of  its  direct  contrast  in  almost  every  respect 
to  some  of  our  "finest  climates"  (e.  </.,  that  of  Minnesota  in  winter),  it 
seems  to  deserve  the  reputation  of  great  salubrity. 

"  In  this  favored  zone  [from  12^  north  to  12°  south  latitude]  the  heat 
is  never  oppressive,  as  it  so  often  Vjecomes  on  the  borders  of  the  tropics; 
and  the  large  absolute  amount  of  moisture  always  present  in  the  air  is 
almost  as  congenial  to  the  health  of  man  as  it  is  favorable  to  the  growth 
and  development  of  vegetation.  Where  the  inhabitants  adapt  their  mode 
of  life  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  climate,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Dutch  in 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  they  enjoy  as  robust  health  as  in  Europe,  both  in 
the  case  of  persons  born  in  Europe  and  of  those  who  for  generations  have 
lived  under  a  vertical  sun.  Again,  the  lowering  of  the  temperature  at 
night  is  so  regular,  and  yet  so  strictly  limited  in  amount,  that,  although 
never  cold  enough  to  be  unpleasant,  the  nights  are  never  so  oppressively 
hot  as  to  prevent  sleep."  '  This  climate  is  marked  by  a  humidity  which 
ranges  in  January  from  77  to  96  per  cent,  of  saturation;  in  September, 
the  driest  month,  from  62  to  92. 

"The  eifect  of  a  tropical  climate  is,  so  to  speak,  relative.  The  tem- 
perature and  the  humidity  of  the  air  are  highly  favorable  to  decomposi- 
tions of  all  kinds;  the  effluvia  from  an  impure  soil,  and  the  putrescent 
changes  going  on  in  it,  are  greatly  aggravated  by  heat.  The  effects  of  the 
sanitar}'  evils  which,  in  a  cold  climate  like  Canada,  are  partly  neutralized 
by  the  cold,  are  developed  in  the  West  Indies  or  in  tropical  India  to  the 
greatest  degree.  In  this  way  a  tropical  climate  is  evidently  most  power- 
ful, and  it  renders  all  sanitary  precautions  tenfold  more  necessary  than  in 
the  temperate  zone.  But  all  this  is  not  the  effect  of  climate,  but  of  some- 
thing added  to  climate.  Take  away  these  sanitary  defects,  and  avoid 
malarious  soils,  or  drain  them,  and  let  the  mode  of  living  be  a  proper  one, 
and  the  European  soldier  does  not  die  faster  in  the  tropics  than  at  home."  ^ 

Such  are  the  general  conclusions  which  we  are  warranted  in  presenting 
in  regard  to  hot  climates.  Whether  the  heats  of  India  will  prevent  the 
Europeans — and  particularly  the  English — from  becoming  a  permanent 

'  A.  R.  Wallace  :   Tropical  Xature.  18T8.  -  Parkes'  Hygiene,  p.  430. 


668  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

element  of  the  population,  as  they  have  become  in  Louisiana,'  is  a  ques- 
tion which  is  not  vet  solved,  thouo-h  some  facts  seem  to  neo-ative  it. 

The  effect  of  climatic  heat  upon  a  new-comer  is  to  raise  the  body- 
temperature  slightly.  The  respirations  are  lessened  (Rattray),  being  on 
the  average  18.43  per  cent,  less  than  they  were  in  temperate  climates. 
The  skin  secretes  much  more,  the  kidnej^s  much  less  than  before.  The 
digestive  powers  are  somewhat  lessened,  and  many  experience  lassitude. 
The  power  of  performing  work,  in  the  case  of  men  who  have  become 
somewhat  accustomed  to  the  new  conditions,  is  underrated,  and  idleness 
has  done  more  hami  than  fatigue  to  the  British  soldier  in  India. 

Even  in  this  most  tr^-ing  climate,  however,  the  effects  of  sudden 
changes  are  very  manifest.  It  is  commonly  said  that  the  heat  produces 
disease  of  the  liver.  It  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  this,  with  other 
frequent  affections  of  the  digestive  tract,  are  due  to  high-living  and  to 
exposure  to  the  chilling  effects  of  wind,  voluntarily  encountered  for  the 
purpose  of  cooling  the  body. 

The  effects  of  extreme  cold  ujion  the  system  are  not  necessarih'-  harm- 
ful to  the  healthy  majority,  however  destructive  of  feeble  life  they  may  be. 

The  effects  of  arctic  cold  are  complicated  with  those  of  the  absence  of 
sunlight  during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  No  circumstance  exercises  so 
depressing  an  influence,  first  upon  the  mind,  and  then  upon  all  the  active 
powers  of  the  body  and  the  general  vigor,  as  this  absence  of  sunlight ; 
and  it  will  be  found  that  almost  all  climates  regarded  as  specially  bene- 
ficial to  invalids  are  marked  by  an  abundance  of  solar  light.  The  mental 
depression  of  the  arctic  voyager  is  felt  in  a  less  degree  by  the  Italian  in 
London,  or  by  the  stranger  in  a  foggy  season  at  Newport.  In  some  in- 
stances of  excessive  nervous  irritability,  this  depressing  influence  is  de- 
sirable, especially  when  it  is  conjoined  with  the  insular  mildness  of  a  climate 
like  that  of  England.  But,  on  the  whole,  deprivation  of  sunlight  is  a  good 
reason  for  condemning  a  climate.  The  sea-side  climates,  in  temperate 
latitudes,  in  early  summer,  before  the  fogs  have  set  in,  are  verj^  stimu- 
lating ;  beyond  a  certain  degree  of  heat  they  become  too  enervating 
for  many;  their  stimulant  action  has  a  certain  incomplete  analog}^  with 
that  of  open  plateaux,  and  their  sedative  action  (August)  aj^proaches 
that  of  the  tropics.  But  abundant  sunlight  is  on  the  whole  a  character- 
istic of  the  open  sea-coast. 

It  is  now  admitted  that  the  most  general  test  of  the  value  of  a  climate 
consists  in  its  suitability  to  be  lived  in  :  or,  if  this  seem  like  tautolog}', 
the  best  climate  is  that  in  which  a  delicate  person  can  be  out  of  doors 
with  comfort  and  safety  for  the  greatest  number  of  hours  and  days  in  the 
month.  This  requisition  can  only  be  fulfilled,  in  most  cases,  bj'^  the  com- 
bination of  clear  sky  (sunlight),  warmth  (not  of  the  rays  of  the  sun,  but 
of  the  lower  level  of  atmosphere),  and  equability  (or  freedom  from  violent 
change  of  temperature  and  chilling  wind). 

'  The  case  of  the  Southern  United  States  is,  however,  quite  different  from  that  of 
the  parched  plains  of  India. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  669 

The  equability  of  insular  tropical  climates,  however,  does  not  supply 
a  certain  desirable  element — that  of  stimulus.  For  this  element  we  must 
seek  a  mountain  climate,  or  that  of  a  plateau.  Yet  even  here  the  rule 
holds  good,  that  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  and  all  its  influences  must  be 
sought.  Immunity  from  phthisis  is  said  to  exist  at  high  altitudes  in  vari- 
ous countries,  and  a  curative  influence  must  certainly  be  ascribed  to  this 
fact  alone,  associated  with  a  low  atmospheric  pressure;  but  such  influ- 
ences may  be  completely  neutralized  by  confinement  to  in-door  occupa- 
tions, and  unwholesome  houses. 

Climate  of  high  altitudes. — Immunity  from  phthisis  is  not  complete 
in  any  place  or  climate.  Kiichenmeister's  law  ascribes  a  specific  influ- 
ence to  a  given  height,  which  varies  with  the  latitude  of  the  place;  for 
every  degree  of  removal  toward  the  south,  an  increase  of  375  feet  in 
height  above  the  sea-level  being  required  to  produce  the  effect.  This 
gives  an  elevation  of  about  3,000  feet  for  the  latitude  of  Switzerland,  and 
of  9,000  feet  for  the  equator.  This  generalization,  however,  is  contra- 
dicted by  certain  observed  facts,  and  can  only  have  a  value  as  furnishing 
a  suggestive  hypothesis.  Lombard  found  that  the  lower  altitudes  in 
Switzerland  (from  1,250  to  1,650  feet)  had  a  mortality  from  phthisis 
amounting  to  10.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  mortality;  the  regions  of  medium 
elevation  (1,725-2,700  feet)  had  9.4  per  cent.;  the  high  regions  (2,700- 
4,000)  had  5.1  per  cent.,  while  above  5,000  feet  he  states  that  the  disease 
disappears  entirely.  In  the  upper  Engadin  (5,000-6,000  feet),  and  at 
Davos  am  Platz,  phthisis  is  said  to  be  unknown  among  those  who  have 
always  lived  there.  Above  a  height  of  8,000  feet,  in  the  Peruvian  Andes, 
phthisis  is  almost  unknown  among  natives  ;  while  in  the  coast  lands  in 
the  same  country  it  is  common  and  rapidly  fatal.  In  the  similar  climate 
of  the  Mexican  plateau,  in  20°-30°  north  latitude,  immunity  is  fixed  at 
7,000  feet  by  Jourdanet. 

Nor  is  this  privilege  confined  .to  the  natives  of  these  countries;  for 
many  most  extraordinary  cases  of  cure,  even  in  advanced  phthisis,  are  re- 
corded of  these  and  similar  regions,  and  the  statistics  of  invalids  sent  to 
them,  as  far  as  collected,  are  very  satisfactory. 

In  such  climates  as  these,  the  conditions  which  seem  to  be  of  most 
consequence  are  the  dryness,  the  low  atmospheric  pressure,  the  clear  sky, 
and  the  equability.  Exposure  to  atmospheric  influences  by  day  and 
night  can  be  endured  with  impunity,  in  our  dry  western  plains:  and  even 
in  Switzerland  the  patient  can  be  out  of  doors  a  great  deal  more  than 
would  be  possible  at  the  same  temperature  at  lower  levels.  As  regards 
equability  (a  point  which  is  less  needful  to  the  invalid  at  such  high  and- 
dry  stations),  the  climate  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  in  New  Granada,  at  the 
height  of  8,648  feet,  would  seem  to  leave  nothing  to  be  desired,  being  59° 
F.  in  winter,  and  59.5°  in  spring  and  summer.  The  much  colder  sani- 
taria of  the  Alps,  which  are  frequented  even  in  winter  by  phthisical 
patients,  will  illustrate  the  fact  that  absolute  warmth,  in  a  great  many 
oases,  is  not  essential  to  recovery;  probably  it  is  even  detrimental  in 
many. 


670 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


Dry  air  and  low  pressure  and  abundant  sunlight  are  among  the  chief 
curative  elements  in  high  altitudes;  but  to  these  must  be  added  the  fact 
that  the  visitor  enjoys  a  freer  movement  of  air,  novel  exercise,  mental  ex- 
hilaration. In  brief,  the  effects  are  those  of  stimulation;  and  they  appear 
in  improved  digestion  and  sanguification,  and  an  increase  of  muscular 
vigor. 

No  doubt  the  lower  atmospheric  pressure  is  of  great  importance.  The 
Indians  of  the  higher  Mexican  lands,  of  the  Peruvian  uplands,  and  the 
natives  of  certain  mountain-districts  in  India,  have  an  increased  rapidity 
of  respiration  and  pulse,  and  an  enlarged  chest-capacity,  which  seems  to 
be  required  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  rarity  of  the  air.  A  rapid  in- 
crease in  the  dimensions  of  the  chest  has  been  observed  in  phthisical 
English  soldiers  sent  to  high  altitudes  in  the  Himalayas.  This  is  the 
most  striking  of  all  the  circumstances  connected  with  high  sites. 

This  being  the  case,  how  can  we  explain  the  fact  that  most  excellent 
results  have  been  obtained  in  phthisis  from  sea- voyages?  In  respect  to 
moisture  and  pressure,  the  conditions  are  completely  reversed.  The  points 
in  common  between  the  sea- voyage  and  the  Peruvian  plateau  are:  the 
equability,  the  abundance  of  sunlight,  and  fresh  air.  Both  must  be  called 
stimulating  in  their  effects;  both  act  powerfully  on  the  appetite  and 
spirits;  but  these  ends  are  reached  by  different  routes.  It  may  be  added 
that  a  sea-voyage  is  better  adapted  to  men  than  women;  that  great  heat 
or  change  is  a  disadvantage;  that  an  oceanic  influence  is  to  be  preferred 
to  a  mediterranean,  and  a  long  voyage  to  a  short  one. 

As  a  remarkable  instance  of  immunity  from  phthisis  at  a  low  level, 
the  country  of  the  Kirghis  Tartars  may  be  mentioned.  These  people  live 
on  a  steppe,  a  hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea ;  they  number  one 
million;  their  life  is  nomadic,  and  their  diet  consists  largely  of  "koumiss," 
or  fermented  mare's  milk. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  variety  of  conditions  under  which  im- 
provement in  phthisis  is  obtained,  the  following  statistics  are  given  from 
C.  T.  Williams: 


Sea-voyages  to  Australia,  America,  India,  China,  the 

Cape,  and  West  Indies 

Very  dry  climates ;   Egypt  and  Syria 


45  winters 
26       •' 


Cape  and  Natal ;   1^ 


South  of  Europe,  and  Mediterranean  Basin,  etc 

Rome 

Warm  Atlantic  Islands,  Madeira,  Teneriffe,  St.  Helena, 

West  Indies 

Calm  moist  inland  temperate  climate — Pau,  Bagneres; 

de  Bigorre 


152  patients 
18      " 

70       " 

44      " 


Percentage. 


Much  improved   ^ 
and  improved. 


89. 

m. 

58.6 
62.5 
55.56 

51.43 

50. 


5.5 
10. 
17.24 
17.1 
33.33 

34.29 

45.45 


Moist,  warm,  equable  climates,  by  the  sea-side,  are  decidedly  beneficial 
to  catarrhal   complaints  of  the  lungs,  and  also  to  those  of  the  intestinal 


THE   ATMOSPHERE.  671 

tract.     In   all   forms  of  phthisis,  except   those  of  catarrhal  origin,  such 
climates  are  on  the  whole  injurious. 

Heatixg  and  Ventilation'. 
General  Remarks. 

For  reasons  which  will  be  obvious,  it  is  necessary  to  treat  these  sub- 
jects together.  Xo  system  for  heating  inhabited  rooms  is  admissible 
unless  it  includes  a  provision  for  a  liberal  supply  of  fresh  air;  and  it  will 
be  our  object,  in  the  following-  pages,  to  analyze  the  methods  by  which 
this  is  done,  and  to  point  out  wherein  some  of  the  most  popular  of  these 
methods  are  defective. 

We  shall  here  consider  the  general  pi'inciples  of  the  subject,  and  their 
application  to  the  case  of  dwelling-houses,  schools,  and  places  of  public 
assembly,  leaving  toother  sections  of  this  work  the  more  special  conditions 
which  exist  in  the  case  of  mines,  ships,  barracks,  hospitals,  and  work-rooms. 

Desiderata. — In  the  larger  part  of  the  countries  called  civilized,  man 
is  obliged  to  provide  for  himself  an  artificial  climate  during  several  months 
of  the  year.  We  find  a  good  deal  of  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  this 
climate  ought  to  be,  among  those  who  enjoy  its  varied  conditions  ;  even 
science  has  not  yet  said  its  last  word  in  respect  to  some  most  essential 
points.  The  following  requirements,  however,  may  be  regarded  as  indis- 
pensable: 

The  air  provided  shoidd  he  originally  inire,  or  as  pure  as  is  possible 
under  given  circumstances.  In  many  houses  in  the  country,  exposure 
upon  a  high  site  to  fresh  winds  ensures  an  abundant  supply  of  good  air, 
which  cannot  easily  be  kept  from  entering,  even  by  the  process  of  stop- 
ping up  cracks  in  windows  and  around  doors.  But  m  closely  built  places, 
and  in  spots  sheltered  by  hills  or  woods,  the  amount  of  air  which  enters 
a  house  wiU  be  lessened  by  the  diminished  pressure  of  the  wind.  In  cities 
there  is  a  great  difference  between  streets  lying  on  the  borders,  exposed 
to  storms,  and  those  nearer  the  centre,  where  the  air  is  comparatively 
stagnant.  In  the  latter  case  much  care  should  be  given  to  the  choice  of 
a  point  for  admitting  pure  air.  Most  city  houses  in  our  climate  are 
warmed  by  furnaces,  which  draw  their  supply  from  some  one  opening  in 
the  outer  wall  of  the  house.  Very  often  this  point  is  chosen  as  low  as 
possible,  commonly  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  where  the  air  is  apt  to  be 
more  or  less  fouled  by  dust,  or  by  exhalations  from  gutters,  sinks,  cess- 
pools, or  streets.  A  close  yard,  scarcely  visited  by  the  sun  or  blown  into 
by  the  wind,  is  often  chosen  as  the  source  of  supply  of  air.  All  these 
faults  may  be  avoided  by  foresight. 

"  There  are  great  variations  in  the  quality  of  air  in  different  cities, 
arising  from  density  of  population,  nature  of  fuel,  character  and  avoca- 
tions of  the  inhabitants;  and,  again,  from  climate,  prevailing  winds,  and 
winds  at  the  time  of  observation,  hygrometric  condition,  normal  or  abnor- 
mal, etc. ;  but  after  the  dispersion  of  impurity  generated  in  any  particular 
locality,  the  purest  air  is  generally  found  at  from  6  to  -iO  feet,  the  most 


672  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

impure  at  70  to  90  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  Avith  a  gradation 
rising  to  balloon  heights.  Over  any  free  or  open  places  in  a  city  the  dis- 
persion of  local  impurities  is  the  more  completely  effected,  and  the  uni- 
formity of  condition  the  more  generally  obtained;  but  the  elevated  air  is 
more  impure,  when  the  stratum  of  diffused  chimney  exhalations  is  reached, 
than  it  is  below." 

"  UjDon  a  still  day,  a  tower  would  manifestly  offer  little  advantage  in 
its  elevation  of  the  point  of  taking  the  air,  as  regards  its  purity,  unless 
its  height  were  over  100,  and  perhaps  200  feet  or  more." ' 

Perhaps  the  most  common  sources  of  impurity  in  the  house-air  are 
found  in  the  cellars.  These  rooms  are  often  damp,  mouldy,  unvisited  by 
sun  or  fresh  air;  they  often  contain  the  family  stores  of  fuel  and  pro- 
visions, the  ash-heap,  and  other  sources  of  dust  or  stench.  Many  persons 
calling  themselves  good  housekeepers  neglect  their  cellars:  a  neglect 
which  certainly  would  not  continue  if  they  knew  the  extent  to  which 
the  air  from  cellars  tends  to  rise  into  the  rooms  above.  No  part  of  the 
house  should  be  kept  more  scrupulously  neat. 

Cellar-air  is  constantly  seeking  to  pass  into  the  rooms  above.  This 
passage  is  often  effected  through  unintended  openings  in  the  hot-air  box 
of  the  furnace.  The  duct  which  supplies  the  furnace  with  fresh  air  often 
has  open  seams.  The  cracks  around  the  cellar-door  furnish  another  route. 
And  finally,  after  excluding  all  such  obvious  means  of  passage,  it  appears 
that  air  has  a  strong  tendency  to  rise  from  any  room  in  a  house  to  the 
one  above  it,  regardless  of  doors  or  flues:  it  passes  in  great  quantities 
through  floors. 

The  existence  of  such  upward  currents  between  rooms  that  do  not 
directly  communicate  is  shown  in  the  experiments  of  Voit  and  Forster'^ 
upon  the  moisture  of  the  air  of  school-rooms  in  Munich. 

In  a  school-house  of  four  stories,  they  selected  a  block  of  four  rooms 
of  equal  size,  one  above  the  other,  each  opening  upon  a  corridor  leading 
to  the  common  stair.  Analyses  of  the  air  in  these  rooms  showed  that  the 
quantity  of  aqueous  vapor  increased  quite  rapidly  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest.  During  five  days  in  June  the  absolute  quantity  of  water  (in  the 
form  of  vapor)  per  cubic  metre  of  air  was  found  in  these  rooms,  begin- 
ning at  the  lowest,  to  be  respectively  10.5, 11.6,  14.7,  and  17.3  grms. :  the 
percentages  of  saturation  were  60,  71,  82,  and  94.  In  this  course  of  experi- 
ments the  rooms  were  closed.  The  only  source  to  which  this  great  excess 
of  watery  vapor  can  be  traced  exists  in  the  breath  and  perspiration  of  the 
scholars.  The  atmosphere  out  of  doors,  during  the  period  mentioned, 
contained  on  an  average  only  10  grms.  to  the  cubic  metre,  and  its  satura- 
tion was  only  69  per  cent.  It  is  necessary  to  assume  that  an  upward 
current  of  air  existed  in  this  group  of  four  closed  rooms,  which,  passing 
from  one  to  the  other,  received  from  each  an  additional  charge  of  mois- 

'  R.  Briggs :  Report  on  the  Ventilation  of  the  Hall  of  Representatives,  etc.,  at 
Washington. 

-  Zeitschr.  f.  Biologie,  XIII.,  1. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  673 

ture,  until  at  the  top  of  the  house  the  amount  was  greater  than  at  the 
bottom,  in  the  proportion  of  eight  to  five.  The  number  and  the  ages  of 
the  scholars  did  not  greatly  differ  in  the  rooms. 

Of  the  air  which  thus  freely  and  constantly  passes  from  cellars  into 
upper  stories,  what  is  the  probable  source  ?  It  seems  an  inadequate  and 
irrelevant  explanation  to  assume  that  the  excess  of  water  and  carbonic 
acid  in  upper  stories  (in  the  above  experiment)  proceeds  simply  from  the 
process  of  diffusion.  The  conclusion  reached  by  Forster,  in  another  article 
(Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  XI.  Band),  is  to  the  effect  that  much  air  enters 
through  the  soil.  "  Currents  of  air  are  continually  pressing  into  our  dwell- 
ing-rooms from  the  soil  on  which  we  live;  we  are  in  continual  and  direct 
communication  with  the  soil  beneath  us  through  the  medium  of  the  air." 

These  remarks  are  founded  upon  experiments  made  in  a  dwelling- 
house.,  Forster  caused  a  large  quantity  of  must  to  be  placed  in  the  cellar 
of  the  house,  to  undergo  fermentation,  which  was  completed  in  a  very  few 
days,  heavily  charging  the  air  of  the  cellar  with  carbonic  acid.  A  room 
on  the  gTound-floor,  directly  over  the  cellar,  and  an  adjoining  entry,  were 
selected  for  analysis,  and  another  room  on  the  floor  above  with  its  entry. 
The  first  simultaneous  analysis  showed  a  percentage  (parts  in  100)  in  the 
cellar,  at  the  floor,  of  3.049  carbonic  acid;  in  the  ground-floor  room,  of 
0.163;  in  the  upper  story,  0.108.  On  the  next  day,  cellar,  0.822;  entry 
on  ground-floor,  0.165;  in  upper  story,  0.072;  and  in  the  evening,  after  a 
fire  had  been  kept  for  some  time  burning  in  the  two  chambers,  the  con- 
tents of  the  latter  in  carbonic  acid  were  respectively  0.188  and  0.148  per 
cent.  The  rooms  had  previously  been  aired  out  thoroughly;  before  the 
analyses  were  taken  they  were  kept  closed  and  unoccupied  during  four 
hours.  It  thus  appeared  that  the  air  of  entirely  unoccupied  rooms,  con- 
taining no  sources  of  carbonic  acid,  exhibited  the  presence  of  this  gas  in 
amounts  exceeding  three  and  five  times  the  normal  proportions;  that  the 
amount  was  greater  in  the  ground-floor  than  in  the  upper  room;  and  that 
an  increase,  similar  and  nearly  equal,  was  found  in  the  entries.  The  effect 
of  heating  the  chambers,  in  increasing  the  percentage  of  COo,  was  also 
very  marked. 

No  point  in  domestic  economy  is  more  often  neglected  than  that  of 
absolute  neatness  in  the  cellar  story.  The  necessity  of  such  neatness  is 
perfectly  obvious,  in  the  case  of  a  house  warmed  by  a  furnace,  but  it 
equally  exists  in  houses  where  the  cellar  is  unprovided  with  this  apparatus. 
In  the  case  of  a  hospital,  it  is  proper  to  exclude  all  kinds  of  stores  from 
the  cellars;  nothing  but  fresh  air  should  be  kept  in  them.  In  the  case  of 
many  dwelling-houses,  public  halls,  churches,  and  schools,  it  is  thought 
proper  to  admit  air  from  the  cellar  to  the  furnace-box  in  very  cold  weather, 
with  a  view  to  economy.  In  a  dwelling-house  it  can  rarely  be  prudent  to 
do  this,  as  most  families  must  use  the  cellar  for  storing  provisions. 

The  opening  of  the  flue  for  supplying  fresh  air  to  the  furnace  should 
be  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  mischievous 
persons,  and  should  be  furnished  with  a  grating.     It  should  also  have  a 
slide  to  regulate  the  amount  admitted  in  high  winds. 
Vol.  I. —43 


674  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

The  dust  entering  from  the  street  forms  a  great  nuisance  in  furnace- 
heated  houses.  Most  of  it  can  be  kept  out  by  sifting.  This  may  be 
effected  by  letting  the  air-tube  end  in  a  very  long  bag  of  cotton-cloth, 
through  the  sides  of  which  the  air  slowly  passes  into  a  chamber  of  supply, 
communicating  with  the  hot-air  box  of  the  furnace. 

Scharrath  has  made  trial  of  a  system  of  purifying  the  air,  which  he 
terms  Poren-ventilation.  In  this  method  the  air  is  driven  by  mechanical 
force  through  the  pores  of  a  wall  of  brick  or  of  mortar,  which  of  course 
intercepts  all  the  particles  of  dust,'  This  constitutes  simply  a  reinforce- 
ment of  the  natural  process  of  ventilation,  which  occurs  in  every  house, 
through  the  walls,  to  an  extent  unsuspected  by  the  inmates.  Scharrath, 
however,  seems  to  have  found  the  practical  difficulties  of  this  plan  too 
great,  and  has  substituted  for  the  porous  wall  a  screen  of  gauzy  material, 
in  which  the  pores  occupy  less  space  than  the  fibres  of  the  stuff.  Such 
screens  may  properly  find  a  very  general  application.  Few  sources  of 
fresh  air  are  so  free  from  dust,  or  "  spores,"  or  carbon-flakes,  as  to  render 
the  precaution  needless.  The  air  supplied  to  the  British  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment is  filtered  through  a  screen,  besides  being  washed  by  a  spray  of 
water.  There  is  manufactured  in  this  country  "  a  fibrous  material,  made 
strong  enough  for  hard  usage  by  means  of  brass  wires  and  a  fibre,  which 
excludes  dust  and  still  admits  air  freely."  For  ventilating  railroad-cars, 
such  a  contrivance  is  most  desirable. 

It  is  of  course  desirable  to  maintain  an  equal  temperature  in  various 
parts  of  the  room;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  far  better  to  introduce  a 
large  amount  of  air  at  a  moderate  temperature  than  a  small  quantity  at  a 
great  heat.  Altogether,  apart  from  the  need  of  fresh  air  for  breathing, 
it  will  be  found  that  rooms  where  the  air  is  comparatively  stagnant  are 
apt  to  be  excessively  heated  at  top  and  cold  at  the  floor."  A  rapid  cir- 
culation of  air  furnishes  the  best  remedy  for  this  very  common  evil;  but 
the  fresh  air  should  be  warmed,  and  not  taken  directly  from  out  of  doors, 
as  is  the  case  in  rooms  heated  only  by  an  open  fire. 

The  air  furnished  by  Gralton's  stoves  is  heated  to  about  80°  F.  Hot- 
water  stoves  (Degen)  do  not  heat  the  air  in  the  air-space  above  45° 
(  =  113°  F.).  Morin  says  that  "  the  temperature  of  the  air  warmed  by 
hot-water  apparatys  is  always  very  moderate:  it  is  even  difficult  to  raise 
it  above  100°  or  112°  with  large  radiating  surfaces.  In  this  respect  this 
method  of  heating  is  very  healthful,  provided  that  ample  ventilation  be 
maintained  in  addition,"  Bosc  states  the  proper  temperature  of  the  air 
from  furnaces  at  30°  or,  at  most,  40°  (86°  and  104°  F.);  this  should  be  ob- 
tained, if  necessary,  by  causing  the  air,  after  leaving  the  heating-surface, 
to  pass  through  a  mixing-chamber,  where   any  desired   amount  of  cool 


'  Deutsche  Strafrechtszeitung-,  1870. 

"^  Ruttan,  in  Canada,  stated  that  in  a  stove-heated  basement-room,  over  a  cold  cel- 
lar, he  has  frequently  seen  the  water  freeze  on  the  floor  when  the  temperature  of  the 
air  at  the  ceiling  was  100',  and  has  often  observed  a  difference  of  4+°  in  the  air  for 
every  foot  of  height  in  a  stove-heated  school-room,  16  feet  high,  which  was  exposed 
on  two  sides  to  the  outer  air  at  zero  F. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  675 

air  may  be  added,  Degen's  statement  is  almost  identical:  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  introduced  into  a  room  from  a  calorifere,  or  furnace,  seldom 
exceeds  40°  (104"  F,).  These  statements  are  certainly  not  correct  in 
respect  to  America,  where  one  of  the  commonest  complaints  is  that  of 
excessive  heat.  According-  tp  Billings,  the  air  is  usually  at  180°  F.  when 
it  enters  the  room. 

A  great  many  stoves  intended  for  warming  single  rooms  are  very  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  the  excess  of  heat  imparted  to  the  air  (e,  cj.,  260°  F,, 
and  392°  F.  in  the  case  of  certain  stoves  described  by  Morin).  There  is 
good  reason  for  supposing  that  air  is  injured  in  some  of  its  properties  by 
coming  in  contact  with  metal  surfaces  at  an  excessive  heat.  The  nature 
of  the  change  experienced  is  not  understood;  but  it  is  known  by  experi- 
ence to  be  such  as  to  produce  in  those  breathing  the  air  very  uncomfort- 
able sensations,  as  headache,  oppression,  vei'tigo.  Three  considerations 
may  be  presented,  each  assisting  to  explain  the  fact. 

1.  The  air  contains  numerous  particles,  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin, 
which  doubtless  undergo  combustion  when  brought  in  contact  with  sur- 
faces heated  to  several  hundred  degTees.  We  are  accustomed  to  say  that 
such  air  has  a  "burnt  smell;"  and  we  recognize  something  injurious  to 
our  comfort.  The  presence  of  such  gases  as  originate  in  combustion  with- 
out flame,  whether  on  a  large  or  a  small  scale,  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
harmful  to  the  system,  and  a  tolerance  of  their  effects  is  hard  to  establish. 
It  may  be  further  said  that  such  combustion  may  be  expected  to  deprive 
the  air  entirely  of  its  ozone. 

2.  Within  a  few  years  it  has  become  quite  generally  known  that  cast-iron, 
heated  to  redness,  permits  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  oxide  gas  to  pass 
through  its  pores;  and  this  fact  has  given  rise  to  a  new  branch  of  indus- 
try, viz.,  the  manufacture  of   stoves  and  furnaces  of   wrought-iron,  which 

•  does  not  permit  of  such  passage,  and  which  possesses  the  additional  ad- 
A^antage  of  forming  tight  joints. 

Doubt  has  been  thrown  upon  these  statements  by  some  recent  re- 
searches published  in  the  last  volume  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic.  The 
escape  of  carbonic  oxide  by  the  pores  of  iron  is  reasonably  suspected  to 
be  of  far  less  consequence  than  that  which  occurs  through  cracks  in  the 
joints  of  the  stove,  or  furnace,  or  flues.  Hence  a  real  advantage  in  using 
wrought-iron  with  air-tight  seams.  The  point  of  greatest  importance  is 
that  the  rapid  exit  of  all  gases  of  combustion  should  not  be  checked 
in  any  way,  either  by  a  damper  in  the  smoke-flue,  or  by  a  cold  chimney, 
or  by  one  which  draws  irregularly. 

3.  Air  taken  from  out  of  doors  and  warmed  for  the  house  becomes 
comparatively  dry.  Its  moisture  is  not  actually  burnt  up  by  contact  with 
the  furnace  (as  is  popularly  supposed) ;  but  its  capacity  for  moisture  is  so 
greatly  increased  by  being  heated  that  it  appears  to  be  very  dry.  Thus 
a  cubic  foot  of  air  at  32°  F.  contains  when  saturated  2.13  grains,  troy,  of 
water;  at  70°,  its  capacity  for  water  is  7.99  grains;  and  if  raised  from  32° 
to  70°,  without  addition  of  watery  vapor,  it  evidently  contains  only  27  per 
cent,  of  that  which  it  is  capable  of  holding.     This  dryness  is  almost  uni- 


676  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

versally  considered  prejudicial  to  health ;  but  our  views  will  probably  have 
to  undergo  some  modification  upon  this  jDoint.  Every  apparatus,  it  is 
true,  ought  to  be  provided  with  an  arrangement  for  evaporating  water. 
Experience  shows  that  the  result  is  both  agreeable  and  beneficial;  but  it 
is  by  no  means  necessar}^  that  the  air  should  contain  from  50  to  70  per 
cent,  of  its  saturation-amount  of  water,  though  this  is  required  by  eminent 
authorities.'  The  evaporation  of  so  large  an  amount  as  would  be  required, 
in  our  climate,  Avould  necessitate  large  and  expensive  furnaces  with  great 
surfaces.  A  moderate  amount  of  evaporation  much  improves  the  air — 
perhaps  owing  to  the  production  of  ozone  in  the  process. 

Surgeon  John  S.  Billings,  U.S.A.,  speaks  of  this  point  as  follows:" 

"  In  rooms  heated  by  warm,  dry  air,  the  sensations  of  discomfort  which 
many  persons  experience,  such  as  headache,  etc.,  may  be  relieved  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  moisture  to  the  air,  for  instance,  about  five 
per  cent. 

"  At  first  sight  this  would  seem  to  prove  that  the  uncomfortable  sen- 
sations were  due  to  absence  of  moisture;  but  nearly  the  same  amount  of 
vaporization  is  desirable  in  air  heated  from  any  temperature,  and  there- 
fore varying  greatly  in  the  absolute  percentage  of  moisture  wdiich  it 
contains.  Moreover,  in  very  drv  and  warm  climates,  such  as  that  of 
Arizona,  these  uneasy  sensations  are  not  present. 

"  It  seems  to  me  probable  that  in  the  majority  of  persons  these  sensa- 
tions ar.e  due  to  insuflficient  supply  of  fresh  air,  rather  than  to  want  of 
moisture,  and  that  the  effects  of  vaporization  in  relieving  them  may,  in 
part  at  least,  be  explained  as  follows  : 

"  In  a  room  heated  by  hot  air  from  a  furnace,  or  set  of  steam  radiators, 
all  the  fresh  air  for  the  chamber  usually  passes  over  the  heated  surfaces, 
and  enters  the  room  at  an  average  temperature  of  180°  F.  If  the  quantity 
of  fresh  air  required  for  satisfactory  ventilation  be  admitted  at  this  tem- 
perature, the  room  soon  becomes  unendurably  hot,  and  to  prevent  this 
the  amount  of  incoming  air  is  diminished  by  partially  or  entirely  closing 
the  register. 

"  Now,  if  in  front  of  the  register  be  suspended  a  porous  earthen  vessel 
containing  water,  or  wetted  cloths,  or  a  large  sponge  saturated  with  water, 
rapid  vaporization  is  the  result;  and  a  large  amount  of  heat  is  expended 
to  effect  this. 

"  The  result  is  that  the  incoming  air  is  cooled,  and  a  much  larger 
quantity  can  be  admitted  without  discomfort.  In  rooms  and  passages 
heated  by  direct  radiating  surfaces  such  as  steam-coils,  this  feeling  of 
discomfort  is  very  common,  and  is  mainly  due,  I  think,  to  the  insufficient 
ventilation  which  is  usually  found  in  such  places. 

"  I  have  never  myself  found  it  to  occur  in  rooms  having  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  air  at  a  proper  temperature,  however  dry  the  air  may  have  been; 

'  Wolpert  and  Peclet  state  50  per  cent,  of  relative  humidity  as  the  most  agreeable  ; 
Baring  and  Parkes  about  75  per  cent. 

-  Johns  Hopkins  Hosijital :  Rei^ort  on  Heating  and  Ventilation. 


THE   ATMOSPHERE. 


677 


l)ut  Mr,  Briggs  '  and  others  state  that  they  have  so  found  it,  and  under 
such  circumstances  I  can  suggest  no  satisfactory  explanation." 

Dr.  Cowles,  in  an  article  upon  the  ventilation  of  the  Boston  City  Hos- 
pital, published  in  the  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  for 
1879,  confirms  Billings'  statements  in  reference  to  the  effect  of  dryness  of 
air.     He  says : 

"  I  believe  that  no  discomfort  has  been  felt,  or  ill  effects  produced, 
from  the  low  relative  humidity  [of  the  air  of  the  ward  tested],  even  oji 
the  occasions  when  there  was  only  fifteen  to  twenty-one  per  cent,  of  satu- 
ration. According  to  De  Chaumont,  so  great  dryness  is  inconsistent  with 
a  healthful  condition  of  the  atmosphere.  Certainly,  in  this  ward,  there 
is  uniformly  observed  a  remarkable  absence  of  complaint  of  any  kind  that 
can  be  ascribed  to  the  condition  of  the  air;  and  a  peculiar  feeling  of  its 
freshness  and  purity  is  frequently  spoken  of  by  those  who  enter  the  room." 

It  has  been  observed  that  air,  which  has  been  charged  with  vapor  in 
the  furnace-box,  is  comfortable  at  a  lower  temperature  than  dry  air,  and, 
conversely,  very  dry  air  must  be  heated  several  degrees  higher  than  moist 
air  in  order  to  produce  a  given  sensible  effect  of  warmth.  Upon  these 
facts  the  American  demand  for  high  temperature  may  depend.  A  few  ob- 
servations upon  this  point  may  be  here  made.  1.  Moist  air,  in  virtue  of 
the  contained  vapor,  has  a  greater  capacity  for  heat  than  dry  air.  This 
increases  its  sensible  coolness  at  a  given  temperature.  2.  Moist  air  inter- 
feres greatly  with  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  body.  3.  In  moist  air 
the  quantity  of  water  that  can  be  evaporated  from  the  surface  of  the  body 
is  lessened.  4.  The  second  and  third  elements  preponderating,  give  to 
moist  air  a  greater  sensible  warmth  than  to  dry  air  of  the  same  tempera- 
ture. 5.  This  is  modified  by  the  motion  of  the  air.  In  a  moist  loind 
the  abstraction  of  heat  is  proportionably  increased;  while  in  a  still  place, 
as  a  crowded,  unventilated  chamber,  the  absorbed  heat  is  not  carried  out 
by  removal  of  the  air,  and  pi'oduces  great  discomfort.  The  perspiration  and 
the  vapor  from  the  lungs  assist  in  producing  this  effect;  the  air  soon  be- 
comes nearly  saturated  with  v^por,  unless  it  is  removed  by  ventilation; 
escape  of  heat  from  the  body  by  radiation  is  rendered  very  difficult,  and, 
in  addition,  every  person  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  bodies  giving  out 
equal  heat.  6.  Whether  a  given  warm  dry  air  subtracts  more  heat  than 
a  given  cooler  and  moister  air,  is  a  problem  to  be  calculated  for  each  case 
separately.  As  above  noticed,  a  very  moist  wind  is  chilling,  a  very  moist 
still  air  is  stifling,  and  prevents  escape  of  heat  from  our  bodies. 

Some  remarks  by  Robert  Briggs  *  are  here  in  place : 

"  The  effects  of  a  nearly  saturated  atmosphere  differ  with  the  tem- 
perature altogether.  Such  an  atmosphere  at  from  35°  to  50°  is  found  to 
be  intolerably  chilly;  and  though  evaporation  may  be  checked,  and  this 
loss  of  heat  be  removed,  yet  the  conductive  and  radiating  value  of  the 

'  On  the  Relation  of  Moisture  in  the  Air  to  Health  and  Comfort,  Journal  of  the 
Franklin  Institute,  January  and  February,  1878. 

-  Relation  of  Moisture  in  the  Air  to  Health  and  Comfort. 


678  THE    ATMOSPnERE. 

vapor  in  the  air  is  now  elevated  enormously."  (The  surface  of  the  body, 
in  a  misty,  cold  air,  is  chilled  by  direct  contact  with  the  mist,  in  the  same 
way  as  if  it  were  in  contact  with  wet  clothes.) 

"  Passing  upwards  in  the  scale  of  temperature,  from  50°  to  G5°  the 
point  of  equilibrium  of  cooling  action  by  conduction  or  radiation  of  vapor 
in  the  air,  with  supply  of  heat  from  checked  evaporation  of  the  skin  or 
lungs,  .   .   .   seems  to  be  reached."  .   .   . 

"  From  65°  to  80°,  a  saturated  atmosphere  is  sultry  and  ojapressive. 
The  surplusage  of  heat  cannot  be  removed  by  conduction;  and  the  natural 
effort  of  the  system  is  to  produce  evaporation."  (Lassitude  of  this  con- 
dition, as  contrasted  with  the  stimulant  effect  of  the  air  at  50°-65°  in  the 
moist  English  climate.) 

"We  have  in  the  Northern  United  States  about  five  months  of  the 
year  when  the  tem23erature  ranges  from  0°  to  50°,  and,  consequently,  when 
our  civilized  avocations  demand  artificial  heating.  The  winter  climate  of 
the  Eastern,  Middle,  and  Northern  States  is  one  of  great  vicissitudes,  with 
extremes,  both  of  temperature  and  of  hygrometric  conditions,  following 
each  other  rapidly.  In  the  Northwestern  States  it  seems  that  a  some- 
what greater  iiniformity  of  temperature,  and  a  much  more  uniform  hy- 
grometry  exists  during  the  winter  months;  but  in  the  Middle-Western 
States  the  irregularities  appear  to  be  as  frequent  as  in  the  Ea'stern  States. 
Except  that  the  length  of  the  winter  season  is  a  little  cut  short,  and  the 
excessive  cold  is  a  little  alleviated,  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  belt  of 
country  I  have  designated,  much  the  same  j)henomena  of  climate  exist  all 
through  the  States  north  of  the  40th  parallel  of  latitude.  Throughout 
this  territory  it  has  become  recognized  that  the  minimum  temperature  of 
comfort  for  heated  and  ventilated  rooms  can  be  stated  at  70°,  with  an  ad- 
mitted, and  generally  supposed  inexplicable,  if  not  unreasonable,  demand 
for  70°  to  78°  in  some  localities  and  at  some  times." 

This  writer  is  disposed  to  lay  very  great  weight  on  the  hygrometric 
condition  of  the  air  in  the  United  States  as  a  cause  of  this  desire  for  a 
high  temperature.  It  is  right,  however,  that,  in  considering  this  cause 
(which  is  undoubtedly  a  real  one),  we  should  also  remember  that  we 
Americans  are  delicate  by  habit;  and  that,  when  first  established  in  Eng- 
land, an  American  visitor  complains  of  the  temperature  which  suits  the 
English.  A  German  in  England  makes  the  same  complaint.  Further,  it 
may  be  suggested  that  a  lower  temperature  would  be  found  comfortable 
in  a  house,  if  the  walls  were  made  thicker  and  the  windows  double;  for 
our  sensations  depend  largely  on  the  temperature  of  the  walls,  rather  than 
on  that  of  the  air  we  are  in.  And  in  American  cities,  persons  accustomed 
to  being  out  of  doors,  and  young  persons,  are  apt  to  suffer  from  the  pre- 
vailing taste  for  hot  rooms  (especially  marked  among  the  aged),  just  as 
a  newly  arrived  Englishman  suffers. 

The  watery  contents  of  the  air  of  a  room  often  condense  on  the  win- 
dows, and  even  on  metal,  ceilings,  or  roofs,  causing  in  some  cases  serious 
damage  to  books  or  other  property.  A  double  window  may  remedy  this 
trouble  to  a  great  extent.     In  the  case  of  a  glass  roof,  the  same  means 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  679 

is  at  hand;  Init  the  space  between  the  two  glazed  surfaces  will  have  to  be 
warmed  by  an  apparatus  specially  intended  for  it.  This  troublesome 
necessity  is  much  less  common  in  the  United  States  than  in  Europe.  The 
writer  is  acquainted  with  one  instance,  that  of  the  State  Library  in  Bos- 
ton, where  the  roof  drii^ped  with  condensed  moisture,  and  the  windows 
had  to  be  provided  with  gutters  on  the  inside.  This  condition  was  partly 
due  to  the  constant  escape  of  vapor  from  the  heating-apparatus,  through 
a  leak  designedly  left  unclosed;  it  has  been  remedied,  as  regards  a  part, 
by  sheathing  the  copper  roof  with  a  wooden  ceiling. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  introduced  for  the  consumption  of  a  house- 
hold ought,  in  mild  climates,  to  be  nearly  the  same  as  that  desired  in 
the  rooms.  In  cold  climates,  like  those  of  New  England  or  North  Ger- 
many, the  loss  of  heat  from  the  walls,  roof,  and  windows  produces  so 
rapid  a  cooling  within,  that  a  much  higher  temperature  is  required.  This 
cooling,  again,  is  largely  dependent  on  the  material  of  the  walls  and  their 
thickness,  the  presence  of  numerous  single  windows,  and,  still  more,  upon 
the  force  with  which  the  wind  strikes  the  side  of  the  house.  "  If  the 
room  has  large  glass  surfaces  which  cool  the  air,  if  there  are  not  many  oc- 
cupants or  lights,  the  fresh  air  should  be  warmer,  and  its  temperature  may 
be  as  much  as  86°  or  95°."     (Morin.) 

To  illustrate  the  cooling  effect  of  glass,  let  us  take  the  statement  of 
Mr.  Hood,^  who  shows  that  one  square  foot  of  glass  will  cool  1.279  cubic 
feet  of  air  as  many  degrees  per  minute  as  the  internal  air  exceeds  the  ex- 
ternal in  temperature.  Suppose  the  thermometer  to  stand  outside  at  15°, 
inside  at  65°  =  a  difference  of  50°.  The  room,  of  ordinary  size,  may 
contain  3,000  cubic  feet  of  air,  and  have  two  windows,  with  a  surface  of 
glass  equal  to  30  feet.  The  cooling  effect  jDroduced  will  be  equal  to  lower- 
ing the  temperature  of  1.279  feet  of  air,  in  one  minute,  50  X  30  degrees; 
or  one  foot  of  air  1.279  x  50  x  30  degrees  =  1918.5°.  If  occupied  by  six 
persons,  the  air  of  the  room  should  be  renewed  at  least  once  in  fifteen 
minutes,  during  which  period  the  total  cooling  effect  will  equal  1918.5°  x 
15  =28,777.5°,  which,  when  divided  among  3,000  cubic  feet,  represents 
a  constant  lowering  of  temperature  in  the  general  atmosphere  of  the  room, 
equal  to  9.5°. 

As  regards  the  temperature  most  suitable  for  rooms,  the  following  state- 
ments represent  the  existing  differences  of  opinion  among  scientific  men: 

Normal  temperature  of  public  school-rooms  in  Munich,^  15°  R.  =: 
18.75°  C.  =  65.75°  F, 

In  the  schools  of  Vienna,^  "  14°  R.  is  regarded  as  the  correct  height 
of  the  thermometer"  =  63.5°  F. 

A  temperature  of  14°  R.  is  "  quite  comfortably  warm  in  winter,  after 
the  walls  of  the  house  have  been  thoroughly  warmed."  *  Pettenkofer 
says  .that  14°  R.  is  "  sehr  behaglich  warm  " — very  comfortable. 

^  Warming  and  Ventilation. 

"  Voit  and  Forster. 

2  Ber.  liber  osterr.  Unterrichtswesen  (Exposition  of  1873),  Part  II.,  p.  579. 

*  Geipel,  1.  c. 


680  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

The  hall  of  the  creche  of  St.  Ambrose/  Paris,  was  heated  to  16°  C.  = 
60.8°  F. 

Morin  *  gives  the  following  table  : 

"  In  well-ventilated  places,  with  a  constant  change  of  air,  higher  tem- 
peratures can  be  easily  borne,  and  even  be  found  pleasant,  than  those  which 
would  be  found  oppressive  where  the  air  is  not  changed.  Nevertheless, 
the  internal  temperature  should  not  be  kept  above  the  following  points: 

"Nurseries,  asylums,  and  schools 59° 

Workshops,  barracks,  prisons 59° 

Hospitals 61—64° 

Theatres,  cafes,  lecture-halls,   etc 66—68°  " 

The  interior  of  the  church  of  Saint-Roch,  in  Paris,  was  raised  to  the 
temperature  of  16°  (16°  R.  =  68°  F.);  it  even  rose  above  18°  during 
crowded  services  on  Sunday.  "  This  temperature  "  (72.50°),  says  Peclet, 
"  is  insupportable  in  a  j)lace  where  people  sit  in  their  outer  garments, 
and  many  of  the  congregation  were  obliged  to  leave  the  church."  An 
American  congregation  would  not  have  been  greatly  annoyed  by  this 
heat. 

In  the  quarters  of  the  cadets  of  the  Bavarian  army  the  temperature  is 
ordered  not  to  fall  below  14°  R.  nor  rise  above  16°  in  winter  (=  63.5° — 
68°  F.).= 

The  Department  of  Religion  and  Instruction  in  Wiirtemberg,  under 
date  of  December,  1870,  orders  that  "  the  temperature  in  each  school- 
room, during  the  entire  session,  at  the  height  of  [say  4  to  5  feet]  above 
the  floor,  must  not  exceed  16°  R.,  as  a  rule,  and  should  be  rather  lower 
than  higher,  but  must  not  fall  below  13°  R."  [respectively  68°  and  61.25° 
F.].     The  same  range  is  prescribed  in  the  public  schools  of  Saxony. 

The  average  temperature  of  the  air  at  the  head  of  the  beds  in  the  new 
surgical  ward  at  the  Boston  City  Hospital,  taken  at  7  a.m.,  2  p.m.,  and  9 
P.M.,  for  a  week,  was  68.3°  F.;  the  air  was  considered  eminently  satisfac- 
tory. Five  observations  upon  the  humidity  of  the  ward,  at  various  dates, 
in  and  about  the  same  period,  gave  percentages  of  saturation  =  21,  26, 
27,  48,  23. 

Surgeon  D.  L.  Huntington,  in  reporting  upon  the  Barnes  Hospital  of 
the  Old  Soldiers'  Home  at  Washington,  says  that  a  "  pleasant,  even  tem- 
perature of  about  70°  "  is  maintained  in  the  wards. 

H.  I.  Bowditch,  in  the  Fifth  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Health,  says  that  "  in  the  sitting-room  the  air  should  not  be  above  72°  F,, 
nor  below  68°;  70°,  the  medium,  is  the  best." 

There  seems,  therefore,  to  exist  in  America  a  preference  for  consider- 
ably higher  temperatures  than  are  desired  in  England  or  on  the  Continent. 
This  may  have  various  explanations.  A  very  variable  climate,  with  abun- 
dant means  for  paying  for  fuel,  induces  us  to  heat  our  houses  constantly 

'  Degen,  op.  cit.,  p.  95.  ^  Smithsonian  Report,  1873. 

2  Roth  und  Lex,  op.  cit.,  p.  166, 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  681 

at  a  rate  which  is  only  suitable  in  the  coldest  weather.  A  sudden  rise  of 
temperature  from  10'^  to  40^  or  50°  F.  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  during  the  winter;  the  effect  of  which  is  that 
the  house  is  rapidly  over-heated,  and  those  who  inhabit  it  have  to  suffer  for 
a  while.  These  changes  predispose  to  delicacy  of  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes,  and,  taken  in  connection  with  our  habits  of  keeping  in-doors, 
go  far  to  account  for  the  national  liking  for  a  high  temperature.  The 
remedy  for  this  abnormal  condition  may  be  found  in  the  systematic  train- 
ing of  children  to  spend  long  hours  in  the  open  air  and  in  the  regulation 
of  school-habits.  It  is  perfectly  feasible  for  an  American  family,  living 
in  a  very  changeable  climate,  with  young  children,  to  accustom  itself  to  a 
temperature  of  about  60°-65°  F.  Several  such  cases  are  known  to  me, 
one  of  which  I  will  mention  particularly.  The  writer  quoted  is  Arthur 
H.  Nichols,  M.D.,  of  Boston: 

"  As  regards  your  inquiry,  we  have  continued  to  maintain  a  tempera- 
ture of  58°-60°  within  our  house,  and  with  the  very  best  results,  and  I 
would  on  no  account  be  induced  to  go  back  to  the  high  temperature  of  68°- 
70°,  usually  thought  necessary  in  winter.  Children  thrive  under  these 
conditions  from  the  outset;  but  adults,  especially  those  with  whom  the 
circulation  has  become  somewhat  sluggish,  usually  require  warmer  clothing 
than  if  the  temperature  were  higher.  Among  the  advantages  of  this  lower 
in-door  temperature  are,  first,  the  body  is  hardened  and  tone  is  imparted 
to  the  whole  superficial  integument;  hence  the  system  is  subjected  to  a 
less  severe  shock  in  going  into  the  open  air,  and  the  constitution  being 
less  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  cold  and  atmospheric  changes,  less 
clothing  is  required  when  out  of  doors,  and  the  numerous  petty  ailments 
attributable  to  the  effect  of  sudden  '  colds '  (sore  throat,  acute  nasal  or 
bronchial  catarrh,  catarrh  of  the  frontal  sinuses,  acute  rheumatism,  etc., 
etc.),  which  are  commonly  regarded  as  inevitable  concomitants  of  the 
winter  campaign,  are  absolutely  and  finally  done  away  with.  A  low  tem- 
perature stimulates  the  appetite,  whereas  a  relatively  warm  air  tends  to 
derangement  of  the  digestive  functions  and  impaired  nutrition. 

"  To  avoid  subjecting  my  own  children  to  the  insanitary  conditions  of 
school-rooms,  I  have  been  obliged  to  establish  a  school  for  twelve  children 
in  my  own  house.  The  school-room  is  necessarily  rather  small  and  low- 
studded,  but,  being  furnished  with  a  capacious  open  fireplace,  the  air  never 
becomes  perceptibly  contaminated,  and  there  has  never  been  any  com- 
plaint of  coldness  on  the  part  of  the  children. 

"  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  system  is  better  prepared  for  sustaining  a 
low  temperature  within  doors  by  the  habitual  indulgence  in  a  bath  of 
cold  water  in  the  morning."  It  is  added  that  "  when  children  come  in 
with  wet  feet,  an  immediate  change  of  socks  and  shoes  is  requisite,  the 
more  so  because  in  a  cold  house  the  feet  would  otherwise  with  difficulty 
become  warm.  The  above  views  are  the  result  of  an  experience  of  ten 
years." 


682  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

Appaeatus  for  Heating. 

An  absolute  requisite  in  respect  to  an  apparatus  for  heating  is  that  it 
should  deliver  an  abundance  of  air  of  the  best  quality  free  from  contam- 
ination. A  moderate  temperature,  usually  implying  a  large  heating- 
surface,  is  a  desirable  point.  Capacity  for  powerful  action  on  very  cold 
days  is  necessary  in  our  climate;  capacity  for  diminished  action  is  very 
much  to  be  vv^ished  for.  Safety  against  fire,  economy,  simplicity,  facility 
of  application  to  varying  conditions,  rapidity  of  action — all  require  atten- 
tion in  the  pages  to  follow,  in  which  the  subject  will  be  divided  under  the 
heads  :  Chimneys,  Fireplaces,  Stoves,  Furnaces,  Steam-heating,  Hot- 
water  Apparatus, 

The  Chimney. 

This  structure  is  composed  of  a  shaft,  a  cap,  and  a  throat. 

The  shaft,  or  main  body,  is  usually  of  masonry,  and  hence  assumes  a 
square,  or  nearly  square,  shape  in  transverse  section.  If  masonry  be  used, 
the  section  should  not  be  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  parallelogram. 
Such  a  form  exposes  the  contents  afc  the  sides  of  the  chimney  to  a  great 
cooling  action,  which  assists  to  form  columns  of  descending  smoke,  A 
square  aperture  is  less  objectionable.  A  round  section,  however,  is  cer- 
tainly best,  as  equalizing  the  current,  and  reducing  friction  to  a  minimum. 
Such  chimneys  may  be  made  by  placing  common  glazed  earthen-pipes 
within  a  square  brick  chimney;  the  triangular  spaces  left  at  the  four  cor- 
ners may  be  utilized  for  water  or  gas-pipes.  Morin  has  given  figures  of 
moulded  bricks  or  tiles,  such  as  are  used  in  building  cylindrical  shafts  in 
Paris,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  insert  them. 

The  transverse  section  remains  the  same  throughout  the  shaft  in  most 
domestic  chimneys.  In  some  special  cases  there  may  be  advantages  in 
enlarging  the  size  toward  the  top. 

The  size  of  the  shaft  may  easily  be  calculated  from  the  quantity  of 
air  expected  to  pass  and  the  velocity.  The  latter  should  not  exceed  two 
metres  per  second  (say  6|-  feet);  an  excessively  rapid  discharge  is  waste- 
ful of  heat.  The  quantity  to  be  discharged  may  be  assumed  as  equal  to 
five  times  the  cubic  contents  of  the  room  to  be  heated,  in  the  case  of  an 
open  fire;  under  other  circumstances  it  varies  very  much. 

The  ca2y  is  designed  to  fulfil  two  objects:  protection  against  wind  and 
rain,  and  assistance  to  the  draft.  The  former  object  is  attained  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways;  the  latter  is  perhaps  not  attained  at  all  in  any 
direct  sense. 

If  the  chimney  is  built  square  or  oblong,  or  even  if  cylindrical  in  sec- 
tion, a  symmetrical  narrowing  at  its  top  (see  Fig.  1)  will  help  to  prevent 
the  irregular  descent  of  cold  air,  especially  when  the  fire  is  low;  and  such  a 
constriction  is  quite  commonly  found.*     Other  appliances,  in  great  number, 

'  A  velocity  of  3  metres  at  the  chimney-cap  is  usually  assumed  as  sufficient  to  draw 
off  the  smoke  ;  this  rate  is  very  undesirable  in  the  body  of  the  chimney,  where  2  metres 
should  not  be  exceeded.     (Degen.) 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


683 


have  been  invented,  of  which  a  few  are  here  given,  showing  some  of  the 
chief  ways  of  keeping  wind  or  rain  from  penetrating.     One  of  the  sim- 


FiG.  2. — Section  of  a  chimney- 
cap  ;  the  smoke  passes  out  at 
slits  in  the  masonry  of  the  chim- 
ney.    (Bosc. ) 


Fig.  1. — Section  of  chimney,  show- 
ing equal  calibre  of  shaft  and  con- 
striction of  cap  and  throat. 


Fig.  3. — Two  methods  of  protecting  a 
flue  against  the  entrance  of  wind.  (Pe'clet. ) 


plest  devices  consists  in  covering  the  top  with  a  plain  flat  roof,  and  pierc- 
ing its  sides  just  below  with  upright  oblong  holes  (Fig.  2).     Fig.  3  gives. 


Pig.  4. — Van  Noorden's  chimney-cap. 

in  one  view,  two  modes  of   closing   the  cap.     Fig.  4  shows,  in  a  modified 
form,  one  of  the  most  widely  applied  principles.     The  cylindrical  tube  of 


684 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


the  flue  is  furnished  with  a  collar  of  metal,  slanting  downward  and  out- 
ward; and  above  this,  at  a  suitable  distance,  is  fixed  a  cover,  which  sheds 
rain  and  prevents  the  entrance  of  downward  cur- 
rents. This  upper  piece  is  usually  flat,  and  serves 
no  purpose  except  the  interception  of  rain  and  direct 
currents  of  wind.  In  the  form  here  given,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  lateral  blasts  of  wind  are  neutralized, 
or  even  made  useful  in  promoting-  the  draught  of 
the  chimney.  The  effects  of  inclined  surfaces  are 
often  paradoxical.  In  some  models,  as  in  Fig.  5, 
the  breath  directed  perpendicularly  down  upon  the 
cap,  or  horizontally,  will  cause  a  rapid  ascent  of 
the  air  in  the  tube.  Nothing  would  seem  more 
desirable  than  such  a  result;  but,  in  jDoint  of  fact, 
it  is  very  questionable  if  it  is  really  attained  in  work- 
ing chimneys.  We  can  be  sure  of  protection  against 
descent  of  wind,  but  cannot  positively  state  that 
the  draught  is  augmented  by  any  form  of  these  caps 
that  has  yet  been  tested. 

The  swinging-cap  (Fig.  6)  is  represented  as  piv- 
oted at  a  single  jDoint.  In  calm  weather  it  takes 
the  position  indicated  by  the  shaded  design;  when 
the  wind  blows  from  the  right  to  the  left,  its  position  is  given  by  the 
dotted  lines. 

Fig.  7  gives  another  movable  cap.     The  vane  keeps  it  always  pointed 
so  as  to  receive  the  wind  in  its  tunnel-shaped  expansion  (at  the  left  of  the 


Fig.  5. — Section  of 
Mihan's  tower  -  ventila- 
tor. 


Fig.  6. — Swinging-cap.    (Bosc,  P^clet.) 


Fig.  7. — Cap  to  accelerate  dranglifc  in  a 
flue.     (Peclet.) 


cut).  This  wind  leaves  the  nose  of  the  tunnel  in  a  jet  which,  in  its  mo- 
tion, exercises  an  influence  of  traction  upon  the  surrounding  column  of 
air  in  the  flue. 

27ie  throat  of  a  chimney  is  the  portion  leading  to  the  fireplace;  it  is 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  685 

made  quite  narrow  to  insure  against  the  occurrence  of  back-draughts  and 
the  escape  of  un  warmed  air  into  the  shaft.  Speaking  generally,  the  velocity 
of  the  air  passing  through  the  cap  or  the  throat,  though,  of  course,  not 
constant,  may  be  calculated  at  three  metres  (say  ten  feet)  per  second. 

The  purposes  of  a  chimney  are  two,  viz.:  1,  to  remove  the  products  of 
combustion;  2,  to  assist  in  ventilation.  A  chimney  may  be  built  for 
either  purpose,  or  may  effect  both  at  once. 

The  column  of  air  contained  in  the  shaft  of  a  chimney  may  be  con- 
sidered as  balanced  against  another  column  of  equal  dimensions  and 
height  outside  of  the  chimney.  Each  of  these  columns,  in  addition  to  its 
own  weight,  supports  the  weight  of  the  superincumbent  atmosphere, 
equal  to  a  pressure  of  14.7  pounds  upon  the  square  inch;  but  the  latter  is 
equal  for  both  columns,  and  may  be  disregarded.  If,  therefore,  the  weight 
of  the  ai/r  in  the  chimney  is  equal  to  that  of  the  column  of  outer  air,  the 
two  columns  are  in  equilibrium,  and  no  movement  occurs.  But  if  from 
any  cause  the  air  in  either  column  is  heavier  than  that  in  the  other,  the 
heavier  will  descend  and  force  the  other  upward.  Such  a  cause  of  in- 
creased weight  is  found  in  the  cooling  of  the  air;  while  diminished  weight, 
as  a  result  of  expansion,  is  a  characteristic  of  warmed  air. 

Upon  a  hot  day,  in  summer,  a  cool  chimney  will  often  "  draw  down- 
ward," as  we  say,  i.  e.,  its  cool,  heavy  air  will  sink  and  escape  by  the  fireplace 
into  the  lighter  air  which  surrounds  it.  If  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
chimney  is  accessible  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  its  upper  portion  may  become 
so  heated  that  the  total  weight  of  the  column  of  air  (taking  the  upper  with 
the  lower  portion)  becomes  less  than  that  of  the  same  bulk  of  outer  air, 
when  it  rises — or,  to  speak  correctly,  is  forced  upward  by  the  heavier 
outer  air  pushing  inward  at  the  fireplace. 

The  height  of  a  chimney,  abstractly  and  separately  considered,  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  draught.  A  tube  5,000  feet  high  will  contain 
rarefied  air  at  its  upper  part;  but  such  air  will  not  necessarily  ascend,  or 
be  forced  up,  for  its  counterpoise  is  a  column  of  air  in  just  the  same  state 
of  rarefaction.  Nevertheless,  in  practice,  a  tall  chimney  is  much  more  apt 
to  draw  well  than  a  short  one,  even  if  there  be  no  fire.  Tall  chimneys 
stand  clear,  receive  the  full  rays  of  the  sun,  and  are  not  exposed  to  those 
irregular  gusts  of  wind  which  are  so  annoying  in  the  case  of  low  chimneys. 
And  if  a  chimney  is  warmed,  it  is  evident  that  an  increased  height  is 
equivalent  in  result  to  an  increased  difference  in  the  weight  of  the  two 
columns  of  air — or  increased  pressure  at  the  fireplace  and  improved 
"  draught."  For  the  latter  reason,  we  find  that  when  one  flue  is  pierced 
with  several  openings  for  fireplaces,  in  different  stories,  the  draught  is 
much  greater  at  the  lower  than  at  the  upper  openings. 

J3ad  draught. — A  few  of  the  causes  of  this  troublesome  complaint 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 

A  flue  that  is  too  wide  is  apt  to  be  imperfectly  heated;  the  smoke 
tends  to  adhere  to  one  side,  while  a  counter  current  of  colder  air  descends 
on  the  other  side.  A  special  funnel  or  flue  of  a  proper  size  should  be 
provided. 


686  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

If  the  throat  is  too  wide  it  carries  up  a  quantity  of  cool  air,  preventing- 
the  warming  of  the  chimney. 

A  flue  that  is  too  small  is  not  a  frequent  fault.  For  an  ordinary  room 
a  circular  funnel  of  the  diameter  of  six  or  eight  inches  is  sufficient.  A 
square  flue  need  not  exceed  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  in  diameter. 

The  use  of  wet  fuel  may  throw  into  the  chimney  a  quantity  of  heavy 
smoke  at  a  low  temperature,  which  does  not  easily  pass  off,  nor  sufficiently 
heat  the  masonry. 

A  chimney  without  a  fire  will  sometimes  suck  down  the  smoke  from 
a  neighboring  chimney-top.  Or  smoke  may  enter  a  room  from  the  fire- 
place of  another  room,  if  both  use  one  chimney  in  common.  For  these 
cases  close  valves  may  be  used. 

A  deficient  supply  of  air  to  the  fireplace  is  a  common  fault.  The 
doors  and  windows,  especially  in  modern  houses,  often  shut  so  tight  as 
almost  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  air,  at  least  in  quantity  sufficient  to  sup- 
port the  combustion  of  fuel.  In  round  numbers,  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air 
are  required  to  burn  one  pound  of  wood. 

The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  striking  on  a  chimney  often  make  it  smoke. 
This  is  apparently  in  contradiction  with  what  has  been  said  above,  but 
may  perhaps  be  explained.  A  large  chimney  would  naturally  be  more 
inclined  to  smoke  in  the  summer,  when  imperfectly  heated,  and  this 
Avould  coincide  with  the  period  of  sunshine.  Or,  the  sun  may,  by  warm- 
ing only  one  side  of  a  chimney,  produce  a  disturbance  of  the  currents,  of 
smoke  within,  with  a  tendency  upon  the  cool  side  to  sink. 

A  chimney  may  be  too  short  to  draw  powerfully.  And,  further,  such 
a  short  chimney,  often  found  in  the  addition  or  L  of  a  house,  may  have 
its  action  inverted  by  the  more  powerful  draught  of  a  tall  chimney  in  the 
main  part  of  the  house.  A  staircase  leading  straight  to  the  top  of  the 
house  may  contain  such  a  heated  atmosphere  as  to  act  like  a  chimne}',  and 
similarly  interfere  with  the  action  of  short  chimneys. 

The  remedy  may  consist  in  shutting  doors 

so  as  to  isolate  the  chimneys  from  each  other. 

Two  fireplaces  in  one  room  are  very  apt  to 

interfere;  in  fact,  it  is  very  hard  to  avoid  this, 

unless  one  be  closed  with  a  trap  or  valve. 

The  effect  of  wind  striking  downward 
upon  the  chimney  may  be  neutralized  in  some 
cases  by  properly  made  caps.  But  the  chim- 
ney may  be  so  situated  in  an  angle,  overlooked 
by  high  walls,  that  the  wind  coming  from  a  cer- 
tain direction  is  condensed  in  the  confined 
Fig.  8. — Gust  of  wind  enter-  ,  -i  i  ^.i    x    j 

ing  chimney  (Wolpert. )  space,  and  necessarily  seeks    an  outlet   down 

the  flue.     This  should  be  remedied  by  extend- 
ing the  flue  or  chimney  above  the  level  of  surrounding  buildings. 

The  effect  of  wind  striking  upon  an  uniyrotected  chimney  is  well  seen 
in  Fig.  8,  where  the  wind  forms  a  whirl  or  vortex  at  the  top. 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


687 


This  by  no  means  exhausts  the  list  of  causes,  but  comprises  the  prin- 
cipal. 

Fireplaces. 

By  this  term  we  shall  intend  what  are  commonly  called  "  open-fires." 
They  scarcely  require  description. 

The  open  fire  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable  ways  of  lieating  a  room,  on 
account  of  its  cheerful  look.      In  houses  already  warmed  to  some  extent 


Fig.  9.  —Section  of  the  Galton  fireplace  and 
chimney. 


Fig.  10. — Another  form  of  the  Gaiton 
fireplace,  in  which  part  of  the  heat  is 
employed  to  warm  an  upper  room. 


by  a  furnace,  stoves,  or  kitchen  fires,  they  furnish  a  most  suitable  addition 
to  these  arrang-ements. 

An  ordinary  fireplace  renews  the  air  of  the  room  it  warms  on  an  aver- 
age four  or  five  times  in  an  hour.  (Degen.)  This  has  given  rise  to  a  rather 
indiscriminate  praise  of  their  virtues  as  ventilating  agents.     It  is  per- 


688 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


fectly  true  tliat  they  may  easily  draw  from  10,000  to  20,000  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  hour;  but  they  do  not  do  it  in  a  scientific  way.  To  supply  the 
large  demand,  air  enters  from  all  the  adjoining  rooms;  the  kitchen,  cellar, 
water-closet,  often  discharge  their  air  with  the  greatest  rapidity  into 
rooms  which,  thus  heated,  are  converted  into  huge  air-pumps.  From  the 
other  side  come  currents  through  the  window-cracks,  which  are  felt  in  the 
form  of  annoying  draughts,  and  chill  the  floor,  so  that  a  person  sitting  at 
a  good  oi3en  fire  is  often  "roasting  on  one  side  and  freezing  on  the 
other."  In  fact,  the  larger  part  of  the  ventilating  effect  is  applied  to  the 
lowest  layers  of  air — those  situated  within  three  feet  of  the  floor — while 
the  upper  regions  remain  comparatively  stagnant.  The  cold  air  from  the 
windows  naturally  seeks  the  floor  at  once,  and  passes  straight  to  the  fire- 
place. This  may  readily  be  shown  in  a  room  in  which  the  windows  are 
placed  on  one  side  of  the  fire;  the  smoke  of  a  cigar  held  before  the  fire 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


^Wf^'^^' 


Fig  lo 
Figs.  11,  13,  13.— Forms  of  Galton's  hearth,  in  horizontal  section. 

at  the  distance  of  a  foot,  on  the  side  toward  the  window,  being  drawn  in 
with  rapidity;  while  if  held  toward  the  other  side,  it  does  not  even  enter 
the  fireplace. 

Another  objection  to  the  open  fire  lies  in.  its  wastefulness,  only  13  or 
14  per  cent,  of  the  heat  generated  being  utilized. 

Both  these  points,  however,  have  been  successfully  met  in  the  so-called 
vcntilating-stove,  the  principle  of  which  was  used  by  Franklin,  although 
it  has  been  lately  revived  under  the  name  of  Douglas  Galton  and  others. 
These  stoves  (Figs.  9-13)  all  possess  some  form  of  false-back,  behind 
which  is  an  air-space  communicating  with  the  outer  air  by  a  pipe  in  the 
floor,  and  with  tlie  air  of  tlie  room  by  suitable  apertures  or  registers  near 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


689 


the  mantelpiece  or  the  cornice.  They  supply  to  the  room  a  large  quan- 
tity oi  fresh  warmed  air  at  a  moderate  temperature;  and  the  supply  thus 
furnished  is  sufficient  to  prevent  that  annoying  leakage  through  cracks 
and  doors. 

The  air  enters  in  a  mass  with  some  velocity,  and  in  considerable  vol- 
ume; it  is  introduced  above  the  level  of  the  fire — all  of  which  circum- 


FiG.  14. — Section  of  a  ventilating  stove — tiie  "foyer  Joly."     (Bosc. ) 


stances  aid  in  producing  a  quick  circulation  and  a  disturbance  of  the 
whole  mass  of  air  in  the  room,  with  consequently  a  comparatively  equal 
temperature. 

Of  Galton's  stove  it  is  stated  that  it  brings  in  about  the  same  amount 
of  air  as  escapes  through  the  chimney,  and  at  the  temperature  of  about 
Vol.  I.— 44 


690  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

80°  or  90°  F.  ,  The  amount  of  heat  utilized  was  found  to  be  three  times 
ais  much  as  in  the  case  of  a  common  grate,  viz.,  35  per  cent. 

The  Galton  grate  is  given  in  Figs.  11—13,  in  horizontal  section,  show- 
ing the  direction  of  the  current  of  fresh  air  striking  against  the  iron  back 
of  the  stove.  In  Fig.  9  is  seen  how  the  air,  having  passed  over  this  sur- 
face, is  further  warmed  by  contact  with  the  heated  flue,  in  a  long,  upright 
chamber — the  chimney,  in  fact — and  enters  the  room  by  apertures  at  the 
cornice.  In  Fig.  10  it  is  seen  how  the  room  above  may  be  warmed  from 
the  same  source  at  will.  In  each  case  the  fire  is  visible,  and  gives  out 
the  same  amount  by  direct  radiation  as  in  an  ordinary  grate. 

Fig.  1-4  rejDresents  another  simple  form  of  ventilating-stove,  in  which 
the  smoke  from  the  grate  is  received  in  a  large  sheet-iron  box,  S  (about 
four  feet  long  in  the  horizontal  direction),  around  which  currents  of  air, 
introduced  by  a  channel  under  the  hearth,  play,  and  finally  enter  the  room 
by  registers. 

In  another  design  the  air  is  warmed  in  its  passage  through  upright 
cylindrical  tubes,  which  discharge  into  a  box;  the  latter  opens  into  the 
room  by  perforations  in  the  iron  ornamental  work  around  the  fireplace. 
The  smoke  passes  between  the  cylinders  before  reaching  the  chimney. 

The  popular  "  Fire  on  the  Hearth,"  an  American  stove,  is  of  the  class 
of  ventilating-stoves.  It  draws  its  air  from  out-of-doors;  but  the  duct  is 
provided  with  an  opening,  in  the  form  of  a  ring,  just  above  the  floor, 
through  which  some  of  the  air  of  the  room  may  be  sucked  in.  If  this  is 
the  case,  the  ventilating  power  of  the  stove  is  of  course  lessened. 

The  ventilating-stove  ought  entirely  to  supplant  the  present  wasteful 
and  comparatively  unwholesome  open  grate,  popular  and  useful  as  the 
latter  has  been. 

It  is  often  and  justly  remarked  that  ventilation  always  costs  some- 
thing. And  as  the  old-fashioned  grate  costs  enormously,  it  is  supposed 
to  give  us  the  very  best  ventilation — a  method  of  reasoning  which  in- 
volves a  logical  error.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  result  is  not 
a  thoroughly  good  one,  even  with  all  the  outlay.  And,  as  regards  the 
new  system,  two  remarks  are  pertinent.  First,  it  does  work  well,  and 
does  not  take  away  enough  heat  from  the  chimney  to  check  the  draught; 
it  therefore  only  utilizes  what  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  Second,  it 
feeds  the  fire  with  warmer  air,  thus  in  part  restoring  to  the  chimney  what 
it  borrowed. 

The  temperature  of  the  gases  in  the  chimney,  arising  from  the  com- 
bustion of  fuel  in  an  open  grate,  is  given  by  Degen  as  usually  exceeding 
212°.  The  heat  required  to  be  maintained  in  the  chimney  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  adding  30°  or  40°  C  (=  54°  or  72°  F.)  to  the  temperature  of 
the  room— say  120°  to  138°  F.  The  difference  between  212°  and  138° 
may  be  considered  as  wasted  by  ordinary  grates. 

'  According  to  Herter,  20°  or  30°  C. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  691 


Stoves  and  Fuknaces. 

1.  Direct  and  indirect  heating. — There  are  two  cliief  ways  in  which 
heat  is  imparted  to  the  air  and  other  contents  of  a  room,  namely:  radia- 
tion and  convection.     Botli  processes  are  almost  always  going-  on. 

Between  any  two  bodies  of  different  temperatures  not  sejDarated  by 
substances  which  prevent  the  process,  a  transference  of  heat  is  constantly 
taking  place  from  the  warmer  to  the  colder  by  radiation.  The  burning- 
coal  and  flame  in  a  grate  radiate  heat  to  the  walls,  furniture,  and  jDersons 
in  the  room;  persons  3"adiate  heat  to  the  walls  and  other  objects;  the 
walls  radiate  heat  to  the  windows  in  cold  weather. 

The  amount  of  heat  absorbed  by  dry  air  in  a  room,  from  rays  which 
pass  through  it  from  a  stove  or  open  fire,  is  too  trifling  to  be  considered. 
The  process  of  warming  a  room  which  has  become  thoroughly  cold  con- 
sists in  the  transfer  of  heat  to  its  tonlls,  and  the  gradual  elevation  of  the 
temperature  of  the  latter  until  it  equals  that  which  is  desired  for  the  air 
of  the  room.  The  walls  and  other  solid  objects  form  the  reservoir  of  heat; 
the  air,  changing  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  should  also  have  a  certain 
warmth ;  but  the  sensation  of  chilliness  is  far  more  troublesome  when  the 
walls  are  cold  than  when  the  air  is  cold.  This  fact  is  made  the  basis  of 
some  systems  of  warming,  by  means  of  heated  flooi's  or  walls.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Romans  heated  their  bathing-rooms  by  the  floors,  which 
were  of  hollow  masonry,  containing  flues  for  the  escape  of  the  products 
of  subterranean  fires. 

A  stove  will  heat  the  air  in  a  moderate-sized  room  in  a  few  minutes; 
but  no  degree  of  heat  in  the  air  makes  it  safe  to  remain  seated  until  the 
walls  are  also  warmed.  In  our  climate,  dampness  is  less  to  be  feared  than 
chilliness  of  the  walls;  and  the  latter  is  not  an  uncommon  cause  of  illness. 
A  damp  wall,  however,  is  worse  than  a  dry  one,  as  taking  up  much  more 
heat  (latent  condition)  and  protracting  the  period  of  warming.  Wooden 
or  i^apered  walls,  also,  abstract  heat  from  the  body  less  rapidly  than  stone 
and  brick  walls. 

A  parallel  to  this  exists  in  the  case  of  light,  which  is  of  most  value  for 
every-day  purposes  when  it  does  not  shine  directly  upon  the  object  to  be 
illuminated.  For  instance,  in  reading  we  prefer  the  light  reflected  from 
the  sky  or  the  white  ceiling.  A  room  with  cold  walls  and  a  hot  stove  is 
comparable  to   a  room   with  dark-tinted  walls  and  a  lighted  chandelier. 

The  heat  of  the  walls  can  be  imparted  to  the  air  by  convection.  As 
elsewhere  stated,  this  is  the  principal  way  in  which  air  warms  itself  by 
contact. 

In  respect  to  its  action  upon  the  temperature  of  a  room,  a  stove  re- 
sembles an  open  fire,  in  that  both  radiate  heat.  A  stove  heats  also  by 
contact,  however;  and  such  is  the  force  of  association,  that  we  imagine 
this  method  of  heating  to  be  less  agreeable  than  that  by  direct  radiation. 
The  fact  is,  that  air  heated  by  contact  with  moderately  warmed  surfaces, 
as  the  German  or  Russian  stove,  has  an  extremely  pleasant  quality.     The 


092  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

popular  fondness  for  an  open  fire  is  based  on  its  pleasant  aspect  and  its 
power  of  evacuating  air  from  the  room.  For  when  radiation  is  powerful, 
without  renewal  of  air,  it  is  almost  universally  regarded  as  a  nuisance, 
and  screens  are  put  up  to  j)rotect  the  body. 

A  hot-air  furnace,  with  its  air-box,  is  analogous  to  the  case  of  a  stove 
standing  in  a  room.  The  furnace  radiates  heat  to  the  walls  of  the  "  box," 
which  are  usually  of  masonry;  and  the  air  becomes  warmed  by  contact 
with  the  surfaces  both  of  the  furnace  and  of  the  box.  If  the  stove  or 
furnace  is  not  too  hot,  and  the  air  is  freely  changed,  the  effect  is  pleasant. 
Air  warmed  by  a  soapstone  furnace,  and  transferred  by  a  pipe  to  a  room, 
is  very  like  air  warmed  in  the  room  by  a  porcelain  furnace, 

2,  Heating -potoers. — In  general,  a  heating-apparatus  either  acts  rapidly, 
becoming  quickly  hot,  cooling  quickly,  and  giving  a  great  heat  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size;  or"  else  it  acts  slowly,  and  requires  to  be  of  a  large  size  in 
order  to  produce  a  due  effect,  while  it  retains  its  heating  power  for  a  long 
time.  Apparatus  of  the  former  class  is  usually  held  to  be  objectionable, 
as  has  been  already  stated. 

It  is  certainly  well  to  have  a  larger  stove  or  furnace  than  is  actually 
needed,  and  to  keep  a  moderate  fire.  This  is  true,  whether  the  room  is 
heated  directly  or  by  registers.  Certain  forms  are  so  liable  to  overheat- 
ing that  they  deserve  universal  condemnation;  such  a  form  is  the  little 
cylinder  or  sphere  of  cast-iron,  with  strong  draught  and  quick  combustion, 
rapidly  growing  red-hot  by  direct  contact  with  the  glowing  coals.  The 
use  of  iron  need  not,  however,  be  proscribed:  it  can  be  protected  in  two 
ways  from  over-heating.  An  outer  casing  of  iron,  with  secure  joints,  so 
placed  as  to  leave  a  stratum  of  air  between  the  fire-box  and  itself,  will 
effect  the  object.  The  "  base-burner "  stove  is  thus  protected.  Better 
still  is  an  inner  lining  of  fire-brick  *  or  earthenware,  which  prevents  the 
burning  coal  from  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  iron,  and  which  ought 
never  to  be  omitted  in  stoves  or  furnaces. 

Overheating  of  air  in  furnaces  may  be  prevented  by  providing  liberal 
channels  for  the  passage  of  air  through  the  hot-air  box,  and  correspond- 
ingly large  apertures  for  its  escape  from  the  rooms.  Thus  large  quanti- 
ties of  air  are  drawn  through,  and  do  not  have  time  to  acquire  a  great 
heat.  In  very  cold  weather  the  occupants  of  rooms  insist  on  having  air 
at  a  more  elevated  temperature  than  usual;  this  is  commonly  attained  by 
closing  the  cold-air  box,  and  lessening  the  flow  of  air,  but  should  rather 
be  effected  by  calling  into  action  the  reserve  force  of  the  furnace,  which 
should  be  large  and  powerful  enough  for  cold  as  well  as  moderate  weather. 

The  Russian  stove  is  the  type  of  a  slowly-heated  and  slowly-cooled 
apparatus.  These  stoves  are  of  great  size,  and  are  built  at  the  same  time 
with  the  houses.  They  are  rectangular  masses  of  brick-work,  pierced 
with  vertical  canals,  which  conduct  the  smoke  and  consumed  air  several 
times  up  and   down  through   the  structure   before  reaching  the  chimney, 

'  Despretz  states  that  the  conducting  power  of  brick-clay  is  only  3-4  of  that  of  iron, 
or  as  11  to  374. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


693 


They  are  usually  two  or  three  metres  high  (six  and  a  half  to  ten  feet), 
and  occupy  a  horizontal  surface  of  one  and  a  quarter  square  metres.  A 
very  strong  fire  is  made  in  the  morning,  and  when  the  wood  is  wholly 
converted  into  live  coals,  the  door  of  the  fire-box  is  shut  and  the  valve  of 
the  chimney  almost  shut.  The  warmth  is  retained  by  the  mass  for  a  very 
long  time,  and  the  chamber  is  kept  agreeably  warm  for  twenty -four  hours 
without  fresh  firing. 


Fig.  15.— Soapstone  furnace.  B,  C,  D,  passages  for  warming  fresh  air.  The  draught  at 
starting  is  upward  ;  after  the  furnace  is  warmed,  it  is  led  down  by  a  circuitous  path  to  the 
funnel. 

The  porcelain  stove,  so  great  a  favorite  in  Germany,  is  essentially 
similar  in  principle,  though  of  smaller  dimensions. 

In  France,  furnaces  are  made  of  hollow  bricks,  which,  when  built  into 
a  wall,  form  channels  for  the  ascent  of  fresh  air.  The  heated  smoke  is 
caused  to  pass  repeatedly  over  the  outer  surfaces  of  these  bricks,  and  in 
so  doing  warms  the  ascending  columns  of  air  inside,  which  are  finally  col- 
lected in  a  reservoir  or  box  for  distribution. 

A  somewhat  similar  furnace  is  made  in  this  country  of  slabs  of  soap- 
stone,  and  is  highly  praised  for  the  purity  of  the  air  furnished.  It  oc- 
cupies a  much  larger  space  than  an  ordinary  iron  furnace  of  equal  power. 
The  joints  can  be  made  very  close  with  this  material. 

3.  Quality  of  air. — Under  this  head  it  is  proper  to  speak  of  the  con- 
tamination of  air  by  products  of  combustion.  The  latter  may  escape  from 
a  stove  or  furnace  of  any  description,  when  the  "  damper "  is  too  close. 
By  the  term  "  damper  "  I  mean  a  valve  in  the  chimney  or  smoke-flue, 
which  is  capable  of  nearly  or  quite  closing  the  aperture.  No  valve  of 
that  sort  should  ever  be  placed  in  the  smoke-passage  of  an  apparatus  in 
use.  The  necessary  checks  to  excessive  draught  should  be  applied  at  the 
point  where  air  enters  the  fire,  not  where  it  leaves  it.  The  joints  of  any 
given  stove  are  presumably  somewhat  pervious,  and  through  such  joints, 
the  moment  the  smoke-outlet  is  closed,  gases  begin  to  pass  into  the  room. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  stove  made  as  close  as  practicable  by  shutting  its 


694  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

doors,  still  leaks  imcard  a  little,  allowing-   a  sufficient   supply  of  air  to 
reach  the  fire. 

The  draught  of  a  flue  is  much  dependent  on  its  size. 

A  contrivance,  often  applied  to  the  smoke-flue  of  a  stove  or  furnace, 
consists  of  an  aperture  for  the  admission  of  air  to  the  flue  from  the  room, 
and  its  object  is  to  diminish  the  draught  without  obstructing  the  pas- 
sage of  smoke.  It  is  a  serious  objection  to  this  contrivance  that  it  is 
liable  to  cool  the  flue  too  much;  furthermore,  it  greatly  lessens  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  on  the  stove,  "which  constitutes  our  chief  safeguard  against 
the  escape  of  gases. 

In  the  case  of  hot-air  furnaces,  it  is  very  desirable  to  make  the  seams 
actual!}^  impervious  to  gas.  This  cannot  be  done  with  the  ordinary  ma- 
terials— cast-iron,  putt}^,  and  red-lead.  The  unequal  contraction  and  dila- 
tion of  pieces  of  casting  inevitably  cracks  the  putty  or  cement — a  matter 
of  small  moment,  provided  we  were  sure  of  a  constant  atmospheric  pres- 
sure inward.  But  we  cannot  be  sure  that  such  a  pressure  will  continue 
under  all  circumstances;  and  the  manner  in  which  the  direction  of  the 
pressure  may  be  reversed  is  easy  to  understand.  For  the  iron  wall  of  the 
furnace  represents  a  diaphragm  between  two  boxes,  from  each  of  which 
a  powerful  current  ascends.  One  of  these  boxes  is  the  stove  itself — dis- 
charging into  the  chimne}".  The  other  is  the  hot-air  box  or  reservoir — dis- 
charging through  pipes,  registers,  halls,  and  stairwa3''s;  all  of  which  taken 
together  may  form  a  kind  of  rival  chimney,  drawing  upon  the  hot-air  box 
with  a  force  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  actual  chimney.  Then 
the  direction  of  the  wind  may  be  such  as  to  favor  the  exit  of  air  from  the 
box,  by  the  duct  intended  to  admit  it;  and  if,  under  these  circumstances, 
a  puff  of  wind  strikes  the  chimney  unfavorably,  it  is  not  strange  if  the 
pressure  should  be  for  the  time  reversed,  and  gas  escape  into  the  box.  In 
point  of  fact,  this  not  rarely  happens  in  furnaces  of  cast-iron.  A  suitable 
material  for  avoiding  this  exists  in  wrought-iron,  which  can  be  made  per- 
fectly tight  by  overlapping,  riveting,  and  hammering  the  edges.  Stone 
furnaces  can  be  made  tight  also. 

When  the  door  of  a  furnace  is  opened,  a  puff  of  gas  often  escajjes, 
proving  that  the  flue  is  not  drawing  well,  even  if  well  constructed.  The 
matter  is  made  worse  by  shovelling  in  coal,  causing  sudden  displacements 
of  air  from  the  fire-box.  This  escape  is  soon  perceived  in  the  rooms 
above.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  cellar  should  be  ventilated  in  some 
way  independently  of  the  upper  stories,  to  carry  off  such  accidental  prod- 
ucts. The  hot-air  box  and  the  duct  which  takes  air  in  should  be  made 
tight,  to  exclude  gas  and  other  components  of  cellar-air.  The  supply  of 
air  for  the  fire  and  that  for  the  air-box  ought,  in  short,  to  be  entirely 
separated  from  each  other. 

The  due  proportion  of  the  size  of  the  different  tubes  and  flues  enter- 
ing and  leaving  the  heat-box  is  a  matter  requiring  careful  judgment.  The 
inlet  for  cold  air,  in  its  smallest  part,  ought  to  have  a  transverse  sectional 
area  of  -^  of  a  square  foot  for  every  pound  of  coal  (anthracite)  burnt  per 
hour  in  very  cold  Aveather;  and  the  latter  may  be  estimated  at  -j^ix  of  the 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


695 


probable  monthly  consumption  for  average  weather,  (C.  B.  Richards.) 
For  example,  a  furnace,  burning  on  an  average  two  tons  a  month,  will 
burn  in  the  coldest  weather  ^Vo"  =  nearly  15  pounds  per  hour,  which 
fixes  the  sectional  area  of  the  inlet  at  y  =  2|-  square  feet  =  a  space 
18  X  20  inches  square. 

A  current  occasionally  flows  dotonward  in  one  or  another  of  a  set  of 
furnace-ducts.  We  can  sometimes  trace  the  cause  of  this  tendency  ; 
the  phenomenon  is  analogous  to  that  of  one  chimney  sucking  another, 
when  both  connect  with 
one  room.  It  arises  from 
a  considerable  dispropor- 
tion in  the  "ascensional 
forces "  in  the  tubes.  A 
short  tube  entering  a  cold 
room  might  easily  draw 
the  cold  air  down  into  the 
furnace-box,  instead  of 
sending  warm  air  up.  The 
remedy  is  furnished  in  part 
by  so  proportioning  the 
size  of  the  collective  exits 
to  the  size  of  the  inlet  that 
cold  air  entering  at  the 
latter  expands  in  propor- 
tion to  the  greater  capa- 
city presented  by  the  out- 
lets, and  not  more.  "  The 
collective  area  of  the  hot- 
air  pipes  should  be  not 
more  than  i  greater  than 
the  least  area  of  the  cold- 
air  inlets,  assuming  that 
the  heated  fresh  air  is  to 
enter  the  rooms  at  the  tem- 
perature of  about  120° 
when  at  zero  outside,  and  its  velocity  in  the  hot-air  pipes  not  exceed  5 
feet  per  second." 

A  cold-air  duct  opening  on  the  lee  side  of  a  house  has  a  tendency  to 
convey  its  air  in  the  wrong  direction,  or  the  in-draught  is  lessened.  One 
opening  on  the  windward  side  requires  a  valve.  In  some  large  buildings 
with  many  flues  the  orifice  is  so  exposed  that  the  difference  between  the 
two  sides  is  very  troublesome.  This  may  be  remedied  (as  proposed  by 
Mr.  Tudor)  by  providing  a  receptacle  of  air  of  large  size  and  convenient 
position,  into  which  ducts  open  from  various  sides  in  the  walls ;  the  sup- 
ply is  thus  made  constant. 

4.  Ventilathig  poioer. — The  air  absolutely  required  for  the  combustion 
of  fuel  is  very  small,  and  in  the  "air-tight  "  stove,  where  all  superfluous 


^L      J 


Fig.  16. — Combination  of  several  modes  of  ventilation 
for  barracks :  ^c,  stove  with  mantel,  admitting  fresh 
warmed  air  ;  6,  stove  with  mantel,  to  promote  circulation 
in  the  room  ;  d,  shaft  for  aspiration  of  air  from  level  of 
floor ;  through  the  middle  ascends  the  conjoint  funnel  of 
a  and  h.  Ridge-pole  ventilation  is  also  seen.  (From 
Roth  and  Lex.) 


696 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


currents  are  checked,  is  jDractically  of  no  account  in  ventilating  a  room. 
The  amount  of  air  used  in  stoves  burning  wood  is  stated  at  5  cubic  metres 
for  each  kilogramme  of  wood,  7  for  coal,  and  11  for  coke  (Bosc  ;  and 
Degen  nearly  the  same) — that  is,  80,  112,  and  175  cubic  feet  per  pound 
respectively.'  By  this  it  appears  that  the  ventilating  power  of  a  close 
stove  is,  roughly  speaking,  equivalent  to  one-tenth  of  that  required  by 
the  needs  of  a  single  adult  person.  Morin  estimates  the  consumption  of 
air  by  a  close  stove  at  120  cubic  feet  per  pound  of  coal. 

The  "  open  "  stove,  the  so-called  "  Franklin  stove,"  and  the  "  Fire  on 
the  Hearth  "  are  in  a  totally  different  category,  and  discharge  nearly  as 
much  air  as  an  open  fire.  The  word  "  Mantelofen  "  is  used  in  Germany 
for  the  class  of  stoves  which  possess  an  outer  jacket  or  casing,  into  which 
air  is  admitted  at  the  bottom,  and  discharged  in  a  heated  state  at  the  top, 
as  shown  in  diagram  in  Fig.  16.  In  stove  a,  fresh  air  is  rej)resented  as 
entering  from  out-of-doors.  In  stove  h,  the  air  of  the  room  enters,  and  is 
discharged;  the  benefit  of  the  arrangement  consisting  in  the  wider  and 
more  powerful  circulation  given  to  the  air,  and  also  in  the  diminution  of 
direct  radiation  from  the  surface  of  the  stove,  A  contrivance  like  a  could 
very  easily  be  applied  to  most  stoves;  the  jacket  should  reach  the  floor, 
and  air  should  be  conveyed  into  its  cavity  through  a  register  in  the  floor. 
The  register  should  open  into  a  duct  placed  in  the  flooring,  which  should 
lead  to  a  hole  in  the  house-wall. 

Fresh  air  is  also  introduced  by  the  hot-air  furnace;  but,  in  point  of 
fact,  the  supply  is  in  most  cases  quite  inadequate. 

5.  Economical  results. — The  table  which  follows  contains  the  results 
of  experiments  made  in  186o-'66  by  Morin: 


FIRE 


Fig.  17. — Diagram  of  furnace,  with  sys- 
tem of  tubes  for  obtaining  the  heat  of  the 
smoke.     (Pe'clet.) 


Fig.  18. — The  same  in  horizontal 
section. 


'  Parkes'  Hygiene  states  that  for  complete  combustion,  one  pound  of  coal  demands 
340  cubic  feet  of  air ;  wood,  120  cubic  feet. 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


697 


AMOUNT  OF  HEAT  RENDERED  BY  VARIOUS  APPARATUS. 


Name  of  apparatus. 


Percentage  of 
heat  utilized. 


Ordinary  fireplaces 


Fireplaces  with  provision  for   in- 
troducing fresh  air. 


0.10-0.12 
0.33- 


J-0.35 


^  , .  f  Cast-iron, 

Ordinary  |      ^^^^^^' 

stoves  with-  j 
out  circula- 
tion of  air. 


Coal 
Coke 


with 
i  Earthen    stoves 
(^  heated  with  wood 
Certain'    stoves   fThe     school- 
of  wrought-        I     stoves  of  Paris 
iron,  with  cir-    |  Stoves  with 
culation  of  air,  ^     vertical  tubes 
taken  from  the   I     for  circula- 
room  or  from   |     tion  (Systeme 
the  outer  air.      |^    Chaussenot)  . 
Furnaces  with     f 


tubes  for   cir 
culation   of 
smoke.  i. 


j  Horizontal 
1  Vertical . . . 


0.90 
0.83 

0.87 
0.68 


0.93 

0.63 

0.80 


Heating  | 
by  warm  ^ 
water.        I 


fWhen  the  extent  of 
tubing  and  size  of 
water-stoves  is  suffi- 
cient, in  accordance 
with  the  demands  of 
theory. 
When  the  boiler,  the 
I  fire,  and  all  the  stoves 
I  or  tubes  are  in  the 
I  rooms  they  are  de- 
(_  signed  to  warm. 


0.65-0.75 


0.85-0.90 


They  remove  bad  air,  without  directly 

introducing  fresh  air.   The  effect  on 

health  is  good. 
They   remove  bad  air,  and  introduce 

fresh  air  moderately  warmed.     The 

effect  on  health  is  good. 

They  remove  very  little  bad  air,   and 
therefore  are  not  wholesome. 


They  remove  the  bad  air  incom- 
pletely, and  raise  the  air  intro- 
duced to  an  excessive  tempera- 
ture. If  the  tubes  for  circulation 
are  of  cast-iron,  the  effect  on 
health  is  very  bad. 

They  cannot  produce  a  direct  and  suffi- 
cient evacuation  of  the  bad  air ;  in 
general,  they  heat  the  air  to  excess. 
The  latter  objection  may  be  reme- 
died by  proper  contrivances,  so  that 
the  air  is  heated  only  to  30'  or  40' 
(=  86°  and  104"  F.).  This  method 
is  unhealthy,  unless  connected  with 
a  system  of  ventilation. 


)  Adapted  in  all  cases  to  the  establish- 
^  ment  of  a  system  of  ventilation  by 
)      draught-chimneys. 


A  very  great  saving  in  fuel  is  made  by  causing-  the  smoke  to  part  with 
some  of  its  heat  in  a  system  of  tubes.  In  Fig.  17  an  arrangement  of  this 
sort  is  shown  in  vertical  section;  the  smoke  passes  from  the  top  of  the  fire, 
by  six  flues,  to  the  floor  of  the  air-chamber,  where  it  is  gathered  in  one  flue 
and  discharged  downward.     Fig.  18  gives  a  horizontal  section. 

In  Fig.  19  the  great  mass  of  smoke  and  gases  of  combustion  enters  a 
large  chamber,  which  connects  with  several  tubes,  each,  however,  return- 
ing to  the  same  chamber  after  a  downward  circuit.  The  circulation  in 
these  tubes  takes  place  in  obedience  to  the  principles  which  govern  a 
system  of  hot-water  heating-tubes.  Their  contents  become  cooled  in  the 
brick  chamber,  and  descend,  to  re-enter  the  smoke-box;  while  the  place 
of  the  cooled  gases  is  supplied  by  warmer  gas.  The  discharge  of  smoke 
to  the  chimney  is  independent  of  this  circulation. 


698 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


A  simpler  means  of  saving  heat  consists  in  letting  the  smoke-flues  run 
exposed  to  the  air,  as  is  very  commonly  seen  in  cheap  buildings.  A  far 
better  plan  is  to  convert  the  fireplace  into  a  species  of  Galton's  stove. 
For  this  purpose  a  tight,  flat  chamber  of  masonry,  of  no  great  depth, 
and  a  few  feet  wide,  in  the  space  behind  the  mantel,  is  to  be  provided. 


Fig.  19. — Furnace,  with  circulation  of  smoke. 

The  smoke-flue  from  the  stove  (an  open-grate  stove  of  ordinary  pattern) 
passes  up  and  down  in  this  space,  making  several  (say  four)  bends,  and 
exposing  a  great  length  to  the  air  of  the  chamber,  which  then  enters  the 
room  by  a  register.  Fresh  air  is  supplied  to  the  chamber  by  a  flue  com- 
municating directly  with  out-of-doors. 


Heating  hy  Steam. 

This  method  is  becoming  very  popular  in  America,  even  for  dwelling- 
houses,  while  for  public  buildings  it  possesses  certain  distinct  advantages. 

A  steam-apparatus  is  compact  and  easy  to  manage.  It  can  be  put  in 
operation  quickly.  It  transfers  heat  to  any  desired  distance  in  a  horizon- 
tal direction;  whereas  air  from  a  furnace  cannot  be  distributed  over  a 
radius  of  more  than  forty  feet.  It  is  easily  managed  by  any  fairly  intel- 
ligent domestic. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  noises  made  by  the  steam  entering  the  pipes  in 
the  morning,  after  the  apparatus  has  grown  cool,  are  very  annoying.  So  are 
leaks,  which  may  be  hard  to  find  and  repair.  Explosions  are  known  to  have 
occurred.  Yet  these  objections  can  be  answered  to  a  great  extent.  The 
noises  in  the  pipes  are  due  to  local  accumulations  of  cool  water,  causing 
sudden  condensations  of  the  hot  steam  when  they  first  come  in  contact  ; 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


699 


and  tliis  can  be  avoided,  to  sonus  extent,  by  careful  g'rading'  of  the  pipes, 
so  that  a  constant  descent  shall  exist  from  tlie  highest  ])art  of  the  system 
to  the  lowest,  permitting  all  condensed  steam  to  flow  back  into  the  boiler. 
The  latter  should  be  placed  at  a  lower  level  than  the  lowest  pipe.  There 
are  also  various  arrangements  (steam-traps)  for  automatically  evacuating 
the  water  and  air  at  given  points.  When  it  is  not  practicable  to  return  it 
directly  to  the  boiler,  automatic  air-traps  release  the  air  which  accumu- 
lates in  heaters.  As  regards  explosions,  they  should  not  be  permitted 
to  become  possible.  One  of  the  leading  manufacturers  of  steam-appara- 
tus in  Boston  is  accustomed  to  require  an  inspector's  certificate  of  a  test 
of  150  pounds  to  the  square  inch  for  boilers  which,  in  ordinary  use,  are 
not  to  be  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  more  than  5  or  10  pounds.  This  is 
"  low-pressure  ;  "  while  15  or  12  pounds  may  be  called  a  medium.  The 
advantage  in  using  a  higher  tension  than  that  of  5-10  pounds  depends  on 
the  fact  that  steam  produced  under  such  conditions  has  a  higher  tempera- 
ture, and  that  a  considerably  less  amount  of  pipe  will  suffice  to  produce  a 
given  result.  The  temperature  of  pipes  at  medium  pressure  is,  roughly 
speaking,  from  250°  to  260°  F.  ;  at  ordinary  low  pressure   [5  lbs.],  228°. 

In  laying  pipe  to  connect  the  boiler  with  the  "  coils  "  or  heaters,  it  is 
necessary  to  protect  against  waste  of  heat  by  a  casing  of  fibrous  material. 
Various  substances  are  manufactured  for  this  pixrpose,  the  best  of  which 
are  founded  on  the  use  of  asbestos.  In  passing  through  wood-work 
(floors,  etc.),  the  pipe  must  be  guarded  by  packing  for  protection  against 
fire. 

If  precautions  of  this  kind  are  used,  gutters  containing  pipe  may  be 
laid  in  the  floor. 

A  coil  of  steam-pipe  is  often  placed  in  a  chest  of  water,  forming  what 


Fig.  20. — Steam-coil  in  cellar  :  valves  to  control  source  of  supply  of  air,  and  its 
course  within  the  heater. 


is  called  a  "  water-stove."     The  apparatus  heats  rather  slowly,  which  may 
be  thought  a  disadvantage;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  retains  heat  for  a 


700 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


long  time,  and,  as  its  top  is  open,  the  temperature  never  exceeds  212°  F., 
while  the  fresh  air  within  the  mantel  does  not  exceed  45°. 

The  ordinary  application  of  steam  to  heating  purposes  consists  in 
placing  coils  in  the  rooms  to  be  heated,  without  provision  for  the  entraiice 
of  fresh  air.  This  is  extremely  objectionable.  Many  modern  dwellings, 
especially  in  "family  hotels,"  are,  in  addition,  so  deprived  of  natural  ven- 
tilation by  the  tightness  of  the  joinery,  the  close  fit  of  the  sashes,  and  the 
paint  and  varnish  of  the  walls,  as  to  be  extremely  uncomfortable.  The 
proper  arrangement  would  be  to  enclose  each  coil 
in  a  box,  forming  an  arrangement  like  the  system 
of  stove-flues,  described  at  the  end  of  the  last  sec- 
tion; each  box  has  an  inlet  for  fresh  air,  and  an 
outlet  or  register  to  discharge  it  into  the  room. 
Such  a  box  can  be  arranged  under  the  window- 
seat  without  occupying  much  space.  The  same 
principle  can  be  applied  to  boxes  placed  in  the 
cellar  of  a  large  building,  of  which  a  sketch  is 
given  in  Fig.  20.  A  valve  at  the  right  hand  end 
of  the  box  directs  the  flow  of  the  air  over  the  coil, 
or  away  from  the  coil  through  an  empty  section  of 
the  box,  or,  in  different  proportions,  partly  through 
each;  this  gives  the  power  of  controlling  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  admitted  to  the  room,  while  it 
leaves  the  amount  constant.  The  inlet  from  the 
outer  air  has  a  valve,  which  can  be  closed  at  night, 
or  at  other  times  when  the  building  is  unoccu- 
pied; another  valve,  at  A,  can  be  opened  at  the 
same  time  to  supply  cellar  air.  In  distributing 
the  air  from  such  a  heater,  pipes  and  registers 
are  used,  as  in  the  case  of  furnace-air.  This  method 
It  has  a  great  advantage  in  one  respect  over  the  hot- 
air  furnace  system:  the  amount  of  heat  given  by  each  box  of  equal  size 
is  exactly  equal,  in  whatever  part  of  the  house  it  be  placed. 

No  introduction  of  fresh  air,  however,  can  take  place  unless  there  be 
an  outlet  for  its  escape  from  the  room;  and,  as  things  go,  it  is  not  safe  to 
take  it  for  granted  that  any  "  ventilating-flues"  are  in  working  order, 
except  that  surest  of  ventilators,  the  chimney,  and  open  firej^lace.  In  a 
general  way  it  must  be  said  that  no  room  is  fit  for  habitation  unless  it  has 
a  chimney.  Exceptions  might  be  noted;  but  they  would  readily  occur  to 
any  observing  person. 

The  annexed  figure  (Fig.  21)  gives  a  formula  for  correct  and  incorrect 
warming  by  pipes  of  steam  or  hot  water.  In  A  the  air  circulating  around 
the  pipe  is  seen  to  come  from  out  of  doors;  in  B  it  is  drawn  from  the 
room  to  which  it  is  returned. 


Fig, 


is  very  satisfactory. 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


701 


Heating  by  Water. 


This  may  be  placed  by  the  side  of  steam-heating'.  It  gives  a  less 
intense  heat  than  the  latter,  and  is  not  liable  to  certain  objections.  Its 
recommendation  is  its  great  equability  and  mildness;  as  the  temperature 
of  the  air  in  contact  with  water-pipes  does  not  usually  rise  above  45"  C. 
or  113°  F.  Its  drawbacks  are  the  slowness  with  which  an  apparatus  is 
usually  heated  when  once  cooled  down,  and  its  comparative  expensiveness 
in  daily  use. 

The  principle  which  governs  the  circulation  in  a  system  of  hot-water 
pipes  is  based  on  the  laws  of  gravitation.  A  circle  of  pipe,  entering  a 
boiler  or  a  furnace  at  one  side,  is  more  heated  at 
that  side,  and  the  water  in  that  part  rises,  while 
the  water  in  the  other  parts,  being  cooler,  passes 
in  to  fill  its  jjlace.  The  princij)le  is  quite  the 
same,  whether  a  simple  circle  is  used,  or  whether 
at  various  points  the  pipe  enters  a  "  coil "  or  a 
tank  of  whatever  shape  for  the  rapid  distribution 
of  heat.  Nor  is  the  case  affected  by  the  use  of  a 
boiler  in  some  systems,  and  of  a  series  of  pijoes 
in  contact  with  the  fire  in  others.  It  is  essential 
that  a  point  should  be  left  open  to  the  air  at 
the  high  level,  to  give  room  for  the  expansion 
of  the  water.  This  point  may  be,  and  usually 
is,  at  a  tank. 

The  surface  of  tube  required  is  greater  than 
in  the  case  of  steam-heaters,  from  one-half  to 
one-fourth,  which  constitutes  an  economic  ob- 
jection to  the  use  of  water. 

The  opinion  of  Dr.  Billings,  derived  from  a 
comparison  of  the  results  of  a  steam-heat  sys- 
tem in  the  Boston  City  Hospital  with  the  hot- 
water  system  in  the  Barnes  Hospital,  is  in  favor 
of  the  latter.  He  expresses  "  a  preference  for 
the  use  of  hot-water  apparatus  with  large  heat- 
ing surfaces  of  a  comparatively  low  tempera- 
ture, i.  e.,  from  100°  to  160°  F.  My  objec- 
tions to  steam-heating,  as  I  had  seen  it,  were  that  the  air  is  generally 
overheated,  that  the  various  valves  and  other  contrivances  for  mixing 
cold  air  with  the  superheated  air  in  order  to  produce  the  proper  tempera- 
ture are  generally  unsatisfactory;  the  air  escaping  in  alternate  puffs  of 
cold  and  hot  air;  that,  unless  very  carefully  set,  there  is  liability  to  annoy- 
ance from  noises  in  the  pipes  due  to  condensation ;  and  that  more  constant 
and  skilled  practical  supervision  is  necessary  with  the  apparatus.  From 
practical  trial  with  the  hot- water  method,  I  am  perfectly  sure  that  for  heat- 
ing purposes  it  is  entirely  satisfactory,  and  is  probably  cheaper  than  ateam. 


W///mA-  #//  w/  .//////  v/v/uA 
Fig.  22. — Diagram  of  a  sys- 
tem of  heating  by  hot  water. 


702 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


"  From  information  furnished  by  Dr.  Covvles,  and  from  my  own  ob- 
servations, I  believe  that  the  method  used  in  the  new  wai'ds  of  the  Boston 
City  Hospital  (steam)  gives  satisfactory  results;  results,  so  far  as  tempera- 
ture and  ventilation  are  concerned,  as  good  as,  but  no  better  than,  the 
hot-water  system." 

In  some  of  the  other  buildings  (other  than  wards)  he  thinks  that  steam 
would  probably  be  less  expensive  than  hot  water. 

A  combination  of  steam  and  water  heating  may  be  made,  which  will 
avoid  some  of  the  objections  of  each. 

Such  a  system,  as  seen  by  the  writer,  consisted  of  a  cylindrical  stove, 
lined  with  fire-brick,  and  with  nothing  peculiar  in  its  construction,  except 
that  iron  pipes  containing  water  encircle  the  fire-pot  within,  in  contact 
with  the  fire.  These  pipes  are  continuous  with  a  set  which  makes  the 
circuit  of  a  room  or  rooms  on  the  level  of  the  stove.  At  a  high  point  in 
this  circulation,  a  pipe  leads  to  a  second  set  of  tubes  containing  no  water, 
which  are  led  to  higher  levels  or  upper  stories.  Steam  in  moderate  amount, 
and  at  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  is  constantly  passing  from  the 
water  circuit  up  into  the  steam  circuit;  and  free  escape  is  allowed  for  any 
surplus  steam  at  a  distant  point.  The  danger  of  explosion  seems  to  be 
entirely  obviated  by  this  plan,  and,  as  far  as  tested,  its  economic  value  is 
considerable. 

Ventilation. 

The  amount  of  fresh  air  required  by  an  adult  may  be  estimated  by 
reference  to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  given  out,  and  the  amount  of 
air  required  to  dilute  this  to  a  degree  arbitrarily  assumed  as  a  normal 
standard  of  purity  for  houses. 

An  adult  man  (Parkes),  in  ordinary  work,  gives  off  in  twenty-four 
hours  from  12  to  16  cubic  feet  or  more,  according  to  weight,  of  carbonic- 
acid  gas,  and  also  emits  an  undetermined  quantity  of  carbonic-acid  gas 
by  the  skin.  On  an  average,  an  adult  man,  not  doing  excessive  work,  may 
be  considered  to  give  to  the  atmosphere  every  hour  not  less  than  0.6  cubic 
feet  of  carbonic  acid.  Pettenkofer  states  the  amount  at  about  O.7.*  Women 
give  off  less,  and  children  and  old  people  also  give  off  a  smaller  amount. 

The  following  observations  give  the  amounts  of  CO2  excreted  by  dif- 
ferent persons  and  classes: 

I.  PETTENKOFER  AND  VOIT.  =— DISCHARGE  PER  HOUR. 


By  day  .  . 
By  night. 


I.   Strong  laborer,  weight 
72ki]ogr.,  age  28. 


At  rest. 


At  work. 


22 . 6  litres 

16.7  " 


36.3 
15. 


II.  Weak  tailor,  weight 
53  kilogr.,  age  26. 


At  rest. 


16.8 

12.7 


'  This  is  the  quantity  adopted  by  Roth  and  Lex  (Militar-Gesundheitspflege). 
2  Zeitschrift  flir  Biologie,  Bd.  II.,  p.  546. 


THE    ATMOSPKERE. 


703 


II.   SCHARLING.' 


Age.      Weight. 

Hourly  discharge  of  CO2. 

Boy 

9f  1  22    kilogr. 

10.3  litres. 

Girl 

10  '  23 

9.7     " 

Youth 

16     57.75  " 

17.4     " 

Young  woman 

17 

55.75  " 

12.9     " 

Man 

28 

82.       " 

18.6     " 

Woman 

35 

65.50  " 

17.0     " 

III.  BREITESTG'  (FROM  ANALYSIS  Ob^  AIR  OF  ROOM  FOR  CO2). 


Sex. 

Age. 

Amount  CO2. 

Time. 

Girls 

7-8 

7-8 

8-9 

8-9 

12-13 

12-13 

12-13 

10.7 
10.5 
12.0 
16.7 
13.1 
13.0 
17. 

) 

cc 

V  Reo'ular  hours  of  instruction. 

i( 

) 

li 

Hours  of  singing. 
[-  Regular  hours  of  instruction. 

Bovs 

li 

a 

Sin  o"!  no-. 

00 

The  hourly  supply  of  air  required  by  each  person  -may  be  estimated 
as  follows:  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  excreted  by  the  lungs  is  as- 
sumed as  =  0.532  m.  in  24  hours,  which  corresponds  to  12.2  m.  of  expired 
air  containing  4.334  per  cent.  (Vierordt)  of  carbonic  acid.  Now,  if  this 
expired  air  be  added  to  99  times  its  volume  of  atmospheric  air,  containing 
the  usual  proportion  of  4  per  ten  thousand  of  carbonic  acid,  it  is  evident 
that  (disregarding  minute  fractions)  the  amount  of  CO.t  in  the  air  is 
simply  doubled;  it  is  raised  to  8  per  ten  thousand.  And  if  to  this  mix- 
ture be  added  its  own  volume,  again,  of  atmospheric  air,  we  have  a 
second  mixture  containing  the  mean  of  4  and  8,  or  6,  parts  in  ten  thou- 
sand, which  is  an  allowable  amount,  and  for  most  purposes  may  be  con- 
sidered all  that  is  attainable.  One  hundred  and  ninety-nine  (say  two 
hundred)  times  the  total  bulk  of  the  expired  air  is  therefore  required  to 
dilute  it  to  a  proper  degree.  This  equals  2,440  m.  daily,  or  about  100  m. 
per  hour — that  is,  in  round  numbers,  3,500  cubic  feet.  This  is  necessary 
in  rooms  which  are  constantly  occupied;  and  in  rooms  for  assembly,  or 
schools,  where  such  a  liberal  ventilation  is  impossible,  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  to  o-ive  a  thoroua'h  sluicina'-out  with  fresh  air  at  short 
intervals  ;  at  least  after  each  session.  In  legislative  halls  the  sessions 
are  so  protracted  that  the  requisition  for  air  may  approach  that  in  a  hos- 

'  C.  G.  Lehmann :  Handbuch  d.  physiol.  Chemie,  Leipzig,  1854. 
^BandllL,  p.  320. 


704  THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 

pital,  which,  as  given  by  De  Chaumont,  equals  about  3,000  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  but,  as  stated  by  Billings,  is  one  cubic  foot  per  second  per  man  as 
the  minimum  allowance,  or  3,600  feet  per  hour,  which  is  over  100  cubic 
metres. 

The  quantity  of  fresh  air  required  per  hour  and  head,  in  order  to  keep 
the  air  of  a  room  at  a  given  standard  of  purity,  may  be  calculated  by  a 
simple  formula : ' 

k 

in  which 

y  =  volume  of  air  required. 

k  =  volume  of  COj  produced  by  the  persons,  lights,  etc. 
p  =  proportion  of  CO2  to  be  allowed  (.0007,  Pettenkofer)  to  each  vol- 
ume of  air, 

q  =  proportion  of  CO.2  existent  in  each  volume  of  normal  air  (if  quite 
pure,  in  cities  =  .00037). 

In  this  equation,  the  reader  need  not  be  told  that  p  and  q  vary  con- 
siderably in  different  authors  and  places. 

If,  for  example,  a  school-room  contains  fifty  pupils  of  the  age  of  nine 
or  ten  years,  we  may  assume,  in  round  numbers — 

k  =  10  X  50  =  500  litres  =  0.5  cubic  metres. 
p  =  .0007. 
q  =  .00035. 
0.5 

^  =  .0007-.00035==  ^^^^  '^^^'  "^"''''- 
But  if  we  assume  a  higher  standard  of  purity  and  place,  as  we  may, 

p  =  .0006, 
while  the  air-supply  is  assumed  as  of  only  the  average  town  quality,  say 

q  =  .0004, 
the  equation  reads: 

^'  =  :ooo^^r:ooo4  ^-  ^^^^  '^^^'  ^^''^'' 

or  about  1,750  cubic  feet  per  scholar,  which  is  quite  a  moderate  estimate. 

The  estimate  is,  in  fact,  too  moderate.  Instead  of  10,  let  us  allow  15 
litres  carbonic  acid  as  expired  hourly  by  each  pupil  in  a  school,  or  adult 
in  a  room;  this  raises  the  value  of  y  by  one-half,  or  from  1,750  to  2,625 
feet  per  hour. 

If  we  assume  20  litres  as  the  normal  production  (for  adults)  per  hour, 
as  is  done  by  Herter,  we  double  the  value  of  y,  making  it  3,500  cubic  feet, 
or  100  cubic  metres  per  hour  and  head. 

"  It  is  impossible  to  keep  the  air  in  rooms  of  a  purity  equal  to  that  of 
the  outer  air;  the  amount  to  be  introduced  would  have  for  this  purpose 
to  be  infinite.  But  we  may  be  sure,  from  calculation  and  experiment, 
that  a  ventilation  to  the  extent  of  100  cubic  metres  per  head  and  hour 
will  give  a  perfectly  good,  wholesome  air,  always  supposing  that  the  mix- 

^  Schultze  und  Marcker  :  Handbuch  der  Militar-Gesundheitspflege,  Bd.  I.,  p.  221. 


THE    ATMOSPHEKE. 


705 


ture  of  air  takes  place  quickly  and  uniformly,  and  that  the  only  source  of 
impurity  is  that  derived  from  the  human  exhalations."  ' 

Morin's  table  of  the  amount  of  fresh  air  required  per  hour  and  head, 
though  well  known,  may  be  given  here.  It  presents,  for  certain  cases,  far 
too  low  an  estimate.  The  amount  of  CO^  eliminated  from  the  lungs  of 
children  is  not  so  much  smaller  than  that  from  adults  as  to  make  it  safe 
to  reckon  less  cubic  space  for  the  former. 


Am  PER  Hour  and  Head. 


Cub.  feet. 


Hospitals  for  ordinary  patients 

"  "    wounded  and  lying-in 

"  "    epidemics 

Prisons 

Ordinary  workshops 

Workshops  with  special  sources  of  contamina 

tion  of  air 

Barracks,  by  day 

"  by  night 

Theatres 

Public  assembly-rooms — 

For  long  use 

For  short  use 

Schools  for  adults 

"         "    children 


2119-2473 
3532 
5298 
1766 
2119 

3532 

1059 
1413-1766 
1413-1766 

2119 

1059 
883-1059 
424-530 


The  following  estimates  of  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  produced  by 
different  illuminating  materials  may  be  of  use. 

R.  A.  Smith  (Air  and  Rain,  p.  110)  gives  a  calculation  of  the  amount 
produced  by  two  men,  working  with  two  candles,  as  is  usual  in  mines, 
during  a  period  of  eight  hours.  The  two  men  will  produce  10.4  cubic 
feet  of  CO2,  and  the  two  candles  12.2765  feet,  at  a  temperature  of 
70°  F.  This  gives  the  production  of  a  mining-candle,  relatively  to  that 
of  a  man,  as  nearly  equal  7  :  6;  a  candle  produces  1-|-  times  as  much  as 
a  man. 

In  another  place  he  says :  "  I  afterward  found  in  some  expei-iments 
(with  the  lead  chamber)  that  the  man  gave,  as  nearly  as  possible,  double 
the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  given  by  a  sperm  or  paraffin  candle.  A 
man  produced  in  an  hour  .6  of  that  gas  to  100  feet  of  air;  a  candle,  .31. 
The  miners'  candles  produced  more,  as  is  believed;  but  this  was  not  esti- 
mated." 

The  following  table  is  given  by  Lunge  from  Erismann  for  several 
kinds  of  liarhts: 


'  Herter:  Vierteljahrschr.  f.  gerichtl.  Med.,  1874. 
Vol.  I.— 45 


706 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


Form  of  illummation. 


Petroleum,  slit-burner  .  . 
"  round-burner 

Oil-lamp 

Candle 

Coal-gas,  slit-burner. .  .  . 
"  flat-burner. .  .  . 


Consumption  per  Hour  in 


Grammes. 


35.5 

50.5 
22.4 

20.7 


Litres. 


0.045 
0.064 
0.025 


140. 
127. 


Am^ount  of 
light  meas. 
by  candles. 


10.0 
7.6 
4.0 
1.0 
7.8 

10.0 


Production 
of  COo  per 
hour. 

(.In  litres.) 


56.8 
61.6 
31.2 
11.3 

92.8 
86.0 


The  figures  in  the  last  column  may  be  compared  with  those  for  the 
human  production  of  CO2  by  dividing  by  20. 

It  is  stated  by  Roth  and  Lex  that  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  pro- 
duced by  flames  giving  equal  light  is,  in  the  case  of 

Street-gas 155  litres  per  hour. 

Rapeseed  oil 87       "         " 

Petroleum 75       "         " 

Wolpert  found,  disregarding  the  quantity  of  light,  that  the  carbonic 
acid  produced  by 

Street-gas,  with  simple  burner  =     40  litres. 

"      batswing  "       =  240     " 
One  stearine  candle =;    12     " 

Which  corresponds  roughly  to  the  amounts  produced  by  2,  12,  and  ^  per- 
son respectively. 

The  quantity  of  CO2  produced  by  street-gas  in  burning  may  be  calcu- 
lated from  chemical  data. 

The  burning  of  illuminating-gas  produces  (Lunge)  681  parts  of  car- 
bonic acid  to  1,000  parts  of  gas.  A  burner  giving  a  light  equivalent  to 
7.8  normal  candles,  using  140  litres  of  gas  per  hour  (about  5  cubic  feet), 
produces  in  an  hour  92.8  litres  of  carbonic  acid.  If  we  allow  for  the  total 
daily  excretion  of  CO2  by  a  single  average  man,  the  amount  of  406  litres, 
or  800  grammes,'  we  find  that  the  burner  produces  as  much  carbonic  acid 
in  a  given  time  as  five  and  four-tenths  average  men.  This  is,  perhaps,  a 
little  too  high. 

It  is  a  question,  which  has  received  considerable  discussion,  whether  a 
sleeping-room  ought  to  be  ventilated  as  freely  as  a  day-room.  The  an- 
swer embraces  several  points.  For  civilized  men,  in  cities,  enjoying  only 
limited  opportunities  of  inhaling  fresh  air,  the  question  must  be  answered 
in  the  affirmative,  with  some  slight  allowance  for  the  diminished  excre- 
tion which  occurs  during  sleep.  In  the  language  of  Pettenkofer  :  "  He 
who  will  sleep  healthily  in  a  cold  room,  must  not  only  have  a  good  bed. 


'  Pettenkofer  and  Voit.     It  varies,  however,  from  686  to  1,285  grammes. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  707 

but  also  a  large  cubic  space,  or  very  poorly  fitting  doors  and  windows,  or 
very  porous  walls,  or  else  he  must  leave  a  window  partly  open,  in  winter 
as  well  as  in  summer." 

The  good  health,  however,  apparently  enjoyed  by  men  who  labor  out 
of  doors  and  sleep  in  close  rooms,  is  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  view 
that  the  blood  and  tissues,  if  largely  supplied  with  oxygen  by  day,  do 
not  require  nearly  as  much  by  night.  It  is  also  the  habit  of  wild  ani- 
mals to  seek  close  places  to  sleep  in,  for  security,  no  doubt,  in  the  first 
place.  The  habits  of  hibernation  in  certain  animals  prove  that  the  ex- 
cretion of  carbonic  acid  goes  on  at  a  very  much  lessened  rate  under  cer- 
tain circumstances;  and  they  seem  to  require  almost  no  "cubic  space"  to 
breathe  in  during  that  period  of  retirement.  The  habits  of  a  hardy  and 
exposed  life  greatly  strengthen  the  powers  of  resistance  to  narcotic  influ- 
ences;^ the  mountaineer's  capacity  for  imbibing  whiskey,  and  the  unlimited 
indulgence  in  tobacco  which  the  traveller  can  enjoy  during  a  sea-voyage, 
both  illustrate  this  fact,  and  perhaps  the  tolerance  of  a  bad  air  by  night 
is  a  parallel  fact. 

In  any  case,  it  must  be  regarded  as  conducive  to  health  to  breathe  ab- 
solutely fresh  and  pure  air  at  all  times.  The  habit  of  sleeping  in  the  open 
air  may  be  acquired  and  enjoyed  by  well  people  in  any  temperate  season 
and  climate;  its  effects,  when  once  tolerated,  are  unquestionably  in  the 
direction  of  improved  health.  The  results,  in  the  briefest  terms,  of  a  tem- 
perate life  in  the  open  air  in  a  good  climate,  are  that  one  is  never  sick  or 
ailing;  that  diseases  contracted  are  thrown  off  easily;  that  wounds  heal 
quickly.  Vigor  acquired  by  exposure  in  the  daytime  need  not  be  wasted 
by  carbonic-acid  narcotism  during  the  hours  of  sleep;  it  is  as  safe  to 
sleep  in  a  wholesome  air  as  it  is  to  be  awake  in  it. 

In  illustration  of  the  value  of  a  thorough  system  of  ventilation  as 
applied  to  a  hospital  ward,  the  following  statements  are  extracted  from 
an  article  in  the  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health  for  18T9, 
by  Edward  Cowles,  M.D.,  Sujjerintendent  of  the  Boston  City  Hospital : 

"  In  June,  1876,  two  new  surgical  pavilions  were  opened  at  the  Boston 
City  Hospital,  and  important  changes  in  the  sanitary  arrangements  of  the 
old  buildings  were  begun.  Previous  to  this  time  there  had  been  several 
endemics  of  pyaemia  and  other  septicsemic  affections,  which  had  very 
seriously  increased  the  fatality,  as  well  as  retarded  the  recovery  of  the 
patients.  In  no  class  of  cases  was  this  pernicious  influence  more  con- 
spicuous than  in  compound  fractures  of  the  extremities.  During  the  five 
years  ending  June  1,  1874,  the  mortality  in  these  injuries  (157  cases)  was 
forty-one  per  cent.,  while  in  the  two  and  one-half  years  following  the  in- 
troduction of  improved  sanitary  conditions,  the  death-rate  (in  fifty-one 
cases)  was  not  quite  twenty  per  cent. — a  reduction  in  the  mortality  of 
more  than  one-half." 

In  cases  treated  without  amputation,  "  the  percentage  of  recoveries 
has  increased  from  fifty-six  to  eighty-seven,  or  more  than  fifty  per  cent. ; 
the  mortality  has  fallen  from  forty-four  per  cent,  to  thirteen  per  cent." 

"  Amputations  have  been  less  frequent,  and  the   results  have   been 


708  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

more  favorable  than  foririerly.  Th(?  frequency  of  and  fatality  from 
pyaemia  has  decreased  one-half,  and  all  the  affections  depending-  upon 
blood-poisoning  have  been  greatly  diminished  in  the  past  two  or  three 
years."  No  new  or  improved  method  of  treatment  seems  to  have  had  any 
influence  in  producing  these  results. 

The  hourly  supply  of  air  is  the  chief  factor  in  determining  the  size  of 
a  room.  Into  a  small  room  we  can  introduce  only  a  proportionably  small 
amount  of  air  in  a  given  time.  This  limitation  rests  on  the  fact  stated 
by  De  Chaumont,  by  Roth  and  Lex,  that  when  the  air  in  a  room  is  changed 
more  ra]3idly  than  three  times  in  an  hour,  unpleasant  draughts  are  felt  by  the 
inmates.  If,  then,  we  assume  that  each  adult  occupant  of  a  room  requires 
100  cubic  metres  of  fresh  air  hourly,  or  3,500  cubic  feet,  we  must  allow 
nearly  1,200  cubic  feet  of  space  per  head,  which  is  a  great  deal  more  than 
is  usual.  This  requirement,  however,  is  hardly  excessive  in  the  case  of  a 
hospital,  where  "  1,000  cubic  feet  should  be  the  minimum  allowance  to 
each  person  "  (Billings) ;  it  ought,  in  fact,  to  be  exceeded. 

The  cubic  space  allowed  by  the  regulations  of  the  British  army  to 
soldiers  in  barracks  is — 

In  permanent  barracks 600  cubic  feet. 

In  wooden  huts 400  '• 

In  hospital- wards  at  home 1,300  " 

"  "       in  the  tropics 1,500  " 

In  wooden  hospitals  at  home 600  " 

The  sensible  qualities  of  the  air  in  a  room  ought  to  be  considered  as  im- 
portant. A  bad  smell — an  odor  of  dirty  linen,  of  musty  books,  of  excreta, 
or  perspiration,  or  stale  food — must  not  be  perceived.  The  "  hospital 
smell "  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  got  rid  of  by  diligent  scrubbing  and 
cleanliness,  minute  in  details. 

The  best  test  of  good  air  (not  to  exclude  the  sense  of  smell,  which  is 
subject  to  the  influence  of  a  varying  personal  equation)  is  obtained  by  ex- 
amining for  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  at  various  levels  in  a  room.  It  is 
desirable  to  ascertain,  by  the  use  of  the  anemometer,  the  amount  of  air 
entering  a  room  or  leaving  it;  but  the  chemical  test  supplies  a  most  valu- 
able piece  of  information,  relating  to  the  diffusion  of  the  introduced  fresh 
air  in  the  different  parts  of  a  room. 

In  Lang  and  Wolffhiigel  '  are  to  be  found  formulee,  by  Seidel,  Hagen- 
bach,  and  Kohlrausch,  for  calculating  the  amount  of  ventilation  from  the 
variations  in  the  amount  of  CO2  in  the  air. 

Methods. 

Ventilation  is  either  natviral  or  artificial. 

Natural  ventilation  is  a  term  of  somewhat  loose  application.  We 
shall  consider  it  as  limited  to  the  supply  of  air  which  enters  through  pas- 


'  Ueber  Liiftung  und  Heiziing  von  Bisenbahnwagen. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  709 

sag-es  not  intended  for  the  purpose — cracks  and  pores  in  the  walls,  doors, 
and  windows.  It  is  necessary  to  consider  the  chimney  as  an  ally  in  natu- 
ral ventilation.  The  rate  at  which  air  is  extracted  l)y  a  chimney  d(M)ends 
on  its  height  and  the  difference  between  its  interior  tem})(iraturc  and  that 
of  the  outer  air. 

Tt  may  be  remarked  by  any  person  of  observation  that  houses  exposed 
to  the  wind  are  apt  to  have  a  fairly  good  air  within,  even  in  the  lack  of  a 
system  of  ventilation.  This  is  a  perfect  illustration  of  what  is  meant  by 
"  natural  "  ventilation.  Air  enters  such  a  house  at  all  the  cracks  on 
the  windward  side,  and  leaves  it  on  the  leeward  and  by  the  way  of  the 
chimney.  But  a  more  important  element  in  natural  ventilation  (accord- 
ing to  Pettenkofer)  consists  in  the  porosity  of  the  walls,  through  which 
enormous  quantities  of  air  pass  unsuspected. 

lit  order  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  "  natural "  ventilation 
affects  the  air  of  a  dwelling-room,  Pettenkofer  applied  the  reaction  for  car- 
bonic acid.  He  found  that  in  a  room  with  brick  walls,  containing  75  cubic 
metres  of  air,  or  about  2,700  cubic  feet,  the  air  contained  was  completely 
changed  once  in  an  hour  when  the  temperature  outside  stood  at  32.2°  F. 
and  inside  at  64.4°  F. — a  difference  of  34.2°.  At  the  same  temperatures, 
a  brisk  fire  being  made  in  the  stove,  and  all  the  valves  and  doors  opened  to 
the  chimney,  the  hourly  change  amounted  to  94  cubic  metres,  or  nearly  25 
per  cent,  increase.  But  when  all  the  cracks  in  the  doors  and  windows,  and 
even  the  keyholes,  were  closed  with  strong  paper  and  paste,  the  change  of 
air  still  equalled  54  cubic  metres  in  an  hour,  which  is  only  28  per  cent,  less 
than  the  first  result.  This  effect  was  very  much  dependent  on  the  differ- 
ence of  temperature  between  the  outer  and  the  inner  air,  as  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  when  these  equalled  respectively  64.4°  and  71.6°  F.,  the 
average  change  of  air  was  only  22  cubic  metres  per  hour;  and  even  the 
opening  of  a  window,  with  a  space  of  8  square  feet,  increased  the  change 
of  air  only  to  42  cubic  metres  per  hour. 

It  is  a  familiar  fact,  though  not  sufficiently  heeded,  that  it  is  harder  to 
ventilate  a  large  school-house  than  a  small  one.  It  is  perfectly  evident 
that  a  small  house  exposes  a  much  larger  surface  of  wall,  proportionately 
to  its  size  and  the  number  of  pupils,  than  a  large  house,  and  hence  the 
natural  ventilation  is  much  more  vigorous.  The  difficulty  of  overseeing 
an  extensive,  and  complex  apparatus  is  another  source  of  imperfect  venti- 
lation in  large  houses. 

The  direction  and  force  of  the  wind  also  greatly  affect  the  natural 
ventilation.  A  chimney  draws  less  actively  when  its  fireplace  is  turned 
away  from  the  direction  the  wind  comes  from  ;  and  a  room  which  with 
one  wind  may  receive  a  great  deal  of  out-door  air  through  crevices,  with 
another  wind  may  lose  as  much  of  its  own  air,  in  the  outward  direction, 
the  place  of  that  lost  being  filled  by  air  from  the  other  parts  of  the 
house. 

The  quantity  of  air  passing  through  a  porous  building-material  is 
directly  proportional  to  its  constant  of  permeability  and  to  the  difference 
in  atmospheric  pressure  upon  the  two  sides;  it  is  inversely  proportional 


710 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


to  the  thickness  of  the  wall.     The  difference  in  the  permeability  of  mate- 
rials is  shown  in  the  following  table,  taken  from  Lang  : 


Material. 


Constant  of 
permeability. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
11. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 


Calcareous  tufa 

Slag-stone,  from  Haardt  a.  Sieg,  1873 , 

Slag  f.  Zuffenhausen 

Slag,  English . . 

Slag  from  Osnabrtick,  1873 

"  1871 

Cendrin-stone 

Pinewood  over  Hirn  (Querschnitt) . .  .  . 

Mortar 

Brick  (Ziegel),  pale,  Osnabrtick 

Beton 

Handziegel,  hard-burnt,  Munich 

Clinker,  unglazed 

Portland  cement 

Machine  bricks  (Ziegel),  Munich 

Green  sandstone,  Upper  Bavaria 

"  "  Switzerland 

Handziegel,  soft  burnt,  Munich 

Oakwood  over  H 

Gypsum,  cast 

Clinker,  glazed,  impermeable 


980 
597 
514 


2.633 


1.890 
1.720 
1.337 
1.010 
0.907 
0.383 
0.258 
0.203 
0.145 
0.137 
0.132 
0.130 
0.118 
0.087 
0.007 
0.041 
0.000 


Painting  has  a  very  great  effect  upon  the  permeability  of  walls.  A 
first  coat  of  oil-paint  lowered  it,  in  the  case  of  mortar,  from  100  to  90.6; 
sandstone  and  brick  and  clinker  to  66.6;  a  second  coat  reduced  gypsum 
to  0,  mortar  to  19.6,  and  the  others  to  3.5  and  5.2. 

"  Coating  with  water-glass '  probably  in  time  completely  destroys  the 
permeability  of  a  wall ;  so  does  oil-paint,  while  new,  although  the  cracks 
which  come  in  the  course  of  time  make  a  considerable  difference.  When 
I  state  that  oil-paint  is  the  principal  agent  in  preventing  the  diffusion  and 
passage  through  the  walls  of  the  watery  vapors  which  originate  in  domes- 
tic processes  and  respiration,  it  will  be  necessary  for  th6  science  of 
hygiene  to  decide  whether  water-glass  and  oU-iKiint  will  have  to  he  con- 
demned. Size-colors  also  lessen  the  permeability  considerably,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  size  ;  that  used  by  me  was  so  feebly 
sized  that  it  lost  color,  and  yet  the  amount  of  air  passing  through  was 
lessened  by  one-half  ;  the  smallest  loss  of  permeability  occurred  when  lime- 
colors  were  used." 

Papering  a  wall  has  a  similar  effect,  though  to  a  less  extent;  in  the 
case  of  various  stones  and  brick  it  was  lowered  from  8.5  per  cent,  to 
46.8  per  cent. 


Lang:    Loc.  cit.,  p.  88. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


711 


Moisture  has  a  great  effect  in  arresting  the  passage  of  air;  this  occurs 
in  inverse  proportion  to  the  porosity  of  the  material.  Restitution  also 
takes  places  in  proportion  to  the  porosity. 


Window  Ventilation. 

Great  economy  of  fuel  could  be  attained  by  introducing  double  win- 
dows. A  single  thickness  of  glass  cools  the  air  enormously;  and,  if  one 
is  sitting  under  it,  a  draught  of  falling  cold  air  is  felt  which  is  both  real 
and  dangerous.  This  draught  is  not  due  to  the  entrance  of  cold  fresh  air, 
but  is  produced  by  the  chilling  of  a  layer  of  warm  air  in  contact  with  the 
glass,  which  naturally  falls  to  the  level  of  the  floor.  Another  use  of  dou- 
ble windows  is  that  of  direct  ventilation.     Let  the  lower  sash  outside  be 


slightly  raised,  and  the  upper  sash  inside  slightly  lowered;  air  will  then  pass 


Fig.  24. 

between  the  two  sashes,  and  will  enter  the  room  near  the  ceiling,  having 
in  its  passage  over  six  feet  of  glass  (inner  window)  received  a  good  deal  of 
heat  from  the  room,  and  being  therefore  partially  warmed  before  entering. 

One  of  the  simplest  remedies  for  bad  air  is  to  fit  a  board,  of  the 
breadth  of  three  or  four  inches  only,  under  the  lower  sash  (of  a  single 
window);  this  shuts  out  no  appreciable  amount  of  light,  and  raises  the 
sash  so  that,  between  its  upper  part  and  the  lower  part  of  the  upper  sash,  a 
current  of  air  is  admitted  in  an  ascending  direction.  This  plan  is  extremely 
cheap,  and  may  be  used  anywhere;  it  is  quite  effective  in  cold  weather. 

Another  plan  consists  in  placing  a  narrow  board  at  the  top  of  the 
upper  sash,  tilting  a  little  inward,  so  as  to  let  the  air  pass  over  it  and 
strike  the  ceilinar. 


712 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


A  neat  and  useful  modification  of  this  plan  is  seen  in  the  cuts  given  on 
the  preceding  page  (Figs.  23  and  24). 

The  purpose  of  this  contrivance  is  to  admit  fresh  air  into  the  room  in 
a  current  of  such  diminished  velocity  that  no  draught  will  be  felt.  •  This 
is  attained  by  lifting  the  lower  sash  a  few  inches,  and  placing  beneath  it 
a  double  fibrous  screen,  which  fits  the  window-frame  tightly  (Figs.  24  and 
25).  The  sash  may  be  raised  and  lowered  independently  of  the  venti- 
lator. 

These  screens  serve  a  double  purpose  ;  they  retard  the  current  of  in- 
flowing air,  and  at  the  same  time  deprive  it,  by  filtration,  of  its  coarser 
impurities. 

To  give  exit  to  foul  air,  the  upper  sash  is  lowered  a  few  inches,  and  a 
hinged  screen  is  fitted  into  the  space  between  the  window-frame  and  the 
sash.  If  the  wind  out-of-doors  is  blowing  toward  that  side  of  the  room, 
the  screen  folds  up  automatically  and  excludes  all 
unfiltered  air.  If  the  wind,  however,  blows  from 
the  opposite  direction,  the  screen  falls  outward, 
and  allows  the  heated  and  foul  air  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  room  to  escape  unhindered. 

Perforations  in  window-panes  are  often  of  ser- 
vice. One  plan  is,  to  insert  in  the  place  of  one 
pane  several  horizontal  bars  of  glass,  the  slits  be- 
tween which  are  slanted  so  as  to  throw  the  air  up- 
ward. Another  plan  is  to  insert  a  circular  whirli- 
gig of  metal ;  this  is  often  seen  in  rapid  motion, 
forcing  air  in,  but  often  is  idle,  and  is  easily  broken 
or  put  out  of  order. 

Wind-sails  are  a  kind  of  cowl  and  pipe  made  of 
canvas,  and  used  on  shipboard  to  ventilate  lower 
decks.  They  may  be  profitably  imitated  on  land.  A  tail  like  that  of  a 
windvane  makes  the  orifice  point  in  the  proper  direction  for  catching  wind 
and  passing  it  down  the  tube  into  the  house.  There  is  also  a  revolving- 
apparatus,  which  throws  a  current  of  air  down. 


Artificial  Ventilation. 

The  systems  of  artificial  ventilation  are  chiefly  classified  under  two 
heads  :  those  which  force  the  air  into  a  room  (pulsion  :  plenum  system), 
and  those  which  draw  the  air  out  (aspiration  :  vacuum  system).  Both 
have  their  points  of  value,  and  they  may  be  advantageously  combined. 

The  most  familiar  instance  of  aspiration  is  furnished  by  the  ordinary 
chimney.  In  summer  the  action  of  the  chimney  may  be  increased  by 
placing  in  it  a  lamp,  or,  better,  a  gas-jet  or  two.  According  to  Morin, 
7  cubic  feet  of  gas,  burnt  per  hour  in  a  flue  11  inches  square  and  6G  feet 
high,  draw  13,300  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  from  the  room.  The  effect 
is  not  proportional  to  the  amount  burnt,  for  50  feet  of  gas  burnt  in  the 
same  time  will  evacuate  only  22,500  cubic  feet  of  air.     The  statement  of 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


713 


Degeii,  that    1   cubic  ineti-c  of  gas  will   evacuate  600-800  metres  of  air, 
must  not  be  taken  without  qualification. 

A  very  useful  method  of  ventilating  rooms  is  furnished  by  tubes  or 
flues,  which  may  be  of  tin  or  zinc,  running 
up  in  the  walls  of  dwellings,  with  gas-jets  in 
them,  and  opening  with  proper  protection 
above  the  roof.  Such  flues  may  be  intro- 
duced into  old  houses  (as  when  such  houses 
are  converted  into  schools)  as  supplements 
to  the  power  of  chimneys,  which  are  rarely 
adequate  to  the  task  of  ventilating  such 
schools. 

The  annexed  figure  (Fig.  26)  gives  a  sec- 
tional view  of  a  chimney  which  serves  to 
ventilate  a  hospital  at  Glasgow.  The  mass 
of  masonry  is  pierced  with  flues  for  the  dif- 
ferent fireplaces,  which  are  in  part  repre- 
sented. It  is  seen  that  an  opening  is  made 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  of  each  room 
over  the  fireplace,  through  which  air  escapeL^ 
into  the  chimney-flue.  In  Fig.  27  two  rooms 
are  seen,  provided  with  channels  for  extract- 
ing air  (as  above)  through  the  fireplace  and 
the  opening  over  it,  and  with  inlets  for  air 
by  the  ceiling,  and  over  and  under  the  sashes 
in  various  ways. 

Ventilation  by  pulsion,  as  well  as  by  ex- 


traction, requires  a  system  of 
ducts  or  flues  for  the  air,  and 
the  rules  for  the  size  and  pro- 
portions of  such  ducts  are  similar 
in  either  case. 

The  primary  ducts,  or  those 
connecting  with  the  room,  are 
smaller,  and  therefore  a  lower 
velocity  of  the  air  in  them  is 
suitable.  The  union  of  several 
ducts  forms  a  larger  one  (second- 
ary duct),  in  which  the  air  may  move  more  rapidly  without  needless  waste 
of  force  by  friction.  In  the  draught-chimney,  to  which  all  converge,  the 
rate  may  be  greater  still.     These  velocities,  beginning  with  that  of  a  foot 


i^^^i^^^; 


714 


THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 


and  a  half  or  two  feet,  at  the  openings  from  the  rooms,  are  graduated  up 
to  seven  feet  per  second  (say  2  metres)  in  the  drauglit-chimney. 

The  size  of  the  flues  and  chimney  is  naturally  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  air  to  be  drawn  through  them  and  the  velocity.  If  we  wish 
to  extract  ten  feet  per  second  from  a  room,  and  have  allowed  a  velocity 
of  two  feet  per  second  at  the  registers,  we  require  five  registers,  each  a 
foot  square. 

The  size  of  a  chimney  for  extracting  air  from  rooms  is  governed  by 
the  amount  of  air  to  be  extracted.  The  capacity  for  discharge  depends 
on  several  factors :  first,  the  volume  discharged  is  proportionate  to  the 
transverse  section  of  the  chimney  ;  second,  it  is  proportionate  to  the 
square  root  of  the  height  of  the  column  of  air  contained;  and,  third,  it  is 
nearl}'  proportionate  to  the  square  root  of  the  difference  between  the 
temperature  inside  of  the  chimney  and  that  of  the  outer  air. 

A  difference  of  20°-30°  C,  or  36°-54°  F.,  between  the  chimney  and 


Fig.  28. — Diagram  of  system  of  ventilation  by  extraction  :  C,  cellar  ;  A,  hot-air  chamber 
containiag  a  furnace,  from  which  the  air  is  led  by  pipes  in  the  usual  way.  From  the  chamber 
the  air  is  seen  passing  horizontally  till  it  reaches  the  exhaust-shaft,  B,  where  it  rises  to  a  con- 
siderable height.  Openings  under  the  seats  lead  the  foul  air  to  a  point  which  communicates 
with  the  shaft.     (FromBosc.) 


the  open  air,  is  required  in  order  to  secure  abundant  and  constant  ven- 
tilation. In  summer,  therefore,  the  chimney  requires  to  be  heated  to  a 
higher  point  than  in  winter,  in  order  to  give  an  equal  effect;  or,  in  other 
words,  without  special  arrangements,  the  draught  will  become  slack  in 
summer.  The  flue  of  a  cooking-stove,  or  some  other  heating-apparatus, 
may  be  used  temporarily  to  increase  draught.  A  permanent  source  of 
heat,  by  summer  and  winter,  must  also  be  furnished,  in  order  to  secure 
a  degree  of  uniformity  in  results.  There  will  be  days  when  a  chimney 
not  specially  warmed  will  draw  well;  but  on  many  days  its  draught  will 
be  very  poor  indeed.  In  large  buildings  the  flue  of  a  furnace  may  be  so 
used  as  to  heat  the  draught-chimney,  and  this  may  suffice;  but  sometimes 
a  special  source  of  heat  is  required — either  a  stove  or  coils  of  steam-  or 
hot-water  pipe.     The  heating  by  pipes,  however,  is  quite  expensive. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


Fig.  38  gives  an  illustration  of  this  method  in  a  very  simple  form. 
Another  application,  still  simpler,  is  seen  in  Fig  16. 

It  will  be  understood  that  extraction  can  be  accomplished  by  mechani- 
cal means  as  readily  as  by  heat,  and  the  same  chimney  or  shaft  may  be 
used  for  discharge,  if  necessary. 

In  Figs.  29-32  is  represented  a  system  of  ventilation  said  to  be  very 
successful.  It  appears  to  me  inadequate  in  one  point,  but  is  interesting. 
The  first  of  the  figures  gives  a  view  of  the  arrangement  in  summer.  Cold 
air  is  admitted  by  the  passage  marked  A,  and  rises  without  contact  with 
the  heatfers,  through  the  valve  at  C,  into  the  lower  part  of  the  room.  Be- 
coming warmer  b}^  contact 
with  the  bodies  of  the  pu- 
pils, its  natural  tendency 
is  to  rise.  It  leaves  the 
room  at  jS,  and  is  drawn 
down  to  IiL,  and  through 
the  valve  there  represent- 
ed, by  the  suctional  force 
of  a  chimney. 

In  spring  and  autumn, 
when  the  temperature  of 
a  room  containing  people 
is  hisrher  than  that  of  the 
outer  air,  the  arrangement 
is  as  in  Fig.  30.  The  cool 
air  passes,  from  A  through 
If,  into  the  room,  and 
sinks;  the  warm  air  of  the 
room  rises  through  the 
opening,  S,  into  the  shaft, 
where  it  passes  through  D 
into  an  attic  story,  whence 
it  is  discharged  into  the 
outer  air.  It  is,  perhaps, 
questionable  whether  the 
draught  produced  by  the  natural  difference  of  temperature  is  adequate  to 
the  task  exacted  of  it.  A  more  active  circulation  is  produced  by  letting 
the  air  enter  at  C  instead  of  IT. 

In  Fig.  31  the  winter  system  is  given.  The  heated  air  enters  the  room 
at  the  top,  H,  and  leaves  at  C,  after  parting  with  some  of  its  heat.  The 
ejection  of  the  air  is  effected  by  simply  letting  it  rise  through  D  by  virtue 
of  its  levity.  The  principle  is  perfectly  correct,  provided  the  air  outside 
is  enough  colder  than  that  inside;  but  that  being  a  very  variable  factor, 
the  force  of  the  draught  must  vary  also  with  the  weather.  The  argu- 
ments for  the  necessity  of  an  artificial  heating  of  the  draught-chimney 
are  given  elsewhere. 

In  Fig.  32  the  school  is  dismissed  and  the  room  closed.     The  fire  may 


Fig.  rJ9. 


-Ventilation  of  the  Annen-Realschule  in  Dres- 
den (summer). 


16 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


be  slackened  or  let  go  out ; 
the  circulation  goes  on  in 
the  room  without  removal 
of  air.  Moderately  warmed 
air  enters  from  the  fur- 
nace by  U,  leaves  the  room 
by  C,  and  re-enters  the 
furnace. 

In  summer  only  is  the 
heated  draught-chimney 
in  use,  and  the  valve  open 
at  K.  The  opposite  prac- 
tice would  probably  pre- 
vail among  us,  where  open 
windows  are  so  much  fa- 
vored; but  the  use  of  as- 
piration, even  in  summer 
(perhaps  more  so  than  at 
any  other  time),  is  very 
desirable  in  schools. 

Pulsion  is  effected  in 
a  variety  of  ways  —  by 
pneumatic  wheels,  by  pis- 


tons, by  bells  plunged  in 
water,  by  jets  of  steam  or 
compressed  air  urging  a 
current  of  air,  etc.  The 
most  common  methods  for 
buildings  are  those  which 
use  a  helix  (screw)  or  fan. 
While  extraction  by  a 
chimney  is  apparently  a 
more  natural  method,  the 
application  of  mechanical 
force  in  pulsion  (or  extrac- 
tion, for  it  is  equally  appli- 
cable to  either)  is  said  to 
be  less  costly  under  many 
circumstances.  Degen 
considers  that  economy  is 
gained  by  using  a  machine 
run  by  steam,  instead  of  a 
draught-chimney,  in  most 
cases  where  there  are  over 
one  hundred  inmates  in  a 
public  institution.   Pcclet, 


l£ 

**^ 

1 

W\ 

IIP 

LJ 

1 

s 

-^ 

c 

I^A^^^ 


///  ^//  M. 


/^/  /////^/    /  /ycyy  y  /////    //         /   /         ////        /  /  /,/  ////  / 

Fig.  31.— Winter  ventilation. 


THE    ATJMOSPHEEE. 


71' 


in  similar  cases,  speaks  o£  the  cost  of  aspiration  as  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  interest  on  the  price  of  the  machine,  with  expenses  for  repairs, 
wages  of  fireman,  and  fuel.  For  small  schools,  and  for  dwellings,  it  is 
not  likely  that  inachine-ventilation  will  be  found  suitable;  but  in  larger 
schools,  and  in  halls  of  assembly,  the  mechanical  method  is  very  desirable. 
Its  advantages  are  the  followdng  : 

It  gives  a  definite  and  certain  result  each  hour,  uninfluenced  by  differ- 
ences of  the  temperature,  and  susceptible  of  being  watched  over  at  all 
times.  It  is  free  fx'om  the  influence  of  the  wind,  which  very  largely  in- 
fluences the  action  of  a  chimney,  and  may  cause  one  to  draw  twice  as 
much  as  another  at  the  same  time  and  place,  if  the  exposure  is  different. 
Even    reversal    is   possible 

in  well-arranged  chimneys,  ^ 

though  not  if  they  are  kept 
well  heated. 

The  Johns  Hopkins 
Hospital  at  Baltimore  is 
furnished  Avith  means  for 
extraction,  by  two  chim- 
neys, and  for  propulsion, 
by  a  fan.  In  regard  to  the 
former,  the  report  of  Feb, 
12,  1878,  states  that — 

"  The  experience  gained 
by  daily  observations,  con- 
tinued over  rather  more 
than  one  year,  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  practical  Avork- 
ings  of  the  aspiratory  sys- 
tem, goes  to  show  that  the 
movements  of  the  currents 
are  exceedingly  diverse, 
and  that  the  conditions 
presented  at  one  time,  and 
those  at  another,  gave 
widely  different  results. 

"  A  high  barometer,  and  a  low  relative  humidity,  with  either  high  or 
low  temperature,  seem  to  be  the  first  essential,  for  a  satisfactory  unas- 
sisted aspiration  [/.  e.,  without  Avarming  the  chimney] ;  as  the  relative 
humidity  increases,  the  aspiration  flags,  and,  on  days  Avith  the  barometer 
below  its  normal  average,  and  great  humidity,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
employ  assistance  to  the  aspiration. 

"The  direction  and  force  of  the  winds  have  shown  themselves  to  be 
important  factors  in  the  matter.  Aspiration  in  this  building  is  ahvays 
satisfactory  with  the  Avind  from  the  points  S.  W.,  W.,  N.  W.,  N.,  and 
N.  E.  As  regards  the  remaining  points  of  the  compass,  the  reverse  is 
generally  ti-ue.     This   may,  perhaps,  be  explained  by  the   fact  that  the 


Fig.  33.— House  closed. 


718  THE    AT3I0SPHERE. 

first-named  winds  are  almost  always  dry,  and  the  last  more  or  less  humid. 
Exceptionally  we  have  good  aspiration  with  an  east  wind;  but  it  will 
then  be  found  that  the  chimney  is  kept  diy  b}'  means  of  the  several 
fires. 

"  On  very  quiet  days,  with  ordinarily  high  barometer,  low  humidity, 
and  high  or  low  temperature,  aspiration,  unassisted,  continues  good; 
while  quiet  days,  with  reversed  conditions,  give  reversed  results.  From 
these  observations,  drawn  from  practice,  it  would  appear  that  dryness  is 
also  an  essential  factor. 

*'  One  of  the  aspirating  chimneys  of  this  building  receives  into  its 
central  flue  the  products  of  combustion  of  a  furnace  used  for  the  heating 
of  water;  the  same  flue  is  also  connected  with  the  kitchen  range.  One 
or  both  these  flues  are  in  constant  use,  summer  and  winter,  night  and 
day;  consequently  the  chimney  is  kept  quite  or  nearly  dry,  and  its  aspi- 
rating power  is  rarely  at  fault.  The  other  chimney  is  not  directly  con- 
nected with  any  constant  source  of  heat,  jDarticularly  during  the  summer 
season,  but  is  connected  with  the  engine-furnace  and  boiler:  all  the  waste 
steam  from  this  source  escapes  by  means  of  this  flue,  and,  in  the  absence 
of  heat,  tends  to  condense  upon  the  interior  of  the  chimney,  and  renders 
it  moist.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  and  a  lack  of  direct  heat,  esjDecially 
in  the  summer  season,  the  aspiration  is  frequently  imperfect,  and  requires 
the  use  of  a  grate  at  the  foot  of  the  flue  already  mentioned. 

"  With  the  central  flues  well  warmed  by  heat  from  any  source,  ensur- 
ing dryness,  we  have  never  experienced  any  difficulty  in  securing  a  good 
upward  draught  and  satisfactory  aspiration. 

"  Under  the  conditions  of  unassisted  aspiration  the  upward  movement 
of  air  in  the  chimneys,  as  determined  by  the  anemometer,  has  ranged 
from  a  barely  perceptible  current  to  387  feet  per  minute,  the  latter  being 
the  highest  recorded  velocity,  and  deduced  from  the  mean  of  these  obser- 
vations made  at  three  points  of  elevation.  With  brisk  fires  burning  at  the 
bases  of  the  chimneys,  and  an  average  temperature  within  the  same  of 
82°  F.,  the  highest  recorded  observation  is  700  feet  per  minute.  I  con- 
sider a  mean  velocity  of  180  feet  per  minute  to  be  nearly  a  correct  average 
for  long  periods,  under  the  usual  varying  conditions,  and  including  both 
natural  and  assisted  aspiration." 

Dhtribution  of  air. — The  openings  and  ducts  in  ordinary  buildings 
are  almost  invariably  too  small.  Frequently  they  lead  to  no  outlet.  In 
some  cases  sufficient  channels  exist;  but,  from  motives  of  "  economy,"  no 
heat  has  been  supplied  to  warm  them.  The  air  supplied  may  enter  at  a 
point  just  under  the  point  of  exit,  so  as  to  compel  the  closure  of  the  latter 
in  order  to  retain  the  warmth.  The  air  may  be  derived  wholly  from  a 
furnace  which  possesses  no  arrangement  for  mingling  cold  with  warm  air. 
In  this  case,  when  the  register  delivers  too  warm  air,  the  only  resource  is 
to  close  it,  and  thus  lose  a  good  part  of  the  supply  of  fresh  air.  In  short, 
common  sense  is  violated  in  all  ways. 

The  usual  place  for  the  ducts  is  in  the  floor.  The  space  between  two 
joists  is  very  convenient  for  the  purpose.      A  hall  or  school-room  may  dis- 


THE    ATMOSPHEKE.  719 

charge  its  air  throug-Ii  a  set  of  small  registers  dotted  over  the  floor  at  equal 
distances,  each  communicating  with  one  of  these  flues  under  the  floor. 
The  air  in  these  flues  may  be  collected  in  a  central  trunk-Hue,  or  in  two 
side-flues  running  along  by  the  walls;  it  then  passes  to  the  draught-chim- 
ney by  a  direct  or  circuitous  path.  The  combination  of  channels  for  dis- 
charge in  the  floor',  with  openings  for  admission  of  warm  air  at  the  ceil- 
ing, is  characteristic  of  Morin's  system,  which  is,  on  the  whole,  probably 
the  best. 

The  reader,  however,  must  be  aware  that  the  opposite  system  is  ex- 
tremely common,  and  has  some  good  reasons  in  its  favor.  It  is  usual,  at 
present,  in  houses  and  schools,  to  place  the  hot-air  registers  near  or  at  the 
floor,  and  the  "  ventilators  "  near  or  at  the  ceiling.  A  few  of  the  points 
connected  with  this  question  will  be  here  discussed. 

1.  Shall  we  warm  the  air  before  bringing  it  into  the  room  ?  The 
answer  is  almost  wholly  affirmative.  The  introduction  of  air  by  windows 
must  be  considered  as  supplementary  to  a  system  of  extraction  or  pulsion. 
Cold  air,  introduced  in  an  amount  sufficient  to  renew  the  contents  of  the 
room  every  fifteen  minutes  or  less,  as  is  often  requisite  in  full  rooms, 
would  often  be  very  dangerous  to  the  inmates.  Of  course  this  statement 
is  relative,  and  in  the  case  of  theatres,  where  a  comfortable  temperature 
has  once  been  established,  it  will  suffice  to  supply  air  at  50°  or  60°  F. 

2.  Shall  we  introduce  the  warmed  air  at  the  top  or  at  the  bottom  of 
the  room  ?  Morin  introduces  it  at  the  top,  and  expects  to  secure  thereby 
an  equable  and  somewhat  rapid  passage  of  the  entire  mass  of  air  in  the 
room  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  level,  where  it  is  extracted  by  the  suc- 
tional  force  of  the  chimney  acting  through  the  ducts  and  floor  registers. 
There  are  some  objections  to  this  plan,  which  should  be  mentioned.  In 
the  first  place,  the  heated  air  becomes  considerably  cooled  before  reaching 
the  floor,  which  is  very  undesirable.  This  wou.ld  not  be  much  noticed  in 
a  room  over  another  warm  room. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  exclusive  ventilation  in  the  upward  direction, 
allowing  the  air  to  pass  freely  through  the  roof  or  ceiling,  may  easily  be  be- 
lieved to  be  wasteful  of  heat ;  such  a  method,  however,  is  actually  in  use  in 
various  places,  on  a  large  scale,  with  success.  A  very  good  recent  instance 
is  found  in  the  Boston  City  Hospital,  in  which  the  structure  of  the  new 
surgical  wards,  and  the  results  of  a  series  of  physical  and  chemical  obser- 
vations upon  the  contained  air  of  one  ward,  as  given  in  the  words  of  Dr. 
Cowles,  are  as  follows: 

"  The  building  in  which  the  observations  were  made  contains  one  ward, 
94x26-|-  feet  in  the  clear,  which  has  seven  opposite  windows  and  fourteen 
beds  on  each  side.  The  windows  have  double  sashes.  The  height  of  the 
ward  from  the  floor  to  the  centre  of  the  arched  ceiling  is  twenty  feet,  or 
an  average  of  18.42  feet.  Each  bed  has  a  floor-area  of  88.45  square  feet, 
and  an  air-space  of  1,629  cubic  feet.  The  total  air-space  of  the  room  is 
about  45,600  cubic  feet. 

"  There  is  an  open  free  air-space,  containing  only  heating-apparatus, 
under  the  ward.     The  cold  air  is  introduced  through  openings  in  the  outer 


720 


THE    ATJWOSPHEKE. 


basement  ^yalls,  and  passes  immediately  over  the  steam-radiators,  of 
which  there  is  a  separate  one  for  every  flue.  The  air  then  enters  the 
ward  only  through  openings  under  each  window — fourteen  in  all — each 
inlet  equal  to  one  square  foot  of  clear  opening.  Each  steam-radiator  in 
the  basement  is  encased  with  galvanized  iron,  forming  a  small  chamber,  in 
which  a  switch-valve  directs  the  fresh  air,  so  that  it  passes  either  through 
the  coil,  so  as  to  be  warmed,  or  unwarmed  directly  into  the  flue  above. 
A  wire  attached  to  the  switch-valve  leads  to  the  room  above,  where, 
by  the  use  of  a  key,  the  valve  can  be  adjusted  to  alter  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  enterino-  the  ward.  The  volume  of  enterino-  air  can  be 
changed  only  by  opening  or  closing  a  sliding-valve  and  covering  the  inlet 
through  the  basement  wall  ;  and  this  is  under  the  sole  charge  of  the 
engineer. 

"The  foul  air  escapes  through  five  large  openings  along  the  centre  of 
the  arched  ceiling,  each  about  three  by  six  feet — total  clear  opening,  forty- 
nine  square  feet — into  the  ridge-chamber,  and  thence  either  through  the 
free  openings  in  the  sides  of  the  chamber,  above  the  roof,  or  through  five 
ventilators,  each  two  feet  in  diameter,  on  the  top  of  the  ridge,  giving  a 
total  of  clear  outlet  opening  of  fifteen  square  feet.  The  side  openings  are 
closed  in  winter,  when  also  the  openings  in  the  floor  of  the  chamber  can 
be  partly  or  wholly  closed,  and  the  ventilation  aided  by  the  flues,  fourteen 
in  number,  in  the  outer  walls  of  the  building.  These  side  flues  prove  in 
practice  not  to  work  unless  the  openings  in  the  ceiling  are  entirely  closed. 
The  ventilating-chamber  is  warmed,  when  necessary,  by  steam-pipes." 

A  series  of  observations  were  taken  in  this  ward,  covering  the  period 
of  a  week,  the  temperature  of  the  outer  air  ranging  from  18°  F.  to  49°  F. ; 
the  humidity,  from  31  to  100  per  cent,  of  saturation;  and  the  atmospheric 
pressure  varying  considerably.  The  hourly  supply  of  air  per  bed  was 
found  to  be  continuously  something  more  than  nine  thousand  cubic  feet. 
Great  uniformity  of  the  air-supply  was  observed,  which  was  secured  by  ad- 
justing the  slides  covering  the  fresh-air  inlets,  once,  twice,  or  three  times  a 
day.  Taken  with  all  previous  observations,  the  average  of  eight  thousand 
cubic  feet  per  head  per  hour  was  found. 

Analyses  of  the  air  for  carbonic  acid,  by  Professor  Edward  S.  Wood, 
made  between  December  10,  1878,  and  January  19, 1879,  gave  the  follow- 
ing' results: 


Location. 

Number  of!    Average 
observa-    percentage 
tions.          of  COa. 

External  air _ 

10        1     .0325 

Centre  of  ward,  two  feet  from  floor 

10        i      -0447 

Side,  between  beds,  two  feet  from  floor 

9 

9 

8 

11 

.0461 

Centre,  twelve  feet  from  floor 

.0526 

Side,  twelve  feet  from  floor. ...               .... 

.0579 

Above  opening  into  ventilating-chamber 

.0571 

X                  o                                                        o 

THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


721 


The  fourtli  of  this  series  was  selected  as  lying  directly  in  the  track  of 
the  current  of  fresh  air  from  the  registers;  its  result  (.0526  of  CO.2)  shows 
that  the  current  had  become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  air  of  the  room 
before  reaching  that  point.  In  connection  with  other  experiments,  a  con- 
stant upward  motion  of  the  whole  air  of  the  room  seems  to  exist,  with 
constant  replacement  by  fresh  air,  permitting  no  stagnant  areas,  and  with 
excellent  diffusion  of  the  fresh  air  and  dilution  of  the  foul  air. 

Allowing  for  the  presence  of  thirty-eight  persons  in  the  ward,  the  air 
was  changed  effectively  S.Slf  times  per  hour  per  head,  or  91|-  times  in 
twenty-four  hours.  The  measured  volume  of  air  entering  was  an  average 
of  5,894  cubic  feet  per  head,  against  4,580,  calculated  from  the  respirators- 
impurity,  showing  that  78  per  cent,  of  the  entering  air  is  actually  utilized, 
and  that  its  diffusion  and  the  dilution  of  the  foul  air  is  excellent. 

From  the  general  average  of  all  analj'^ses  made  in  the  ward,  the  mean 
carbonic  acid  was  found  to  be  .0505  per  cent.,  of  which  .0180  should  be 
considered  as  originating  in  respiratory  impurity ;  the  air-supply  per  head, 
3,333  cubic  feet  hourly;  air  of  room  effectively  changed  2.77-|-  times  an 
hour,  or  66^  times  in  twenty-four  hours.     This  is  excellent  ventilation. 

It  has  been  a  question  what  part  of  the  room  contains  the  worst  air, 
and  for  that  reason  is  the  most  suitable  place  for  extracting  air. 

Carbonic  acid  is  often  supposed  to  sink  to  the  floor  of  a  room  by  vir- 
tue of  its  superior  gravity.  Others  have  insisted  that,  as  an  ingredient 
of  the  mixed  warmed  gases  of  the  breath,  it  possesses  a  levity  superior  to 
that  of  the  air  at  70°,  and  must  rise  to  the  ceiling.  The  latter  is  strictly 
the  fact,  from  an  abstract  point  of  view.  A.  higher  percentage  of  COo  is 
often  found  at  the  ceiling  than  at  the  floor.  This  law,  however,  is  greatly 
modified,  in  many  cases,  by  the  mixture  with  the  air  of  the  room  which 
the  breath  must  undergo  in  rising  through  six  or  eight  feet  of  air,  and 
also  by  accidental  currents  in  the  air,  which  drive  it  laterally  back  and 
forth. 

Marcker,'  in  two  examinations  (of  a  cow-house  and  a  stable  for  horses), 
obtained  the  following  results,  pointing  to  a  great  equality  of  diffu- 
sion : 


Height  from 

g^round.        I. 
Metres. 

II. 

in. 

IV. 

V. 

1.45      .00132 
3.00    ;   .00139 

.00074 
.00075 

.00171 
.00171 

.00090  \      .0007 
.00086  ;   .0007 

'  Untersuchungen  iiber  natiirl.  Ventilation  und  die  Porosifcat  einiger  BaumateriaHen. 
Joum.  f.  Landwirthsch.,  19.  Jahrg. 
Vol.  I.— 46 


722 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 
11. 


Height  from  ground. 

Metres. 

I. 

II. 

TIT 

I.IG 
2.32 
3.48 

.00079 
.00078 
.00078 

.00071 
.66672 

.00067 
.66066 

Breiting  ^  made  the  following  observations  in  a  school-room.  The 
figures  give  the  number  of  parts  in  10,000.  A  very  steady  increase  dur- 
ing 45  minutes  of  observation  is  seen,  while  the  difference  between  floor 
and  ceiling  is  not  so  great  as  to  be  of  practical  importance. 


Time  in  minutes 

0 

5    1  12 

17 

22 

29 

32     37 

41     45 

Floor  

Ceiling ' 

6.56 

7.13 

7.45 

7!86 

8.01 

....8.09 

8.32  .... 
....'8.48 

8.68.... 
....9.01 

Schiirmann  ^  has  a  table  of  sixteen  observations  upon  the  COj  in  the 
air  of  workshops  and  bedrooms,  which  tend  to  support  Pettenkofer's 
statement,  that  the  proportion  is  greater  at  the  ceiling  than  at  the  floor. 

Parkes  simply  states  that,  according  to  Lassaigne,  Pettenkofer,  and 
Roscoe,  the  carbonic  acid  of  respiration  is  equally  diffused  through  the 
air  of  a  room. 

An  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  diffusion  of  carbonic-acid  gas 
occurs  in  a  room  was  attempted  by  Forster  and  Voit.^  In  a  room,  con- 
taining about  6,700  cubic  feet  of  air,  two  or  three  kilograms  of  carbonic  acid 
were  produced  as  rapidly  as  possible  by  pouring  bicarbonate  of  soda  into 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  When  the  gas  ceased  to  escape,  the  air  of 
the  room  was  tested  at  the  floor,  the  middle,  and  the  ceiling,  at  three 
points  on  each  level,  making  nine  simultaneous  observations.  One  ob- 
server was  stationed  at  each  point,  and  all  remained  at  their  post  without 
moving  for  fifteen  minutes,  when  the  test  was  repeated.  By  these  pre- 
cautions a  tolerable  freedom  from  accidental  currents  of  air  was  secured. 
The  contents  per  10,000  were  found  to  be  as  follows  : 

First  observation.  After  15  minutes. 

Ceiling 28  vols.  40  vols. 

Middle 16     "  32     " 

Floor 233     "  214     " 

'  Unters.  betrefEend  den  Kohlensauregehalt  der  Luft  in  Schulzimmem,  Basel, 
1871. 

-  4.  und  5.  Jabresber.  der  chem.  Centralstelle  fiir  offentliche  Gesundheitspflege  in 
Dresden. 

^  Zeitschrif t  fiir  Biologie. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


723 


The  amount  at  the  floor  liad,  therefore,  lost  only  jV  of  its  contents  in  CO.2 
in  fifteen  minutes. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  to  aspiration  Ijy  heat,  considered  as  a  sole 
reliance,  is  the  fact  that  it  cannot  be 
depended  on  for  an  emergency  re- 
quiring   a   great  but  temporary  in- 
crease of  ventilating  power. 

Herter  gives  his  opinion  as  fol- 
lows: "The  choice  between  the 
different  systems  depends  upon  the 
severity  of  the  requirements,  and 
upon  the  site  and  construction  of 
the  building.  Different  ones  may 
produce  a  nearly  equivalent  effect, 
under  various  circumstances.  Aside 
from  this,  mechanical  pulsion,  com- 
bined with  simple  (or,  better,  with 
mechanical)  aspiration,  deserves  the 
preference.  This  combined  system 
works  with  more  certainty  and  con- 
stancy, delivers  a  better  quality  of 
air,  is  accompanied  by  fewer  incon- 
veniences, is  easier  to  oversee,  and 
in  large  edifices  is  cheaper,  than 
other  systems  in  the  same  circum- 
stances. 

*'  The  other  systems  may  be 
mentioned  as  valuable  in  the  follow- 
ing order:  mechanical  pulsion,  me- 
chanical aspiration,  aspiration  by 
difference  of  temperature,  ventila- 
tion by  mantel-stoves  in  connection 
with  Sherringham's  and  Arnold's 
valves,  Galton's  ventilating-stove, 
ridge-pole  ventilation,  and,  finally, 
Watson's,  Kinel's,  and  other  similar 
ventilators  in  connection  with  Wol- 
pert's  caps." 

One  of  the  latest  applications  of 
this  combination  of  pulsion  and  ex- 
traction is  found  in  the  palace  of 
the  Trocadero.  This  building  seats 
un  audience  of  5,000  persons.  The  problem  placed  before  the  architects 
■was,  to  furnish  40  cubic  metres  of  air  per  hour  to  each  person,  or  200,000 
cubic  metres  in  all — that  is,  56  cubic  metres  per  second,  or  nearly  2,000 
feet. 

In  the  first  place,  the  direction  of  the  currents  of  fresh  air  was  to  be 


Fig.  00. — Scheme  of  ventilation  of  the 
"grande  salle  des  fetes"  (Trocadero)  at  the 
Exposition  at  Paris,  1878.  Ground  plan :  A, 
shaft  to  admit  air  ;  X,  place  for  fan,  to  draw 
air  from  A  and  send  it  to  B  ;  B,  shaft  lead- 
ing to  dome,  where  it  enters  the  auditorium ; 
C,  shaft  to  receive  foul  air  from  ducts  in 
floor  for  expulsion. 


724  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

determined.  It  seemed  at  once  evident  to  the  designers  that  the  quan- 
tity named  could  not  be  introduced  at  the  level  of  the  audience  without 
causing  serious  inconvenience  ;  while  that  amount,  if  extracted  by  floor 
ducts,  need  cause  no  perceptible  draught,  as  the  effect  of  air  entering  is 
very  different  from  that  of  air  in  the  act  of  leaving  a  room.  For  the  pur- 
jDose  of  extraction,  5,000  openings  were  made  in  the  floor,  to  secure  the 
greatest  possible  regularity  in  the  process. 

The  next  question  was  :  "  Shall  it  be  pro^^ulsion  or  exhaustion  ? " 
The  latter  would  have  given  rise  to  very  disagreeable  draughts,  whenever 
any  doors  for  entrance  into  the  auditorium  were  opened.  This  objection 
does  not  exist  in  the  case  of  propulsion,  and  propulsion  was  therefore 
adopted;  but  it  was  calculated  that  excessive  friction  would  be  developed 
in  the  working,  and  that  an  increase  of  atmospheric  pressure  in  the  hall 
would  be  produced,  equal  to  6  millimetres  of  water  or  6  kilograms  to  the 
square  metre,  with  tendency  to  abnormal  exit  of  air  by  crevices.  The  ob- 
jections on  this  ground  were  overcome  by  adding  extraction  to  pulsion, 
thereby  "  decomposing  the  pressure  into  two,  a  positive  and  a  negative  " 
— a  pressure  inward  at  the  point  of  introduction,  and  a  "suction"  outward 
at  the  point  of  exit. 

Three  chimneys  or  shafts  are  placed  in  a  space  between  the  auditorium 
and  the  outer  wall  of  the  house.  Shaft  A.  introduces  pure  air:  it  descends 
to  the  lowest  part  of  the  excavations  under  the  house,  and  rises  to  the 
highest  point  of  the  roof,  and  receives  air  b}^  registers  at  suitable  points, 
or  at  will  directly  from  above  the  roof,  or  from  the  underground  regions, 
where  there  is  perfectly  pure  air,  and  a  vast  surface  for  cooling  it  in  sum- 
mer or  warming  it  in  winter.  This  gives  an  economy  of  fuel.  Jj  is  the 
shaft  which  conveys  the  fresh  air  to  the  top  of  the  building  (it  is  forced 
into  J5  by  a  fan  at  ^),  where,  passing  through  the  central  spherical  calotte 
in  the  vault,  it  is  thrown  into  the  upper  part  of  the  auditorium  and  de- 
scends to  the  floor.  Then  it  passes  through  ducts  to  C,  a  third  shaft, 
where  a  second  fan  forces  it  up  to  the  central  lantern  on  the  top  of  the 
grand  hall,  where  it  is  discharged. 

In  order  to  equalize  the  friction  in  all  the  floor-ducts  as  far  as  possible, 
they  have  been  arranged  in  a  tree-like  form,  so  that  the  air  in  each  minor 
duct  shall  have  an  equal  distance  to  pass  before  reaching  the  fan.  The 
seats  near  the  main  outlet  are  not  ventilated  directly  into  the  principal 
conduit;  but  all  converge  to  a  sort  of  centre  of  gravity  or  mean  point  in 
the  surface  of  the  parquet  or  boxes. 

The  aspirator-ducts  terminate  in  the  hall  in  vertical  tubes,  pierced  at 
different  heights,  which  prevents  their  being  closed  by  dust,  or  by  the 
dress  of  the  audience.  The  tubes  occupy  the  triangular  spaces  between 
the  backs  of  adjacent  chairs. 

The  ventilating-machines  used  for  mines  were  found  too  noisy,  and  in 
most  cases  far  from  satisfactory  in  performance.  The  helix  was  therefore 
chosen  as  the  most  simple,  economical,  and  noiseless. 

Contrary  to  what  might  be  anticipated,  the  air  from  the  underground 
reckons  was  found  uncomfortablv  cool  in  summer  weather,  and  had  to  be 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


725 


used  very  sparingly;  a  lowering  of  the  temperature  of  the  hall  o°  or  -4° 
(C.  or  R.)  below  that  of  the  outer  air  became  at  once  a  source  of  annoy- 
ance to  the  audience,  even  on  warm  days. 

"  It  is  in  the  docility  of  the  mechanical  organs  employed  that  the 
superiority  of  the  system  resides."  ' 

The  new  opera-house  at  Vienna  receives  its  supjjly  of  air  from  the 
basements.  In  the  figure,  P  represents  the  point  for  admission  of  air. 
A  heKx,  driven  by  a  fan  of  twelve  horse-power,  forces  the  air  by  seven 
pipes  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  cellar,  whence  it  is  discharged  into  the 
parterre  and  boxes.  The  pipes  measure  one  metre  in  diameter;  the  ma- 
chine is  capable  of  furnishing,  according  to  need,  from  40,000  to  120,000 
cubic  metres  of  air  per  hour. 

Between  the  lower  and  the  upper  stories  of  the  cellar  is  a  story  in 
which  the  air,,  in  winter,  circulates  and  is  heated,  before  being  taken  up 
into  the  upper  cellar.     The  middle  story  is  marked  C  in  the  diagram. 


Fig.  34. 


The  pipes  are  seen  provided  with  covers  for  regulating  the  amount  of 
air  passing  to  the  upper  cellar,  and  therefore  controlling  the  ventilation 
of  the  hall.  The  subterranean  chambers  are  of  use  in  cooling  the  air  in 
summer  and  warraina;  it  in  winter.  The  buildino-  is  well  known  as  a  suc- 
cessfully  ventilated  structure. 

A  somewhat  expensive,  but  seemingly  successful  attempt  to  supply 
fresh  air  where  it  is  most  wanted,  has  been  made  in  an  opera-house  in 


'  The  description  and  figure  are  taken  from  *'  Le  Palais  du  Trocadero,"  by  special 
permission  of  Prof.  Wm.  Watson,  member  of  the  jury. 


726  THE    ATMOSPHEEE. 

Chicago.  It  consists  of  a  set  of  jointed  metal  tubes  like  the  orifices  of 
little  hydrants,  one  of  which  is  supplied  in  front  of  each  seat,  and  can  be 
turned  by  the  occupant  so  as  to  send  its  jet  of  fresh  air  in  his  face,  or  in 
some  other  direction  if  desired.  Force  is  used  to  drive  the  air  into  the 
hall. 

The  ventilation  of  the  Hall  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
presents  valuable  points  for  consideration.  In  the  following  statements 
use  has  been  made  of  Robert  Briggs'  report. 

The  hall  requires  no  heating,  being  surrounded  by  corridors  and  rooms 
which  are  always  kept  at  summer  heat,  and  with  a  warmed  basement  and 
a  ceiling  well  protected  by  a  large  air  space  covered  with  a  copper  roof. 
The  problem  is,  rather,  how  to  cool  the  hall,  with  inmates  numbering 
from  500  to  1,600,  and  how  to  introduce  from  50,000  to  100,000  cubic 
feet  of  comparatively  cool  air  every  minute  among  and  in  comparative 
proximity  to  these  persons  without  producing  a  sensible  draught. 

"  After  much  deliberation  it  was  concluded  to  attempt  the  supply  of 
most  of  the  air  for  ventilation  from  registers  (mouths  of  entry  placed  in 
and  about  the  lower  floor  of  the  hall),  and  to  permit  the  galleries  to 
derive  their  supply  mainly  from  the  columns  of  air  ascending  from  the 
space  which  they  surround.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  uniform  distribu- 
tion would,  of  course,  have  been  attained  by  the  perforated  floor  and  por- 
ous carpet  of  the  House  of  Lords,  England  ;  but  the  habits  of  our  people 
in  the  use  of  tobacco  put  this  method  out  of  the  question,  and  the  same 
objection  attached  to  numerous  small  open  registers,  and  the  best  arrange- 
ment seemed  to  be  a  compromise.  The  floor  of  the  hall  had  platforms 
or  wide  steps,  upon  which  the  seats  of  the  members  are  placed,  and  which 
are  so  constructed  as  to  form  semicircles  around  the  Speaker's  desk  (the 
desk  being  placed  in  the  middle  of  one  side  of  the  hall),  and  there  were 
three  radial  inclined,  and  two  other  straight  passages  or  aisles,  which  led 
from  the  highest  platform  to  the  forum — Speaker's  desk — in  front  and  at 
the  sides  of  the  floor.  The  arrangement  ....  gave  seven  risers  of  three 
inches  high  each.  The  aisles  began  with  a  step  of  seven  inches  rise,  and 
thus  had  a  very  gradual  descent  of  fourteen  inches  to  the  forum  ;  and  the 
construction  gave  an  end  or  side  riser  of  varying  height  where  each  plat- 
form joined  the  aisle. 

"  For  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  abuses  of  horizontal  gratings  or 
registers,  and  yet  to  preserve  the  vertical  direction  of  the  currents  of  air, 
these  end  risers  to  the  platform  (side  risers  on  the  aisle)  were  availed  of, 
as  the  places  of  entrance  of  fresh  air;  and  as  the  aisles  were  but  three  or 
four  feet  in  width,  the  strong  horizontal  currents  from  the  opposite  sides 
would  encounter  and  neutralize  each  other:  the  intermingled  air  would 
have  the  desired  direction  upwards,  and  be  so  much  spread  out  as  a  vein 
of  air,  as  to  have  a  relatively  low  velocity  of  ascent.  This  arrangement 
gave  three  main  radial  sheets  of  ascending  air  in  the  body  of  the  hall,  and 
another  main  sheet  of  the  same  kind  along  the  side  on  which  the  speaker's 
desk  is  placed.  Other  registers  were  placed  at  the  base  of  the  gallery 
wall,  which  were  screened  by  covers  opening  downwards;  and  to  provide 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  727 

an  ascending  current  in  the  corners,  outside  the  semicircle  of  the  plat- 
forms, large  floor-registers  were  subsequently  inserted  in  each  of  them. 
.  .  .  .  Much  the  greater  part  of  the  air  was  made  to  enter  at  the  floor 
of  the  hall,  so  that  members  had  the  advantage  of  the  first  entry  of  air 
into  the  room.  This  distribution  of  the  registers  provided  that  in  no  case 
was  a  current  of  air  directed  against  any  person  occupying  a  seat  in  the 
hall,  either  on  the  floor  or  in  the  galleries. 

"  The  velocity  of  flow  through  the  apertures  in  the  gratings  was  very 
high  {i.  e.,  40  feet  per  second  with  summer  ventilation  of  100,000  cubic 
feet  per  minute),  but  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  apertures  the 
velocity  would  fall  off  three  or  four  times,  by  enlargement  or  spreading 
of  the  stream  of  air,  while  the  practical  result  of  the  opposing  currents 
was  to  make,  at  each  aisle,  a  main  ascending  sheet  of  eighteen  inches  to 
two  fe^t  in  thickness,  within  two  feet  of  the  aisle  floor. 

"  The  proper  vertical  direction  and  vmiformity  of  upward  flow  of  air 
in  the  hall  was  insured  by  the  judicious  placing  of  numerous  small  outlets 
in  the  iron  and  glass  ceiling ;  .  .  .  .  the  rate  of  outflow  was  very 
low,  but  the  volume,  as  measured  by  the  anemometer,  was  found  to  cor- 
respond fairly  with  that  which  was  impelled  by  the  fan  at  any  given 
time." 

A  change  was  subsequently  made  in  this  arrangement,  by  which  the 
platforms  were  extended  over  the  aisles.  To  replace  the  aisle-ventilation, 
a  great  many  small  circular  registers  were  placed  in  the  floor  of  the  plat- 
forms in  front  of  the  sofas.  The  direction  of  the  currents  was  upward  ; 
and  the  ventilation  proved  satisfactory.  A  later  change,  which  proved 
very  unsatisfactory,  is  described  as  follows: 

There  are  seven  semi-circular  platforms,  each  four  feet  five  inches  wide, 
with  a  front  riser  four  inches  in  height.  In  the  risers  is  placed  a  continu- 
ous band  of  small  holes,  each  two  inches  high  and  one  inch  wide,  and  one 
inch  apart,  for  supplying  air;  each  member  has  the  power  of  shutting  off 
the  air  by  registers.  The  air  emerges  as  a  thin  horizontal  sheet  from  the 
upper  risers  and  is  directed  over  the  face  of  the  platform  below;  traversing 
the  platform,  the  sheet  receives  an  augmentation  in  thickness  from  the 
next  layer  of  air  which  escapes  from  the  next  row  of  holes,  and  so  on 
until  the  whole  seven  platforms  are  swept  over;  forming  a  broad  sheet 
of  air  directed  against  the  back  of  the  legs  of  those  who  sit  on  the  plat- 
form. 

The  necessary  velocity  and  coolness  of  this  air  are  such  that  great  dis- 
comfort is  felt.  The  alternatives  were  to  stop  the  entrance  of  air  (which 
was  equivalent  to  want  of  air  for  breathing,  as  at  present);  or  to  heat  the 
air  to  a  temperature  (95°  to  100°),  which  would  feel  comfortable  on  en- 
trance, when  the  air  of  the  hall  became  unbearably  warm. 

There  is  a  fan  for  exhausting  foul  air,  which,  as  tested  by  a  member 
of  the  commission,  extracted  25,000  cubic  feet  per  minute;  of  this  amount 
15,000  was  furnished  to  the  hall  by  the  fan  of  supply,  and  10,000  must 
have  leaked  in  at  various  points  from  the  corridors.  These  figures  suffi- 
ciently explain  the  poorness  of  the  ventilation. 


728' 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


Railroad-cars. — The  difficulties  in  ventilating  these  places  are  ob- 
viously great,  and  the  results,  at  present,  are  bad. 

In  the  report  of  Fisher  and  Nichols  (op.  cit.),  the  results  of  a  large 
number  of  analyses  for  carbonic  acid  are  given.  The  averages  of  these 
are  as  follows  (in  parts  per  10,000)  : 


Series. 

Place. 

Average. 

Maximum. 

Miiiim.um. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Smoking-cars. 

Passenger-cars. 

Smoking-cars, 

22.8 
23.2 
17.0 

36,9 
36,7 

12,7 
17,4 

It  is  stated  by  Lang  and  Wolffhtigel  that  the  pollution  of  air  in  cars 
is  not  so  quickly  felt  as  in  chambers.  Repeatedly  they  have  examined 
air  which  seemed  to  them  fairly  good,  and  which  the  passengers  spoke  of 
as  good,  and  found  it  to  contain  a  much  higher  percentage  of  CO2  than 
air  of  a  similar  quality  possesses  in  rooms.  Air  which  contained  fifteen 
parts  in  10,000  of  CO2  was  sensibly  fresher  than  air  of  rooms  containing 
only  ten  j)arts.  An  analogous  fact  is  noticed  by  Voit.  The  air  in  the 
lead-chamber  may  have  over  ten  per  cent,  of  CO.,  without  causing  discom- 
fort. The  explanation  offered  is  the  natural  one,  that  air  under  such  cir- 
cumstances in  small  rooms  is  changed  very  rapidly,  and  that  in  consequence 
the  putrefactive  change  of  the  animal  exhalations,  to  which  the  oppressive 
sensation  is  ascribed,  does  not  have  time  to  occur. 

If  this  may  be  assumed,  the  requirements  of  a  railroad-car  are  less  ex- 
acting than  those  of  dwelling-houses. 

In  the  equation 

k 

V  =  • 

p-q 

we  may  therefore  allow  that 

k  =  .20  litres. 

p  =  ,0015 

q  =  ,00035 

20 
y  =   ^^-,-1  -    litres  =  17,4  cubic  metres, 
■^        ,00110  ' 

or  about  600  cubic  feet  j>er  head  and  hour. 

If  we  accept  Lang  and  Wolffhiigel  as  authority  upon  the  point  of 
"  sensible  purity,"  the  requirements  in  railroad-cars  are  only  for  a  third 
or  a  fourth  as  much/resA  air  as  in  the  case  of  halls.  We  should  remem- 
ber, also,  that  the  standard  of  purity  (6  or  7  per  10,000)  is  only  a  subjec- 
tive one. 

The  American  passenger-car,  with  an  average  cubic  space  of  about 
2,500  feet  (exclusive  of  that  occupied  by  furniture  and  the  bodies  of  pas- 
sengers), and  holding  about  seventy-five  persons,  would  therefore  require 
at  least  750  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  minute;  we  will  say,  1,500  cubic 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  729 

feet,  or  more  tlian  lialf  the  contents  of  the  car.  The  introduction  of  this 
amount  without  draught  is  a  matter  of  much  difficulty. 

The  opening-  of  windows  is  of  course  an  entirely  unreliable  method  of 
ventilation.  The  valves  in  the  end  doors  and  windows  expose  passengers 
to  severe  draughts,  and  are,  therefore,  usually  closed.  The  ventilating 
apertures  in  the  top  and  letter-line  are  found  "entirely  inadequate" 
(Nichols),  or  else  they  produce  an  improper  draught. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  bring  into  the  car  a  large  quantity  of  air  by  means 
of  cowls  or  revolving  caps  placed  on  the  roof,  or  by  end  windows.  Both 
these  devices  act  only  while  the  car  is  in  motion  or  exposed  to  a  wind; 
but  as  the  car  is  scarcely  used  at  other  times,  this  forms  no  objection  to 
the  use  of  such  methods.  The  problem  remains,  how  to  distribute  the  air 
without  draughts;  the  solution  is  to  be  found  in  the  use  of  extensive  per- 
forated surfaces  for  distribution.  Kedzie  recommends  two  or  three  such 
plans.  In  one,  the  air  is  first  sent  to  a  space  below  the  floor  of  the  car, 
where  it  has  to  deposit  its  impurities  in  a  tank  of  Avater;  it  then  ascends 
to  the  roof  again,  where  it  is  sent  into  cylinders,  running  the  length  of  the 
car  at  the  height  of  the  roof,  from  which  it  escapes  by  numerous  small 
holes.  The  cylinders  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  turned,  giving  the  escaping 
air  various  directions — downward,  sideways,  or  upward,  as  may  be  desired. 
In  another  plan  the  air  is  brought  in  at  the  end  of  the  car  under  the  eaves, 
the  entrance  of  cinders  being  prevented  by  fine  gratings.  The  distribu- 
tion occurs  along  the  whole  length  of  the  roof,  through  similar  fine  aper- 
tures. The  space  for  distribution  in  this  case  is  formed  from  the  "  monitor 
story,"  which  is  provided  with  a  floor  that  shuts  it  off  from  the  car;  in 
this  floor  are  the  perforations  for  air. 

An  excellent  auxiliary  to  these  systems  is  formed  by  a  hood  placed 
below  the  floor,  and  sucking  the  air  out  of  the  lower  part  of  the  car  {cippel 
par  en  has).  The  space  under  one  of  the  seats  may  be  boxed  around,  to 
form  an  enclosure  into  which  the  hood  opens;  the  air  escapes  first  (through 
gratings)  into  this  sjDace,  then  into  the  hood. 

A  system,  mentioned  by  Prof.  Nichols,  consists  of  a  fan-wheel,  carried 
by  a  pulley  attached  to  one  of  the  axles,  which  forces  air  into  the  car, 
through  a  strainer  of  wire-gauze,  at  the  first  side-window.  The  air  is 
conducted  around  the  roof  in  a  six-inch  pipe,  perforated  at  proper  inter- 
vals, and  finds  its  exit  through  registers  in  the  floor.  It  has  been  found 
that  when  the  car  had  been  completely  filled  with  smoke,  it  was  thoroughly 
cleared  in  about  six  minutes  by  this  method.  If  this  mechanism  can  be 
trusted  to  run  with  regularity,  the  method  is  a  better  one  than  that  which 
depends  on  the  hood. 

Dwelling-houses. — A  few  special  points  may  be  spoken  of  under  this 
head,  although,  in  general,  all  that  is  necessary  has  been  said  elsewhere. 

Many  dwellings  are  well  ventilated  for  daily  life,  but  few  have  any 
provision  for  the  emergencies  of  evening  assemblies.  Upon  such  occa- 
sions as  the  latter,  extreme  discomfort  is  often  felt  from  the  heat,  the 
excessive  moisture,  and  the  closeness.  Great  relief  can  be  had  by  provid- 
ing  an  escape  for  the  products  of  the  combustion  of  gas,  by  methods 


730  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

figured  under  Hospital  Construction.  A  chandelier  (gasolier)  may  dis- 
charge its  heated  products  either  by  a  closed  tube  and  globes,  which 
carry  off  everything,  or  it  may  discharge  in  a  manner  less  complete,  yet 
sufficiently  so  for  the  purpose,  through  holes  in  the  ceiling  above.  An 
ornamental  piece  of  stucco  over  the  chandelier  may  stand  out  an  inch  or 
two  from  the  ceiling  without  appearing  to  be  separated  from  it;  the  space 
thus  given,  in  a  circumference  of  six  feet,  equals  an  aperture  of  one-half 
a  square  foot,  or  one  foot,  which  will  give  exit  (at  a  velocity  of  six  feet 
per  second)  to  ten  or  twenty  thousand  feet  per  hour.  Two  such  openings 
(discharging,  say  40,000  feet)  would  be  of  material  service;  at  least  they 
would  aid  greatly  in  getting  rid  of  the  heat  and  the  smell  of  gas.  The 
actual  requirements  of  one  hundred  people  in  a  drawing-room  would  equal 
from  4,000  to  10,000  metres  per  hour:  say  from  140,000  to  350,000  cubic 
feet.  Evidently,  therefore,  other  means  must  be  used  in  addition  to  that 
above  named.  Two  fireplaces  may  exhaust  40,000  feet  more,  which  still 
leaves  us  inadequately  provided  for.  The  usual  flues  may  be  inserted  in 
addition,  in  connection  with  or  adjacent  to  the  chimney;  but  it  will  be 
necessary  to  attend  to  the  warming  of  such  flues,  as  otherwise  they  may 
simply  serve  as  inlets  for  cold  air  in  undesirable  parts  of  the  room. 

For  sleeping-rooms,  in  mild  climates,  hollow  iron-bricks  may  be  used, 
an  equal  number  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom  of  each  apartment.  The 
Sherringham  valve  may  be  applied  to  these,  but  so  as  not  to  close  them 
wholly. 


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Harm,  Hochstetter  und  Pokorny :   AUgemeine  Erdkunde. 

Herter,  G..:  Ueber  die  Ventilation  ofEentlicher  Gebaude.  Vierteljahrschr.  f.  ge- 
richtl.  Medicin.     N.  F.,  XXI.  Bd.,  2.  H.,  1874. 

Hirt,  L.  :  Die  Krankheiten  der  Arbeiter  ;  erster  Theil :  Die  Staub-Inhalations- 
K^ankheiten.     1871. 

Hoffmeyer  :   Synoptic  Charts  of  Europe. 

Jacobsthal,  Max  :  Untersuch.  iiber  Luft  und  Ofenheizung.  Correspondenzblatt  d. 
niederrhein.  Vereins,  Bd.  VII.,  Nrs.  10,  11,  12. 

Johnson's  New  Illustrated  Universal  Cyclopeedia,  1878.  Articles  on  Rain,  Wind, 
etc.,  by  A.  Guyot ;  on  Ventilation  and  Heating,  by  C.  B.  Richards  ;  etc. 

Kammerer,  Hermann  :  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Luft  in  Schulzimmern  bei  Luf  b 
und  Ofenheizung,  1875.  Bayer.  Industrie-  und  Gewerbe-Blatt.,  VII.  Jahrg.  1875,  H. 
6,7. 

Kedzie,  R.  C.  :  Poisonous  Paper.  First  and  Second  Annual  Reports  of  Michigan 
Board  of  Health.      1873-'74. 

Idem  :  Ventilation  of  Railroad-cars.     Ibid.,  Fourth  Report. 

Kirchner  :  Lehrbuch  der  Militar-Hygieine.     Erlangen.  1869. 


732  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

Lang,  Carl,  and  Wolflfhllgel,  Gustav  :  Ueber  Liiftung  und  Heizung  von  Eisenbahn- 
wagen.     1877.     Zeitschi-ift  fur  Biologie,  XII.  Band.  lY.  Heft. 

Langer,  Th.  :  "  Die  Atmosphare  "  in  Gohren's  Agricultur-Ghemie.  Erster  Theil. 
1877. 

Lehmann :  Physiological  Chemistry. 

Letheby  :   "  Sanitary  Science,"  in  Encyclopa3dia  Britannica. 

Lommel,  E.  :  Wind  und  "Wetter.  Gemeinfassliche  Darstellung  der  Meteorologie. 
66  Holzschnitte.     1873. 

Loomis,  Elias :  Treatise  on  Meteorology,  with  a  Collection  of  Meteorological  Ta- 
bles.    New  York,  1868. 

Lorent,  Ed.  :  Die  Aufgabe  der  Gesundheitspflege  in  Bezug  auf  die  atmospharische 
Luft.     1873. 

Lorenz :  Lehrbuch  der  EQimatologie.  AVien,  1874.  (Influence  of  Forests  on  Cli- 
mate. ) 

Lunge  :  Zur  Frage  der  Ventilation  rait  Beschreibung  des  minimetrischen  Apparatus 
zur  Bestimmung  der  Luftverunreinigung.     Ziirich,  1877. 

Meissner  :  Die  Heizung  mit  erwarmter  Luft.     Wien,  1823. 

Idem:  Ventilation  und  Erwarmuug  der  Kinderstube  und  des  Krankenzimmers. 
Wien,  1853. 

Miller,  W.  A.  :  Elements  of  Chemistry :  Theoretical  and  Practical.  Part  I. , 
Chemical  Physics. 

Morin,  Arthur  :  Etudes  sur  la  ventilation.     Paris,  1863. 

Idem  :  On  Warming  and  Ventilating  occupied  Buildings.  Translated  by  Clarence 
B.  Toung,  in  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Regents  of  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1873 
and  1874. 

Slondesir,  Piarron  de,  and  Lehaitre  :  Communication  relative  a  la  ventilation  par 
I'air  comprime. 

Munde,  Carl :  Zimmerluft.  Ventilation  und  Heizung.     1876. 

Nichols,  Wm.  R.  :   Chemical  Examinations  of  Sewer  Air.     1879. 

Niemeyer  :  Medicinische  Abhandlungen.  I.  Atmiatrie.     Erlangen,  1873. 

Pappenheim:   Handbuch  der  Sauitatspolizei.     Berlin,  1868. 

Peclet,  E.  ;  Traite  de  la  chaleur  consideree  dans  ses  apijlications.  3  vols.  3me 
edition,  entierement  refondue.     1860. 

Pettenkof er.  Max  von  :  Bericht  iiber  Ventilations- Apparate.  Kgl.  bayer.  Akad.  d. 
Wiss.     1858. 

Idem  :  Besprechung  allgemeiuer  auf  die  Ventilation  beziiglicher  Frageu.     Ibid. 

Idem :  Beziehungen  der  Luft  zu  Kleidung,  Wohnung  und  Boden.  Drei  populare 
Vorlesungen.     1872. 

Idem  :  Ueber  den  Luftwechsel  in  Wohngebauden.     Miinchen,  1858. 

Idem  :  Ueber  eine  Methode  die  Kohlensaure  in  der  atmospharischen  Luft  zu  bestim- 
men.  In  Abhandlungen  d.  naturwissenschaftl.  technischen  Commission  bei  der  kgl. 
bayer.  Akad. ,  2ter  Band.     1858. 

Pierre,  J.  I.  :  Chimie  agricole,  2d  ed. 

Rodwell,  G.  F.  :  Dictionary  of  Science.     1873. 

Roth  and  Lex.  :  Handbuch  der  Militar-Gesundheitspflege.     1874. 

Salter,  Stephen  :  On  the  Ventilation  of  Sewers,  Cesspools  and  House-drains,  and 
the  Construction  of  Healthy  Dwelling-houses.     1872. 

Scharrath  :  Allgemeine  deutsche  Strafrechtszeitung.     1870.     H.  7,  8. 

Smith,  Robert  Angus  :  Air  and  Rain ;  the  Beginnings  of  a  Chemical  Climatology. 
London,  1872. 

Simon  :  Reports  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections  (148)  :  Directions  for  Meteorological  Obser- 
vations, etc.     1872. 

Signal  Service  of  the  United  States :  Instructions  to  Observer  Sergeants. 

Strohmayer,  Leopold :    Heizung,  Ventilation  und  Wasserleitungen.     Bericht  iiber 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  733 

die  Weltausstellung  in  Philadelphia,  1870.  Herausg.  von  der  Oesterr.  Commiss.  123 
Ilustr.     1877. 

Strott,  G-.  K.  :  Ventilation  und  Desinfection  der  Wobnraume.     1876. 

Tardieu  :  Dictionnaire  d'hygiene.     18G2. 

Tidy,  Charles  Meymotb:  Handbook  of  Modern  Chemistry.     1878. 

Toner,  J.  M.  :  Dictionary  of  Elevations. 

Turner,  Th.  J.,  Med.  Inspector  U.  S.  N.  :  Air  and  Moisture  on  Shipboard;  a  Frag- 
ment of  Apjjlied  Physiology. 

Voit,  E.,  and  Forster,  S.  :  Studien  iiber  die  Heizungen  in  den  Schulhausern  Miin- 
chens.     Zeitschr.  f.  Biologie,  1877.  XIII.  Bd.,  I.  Heft. 

Wehrle,  Alois  :  Ueber  die  triiben  Wetter.     Vienna,  1835. 

Williams,  C.  T.  The  Influence  of  Climate  in  the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of 
Pulmonary  Consumption.      1877. 

Winsor,  Fred.  :  Coal-gas  from  Heating-apparatus.  Tenth  Annual  Report  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Health.     1879. 

Wolffhiigel,  Gustav :  Ueber  die  Priif ung  von  Ventilations-Apparaten.     1876. 

Wolpert,  Adolph :  Principien  der  Ventilation  und  Lnftheizung,  fiir  Architekten, 
u.  s.  w.     1860. 

Wood,  Edward  S.  :  Illuminating  Gas  in  its  Relations  to  Health.  Papers  of  Ameri- 
can Public  Health  Association,  Vol.  III.     1877. 

Wyman,  Morrill :  Treatise  on  Ventilation.     1846. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 


OF 


Hospital  Construction, 


FRANCIS  H.   BROWN,  M.D.,  Boston,  Mass. 


GENERAL  PRIlSrCIPLES  OF  HOS- 
PITAL CONSTRUCTION. 


Hospital  construction  may  properly  be  considered  a  subject  for  spe- 
cial study,  and  one  so  near  the  confines  of  medicine  and  architecture  as 
to  call  for  careful  investigation  from  the  members  of  both  these  pro- 
fessions. The  subject  naturally  includes  several  divisions,  all  of  which 
bear  intimate  relations  to  each  other,  and,  while  it  is  difficult  to  discuss 
either  branch  without  reference  to  the  others,  it  seems  desirable  to  consider 
the  subject  mainly  under  the  following  heads  : 

Location,  or  Site. 

General  Character. 

Material. 

General  Arrangement  and  Disposition. 

Arrangement  of  the  Several  Parts  in  Detail. 

Means  or  Heating. 

Ventilation. 

Drainage. 

Cottage  or  Village  Hospitals. 

Bibliography. 

There  are  numerous  allied  topics  which  are  of  vital  importance  to  the 
well-being  of  a  hospital,  which  are  so  recognized  by  physicians  both  in 
theory  and  in  practice.  A  well-built  hospital  poorly  organized  may  be  the 
home  of  disease  and  the  nursery  of  fatal  hospital  maladies.  But  the  con- 
sideration of  the  organization,  management  and  furnishing  of  hospitals, 
as  well  as  their  relation  to  medical  schools  and  training-schools  for  nurses, 
has  been  purposely  avoided,  as  foreign  to  the  general  scope  of  this  paper. 
The  study  of  hospitals  for  special  objects,  as  for  instance  insane,  lying-in, 
military,  children's  and  similar  institutions,  is  also  omitted,  the  main  ob- 
ject of  this  paper  being  to  inculcate  general  principles  applicable  to  all 

institutions  for  the  care  of  the  sick. 
Yor,.  I.— 47 


738         GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION. 


SECTION  I. 

LOCATION. 

The  location  of  a  building  where  the  sick  are  treated  should  be  one 
which  commends  itself  in  an  eminent  degree  SiS  a.  healthy  onQ  :  that  is, 
the  site  should  be  elevated ;  on  a  good,  porous,  gravelly  or  sandy  soil ; 
not  on  new-made  land  or  on  a  clayey  or  retentive  soil ;  where  abundant 
means  are  offered  for  effective  drainage  ;  not  in  a  crowded  locality,  but 
in  a  situation  which  is  open  to  healthy  winds  and  has  a  free  exposure  to 
sunlight.  The  building  should  be  so  situated  that  the  prevalent  winds 
may  not  pass  over  marshes  or  regions  affected  by  dampness  or  malarial 
influences,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  sewers. 

Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  slope  of  the  land  in  the 
neighborhood.  A  valley  or  a  depression  should  be  avoided,  as  well  as  a 
situation  under  a  steep  hill,  or  on  a  slope  which  would  collect  water  or 
dampness,  or  where  the  air  would  have  a  tendency  to  become  stagnant. 
Such  a  site  should  be  selected  as  will  give  a  clear  area  of  eighty  pa- 
tients to  the  acre,  as  advised  by  the  Chirurgical  Society  of  Paris,  or,  at 
most,  of  one  hundred  patients,  as  is  sanctioned  by  English  usage.^ 

In  testing  the  site  due  regard  should  be  given  to  the  mortality  of  the 
region.  In  this  estimate,  however,  it  may  be  necessary  to  consider  the 
financial  and  social  condition  of  the  inhabitants.  The  poverty  of  those 
living  in  a  region,  or  the  risks  arising  from  hazardous  employments,  may 
increase  the  mortality  in  an  undue  proportion.  It  would  be  manifestly 
unwise,  however,  to  disregard  the  fact  of  a  large  general  mortalit}^  in  a 
neighborhood,  irrespective  of  the  social  condition  of  the  inhabitants.  A 
careful  investigation  of  the  locality  would  probably  disclose  the  existence 
of  unsanitary  influences  which  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  recovery  of  the 
sick. 

The  general  question  of  location  and  construction "  is  tersely  put  by 
Hennen  :  "  That  building  makes  the  best  hospital  which  is  situated  high, 
dry,  and  detached  ;  in  which  there  are  sufficient  doors  and  windows  ad- 
mitting of  cross-ventilation  ;  with  open  fireplaces  and  secure  roofs  and 
walls  ;  with  rooms  of  easy  access,  lofty  and  of  moderate  size."  * 

The  question  may  well  be  asked  whether  or  not  a  hospital  should  be 
located  within  the  crowded  portions  of  a  city.  Various  reasons  exist 
which  render  it  difficult  to  treat  the  sick  poor  of  a  large  city  anywhere 
except  near  their  homes,  at  least  those  who  are  seriously  ill  or  injured. 
"  No  site,  however  accessible,  should  be  selected  which  will  not  give  at 
all  times  the  utmost  purity  of  atmosphere.  If,  however,  this  desideratum 
can  be  obtained,  we  may  join  with  it  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 


'  G-alton  :  The  Construction  of  Hospitals.     Leeds,  1869. 
^  Hennen  :  Principles  of  Military  Surgery.     London,  1829. 


GENERAL    PlilNOIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       739 

the  possibility  of  conveying  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner  to  the  hospital  :  the  accessibility  of  the  institution  to  the  medi- 
cal officers  and  the  friends  of  the  patients,  and  the  convenient  position  of 
the  medical  schools,  if  they  exist."  ' 

"All  of  these  elements  are  of  importance — every  one  in  its  place.  It 
is  obviously  of  no  use  to  build  a  hospital  in  the  best  air  in  the  world,  if 
neither  patients  nor  medical  officers  can  get  to  it.  It  is  only  in  applying 
common  sense  to  such  a  question,  and  by  always  giving  a  preponderance 
to  the  condition  of  highest  importance,  namely,  pure  air  and  space,  when 
the  other  considerations  can  be  at  the  same  time  reasonably  obtained, 
that  the  best  will  be  done  for  the  sick,"  "^ 

The  inconvenience  of  treating  cases  of  accident  or  of  sudden  illness  at 
a  distance  from  a  large  hospital  may  be  in  part  overcome  by  the  estab- 
tablishment  of  reception  hospitals,  of  a  few  beds  each,  at  suitable  points. 
These  should  be  placed  near  large  manufacturing  establishments,  and  in 
crowded  localities  occupied  by  the  poorer  classes.  It  should  be  well  estab- 
lished, however,  that  these  smaller  hospitals  are  for  temporary  use  only, 
and  should  be  subsidiary  entirely  to  the  larger  hospital  of  which  they 
form  a  part.  Every  well-organized  metropolitan  hospital  should  have  one 
or  more  easy  ambulances,  made  to  fit  the  horse  railroad  tracks,  to  be  sum- 
moned by  telegraph  from  the  police  stations  or  otherwise;  with  such 
means  of  conveyance,  the  distance  of  the  hospital  from  the  more  thickly 
settled  portions  of  a  city  becomes  a  matter  of  secondary  consideration  to 
those  of  space  and  pure  air. 

The  question  of  expense  necessarily  enters  largely  into  the  question  of 
location.  The  land  in  the  closer  parts  of  a  city  is  too  valuable  to  enable 
us  to  carry  out  the  most  approved  methods  of  building,  and  we  find  city 
architects  forced  to  yield  to  the  requirement  of  placing  patients  in  many- 
storied  buildings,  to  their  manifest  detriment.  The  question  is  merely 
one  of  obedience  to  natural  laws — for  the  best  welfare  of  the  patients  they 
must  be  placed  under  the  he&t  hygienic  conditions — whatever  expense  or 
inconvenience  such  condition  may  render  necessary.  It  is  not  enough  to 
say  that  the  air  of  our  cities  is  good;  the  air  of  the  suburbs  or  the  country 
is  hetter;  under  the  best  possible  circumstances,  the  air  of  the  hospital  is 
no  better  than  the  air  of  the  streets  which  surround  it. 


1  Bristowe  and  Holmes  :  Sixth  Report  of  the  Medical  Officers  of  the  Privy  Council, 
London,  1863. 

•^  Nightingale  :  Notes  on  Hospitals.     London,  1863. 


740         GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 


SECTION  II. 

GENERAL    CHARACTER    OF   THE    HOSPITAL. 

The  requirements  of  each  city  or  town  must  decide  the  size  of  its 
hospitals.  They  may  appropriately  be  classed  as  large  hospitals,  when 
they  contain  from  one  hundred  beds  upward;  of  medium  size,  when  they 
contain  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  beds;  and  cottage  or  village  hos- 
pitals, when  accommodations  are  provided  for  from  three  to  twenty-five 
patients.  The  exigencies  of  war  may  call  temporarily  for  immense  hos- 
pitals, but  modern  investigations  show  those  of  more  moderate  dimensions 
to  be  better;  they  more  nearly  approach  the  home-life  which  gives  to  each 
patient  the  best  means  of  recovery;  they  insure  the  wider  separation  of  the 
sick  of  a  city;  and  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  in  such  smaller  institu- 
tions the  patients  are  more  satisfactorily  attended. 

Sir  James  Simpson  presented  his  views  of  hospitalism  in  a  series  of 
propositions  which  disputed,  in  nearly  every  instance,  ideas  of  hospital 
hygiene  and  management  previously  held.  While  he  took  the  result  of 
hospital  amputations  as  the  means  of  deciding  the  point,'  Dr.  Evory 
Kennedy,  of  Dublin,  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  Obstetrical  Society  in 
1869,  reached  the  same  end  by  his  statistics  on  zymotic  and  puerperal 
diseases.  "  Surgeons  are  little  inclined,  at  this  day,  to  undertake  ovari- 
tomy  in  large  general  hospitals,  and  the  precautions  taken  by  Mr.  Baker 
Brown  in  his  operations  meet  the  approval  of  most  physicians,"^  While 
larger  hospitals  offer  greater  advantages  for  clinical  instruction  and  give 
more  eclat  to  officials  connected  with  them,  the  smaller  establishments  are, 
without  doubt,  most  advantageous  to  the  patient.  The  same  principle, 
the  wide  distribution  of  the  inmates  of  an  institution,  would  seem  to  re- 
quire that  they  should  be  accommodated  in  many  rather  than  in  one 
building.  No  single  hospital  building  ought,  under  any  circumstances, 
to  contain  more  than  one  hundred  patients  under  one  roof.  It  may  be 
considered  admissible,  under  extreme  circumstances,  to  have  four  pavi- 
lion wards  in  two  stories,  on  either  side  of  a  central  administrative  build- 
ing, with  twenty-five  patients  to  each  ward.  Even  this  number  is  not 
advisable,  but  with  more  than  this  number  the  detached  plan  is  unavoid- 
able. In  the  view  that  patients  are  best  treated  in  one-story  detached 
2)avilion  toards,  all  recent  writers  on  the  subject  are  agreed,  and  the  de- 
termination of  this  point  may  influence  the  decision  regarding  the  large 
or  small  size  of  the  institution.  The  system  of  breaking  up  the  aggre- 
gate of  patients  and  placing  them  in  small  wards  necessitates  the  purchase 
of  more  ground,  there  are  more  roofs  to  construct  and  keep  in  repair,  the 
administration  becomes  somewhat  more  difficult,  and  more  fuel  is  called 


'  Simpson  :  Hospitalism.    New  York,  1872. 

''Chadwick:   Art.  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  April  8,  1875. 


GENERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.      741 

for.  But  the  object  in  erecting  a  hospital  is  to  provide  for  tlie  best  good 
of  the  patients  for  many  years  to  come,  and  if  this  end  cannot  be  attained 
Avithout  crowding,  it  is  far  better  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  hospital,  or  to 
place  it  where  land  can  be  obtained  at  a  lower  rate. 

Three  forms  of  buildings  have  been  used  for  hospitals;  they  are  called 


/I 


er 


hi 


E3_ 


1^ 
H 


T=^ 


T' 


n,  n 


0= 


Fig.  1. — Ground  plan  of  hospital  at  Malta. 


Fig.  2. — Ground  plan  of  Blackburn  Infirmary. 


the  pavilion,  block  and  corridor  systems.  The  first,  or  pavilion  system, 
includes  wards,  either  long  or  nearly  square,  of  one  story  or  many, 
detached  or  united,  but  which  have  windows  on  each  side,  and  so  offer 
the  best  means  possible  for  air  and  sunlight.  The  second  form— the 
block   system — consists  of   buildings  of  conglomerate  architecture,  their 


742        GET^EEAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTEUCTION. 


^? 


I 


wards  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  occupy  the  least  possible  space, 
with  insufficient  ventilation  and  exposure,  and  often  opening  into  each 
other  or  placed  back  to  back.  The  block  system  is  that  on  which 
many  of  the  older  hospitals  were  built.  The  error  of  this  plan  was  over- 
looked from  want  of  a 
proper  conception  of  the 
needs  of  the  patients,  es- 
pecially in  regard  to 
their  want  of  air  and 
sunlight,  and  naturally 
arose  from  the  custom  of 
using  any  unemployed 
buildings,  such  as  private 
dwellings,  convents  or 
churches  forthe  purposes 
of  institutions  which, 
above  all  others,  should 
be  placed  under  the  best 
hj^gienic  circumstances. 
The  corridor  system 
bears  a  certain  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the 
pavilion,  the  wards  both 
being  in  a  lonj^  building; 
but  in  all  Irospitals  of 
this  construction  the  side 
of  the  ward  is  covered 
by  a  corridor  or  hall, 
which  connects  different 
parts  of  the  building  and 
is  used  as  a  means  of 
communication. 

The  most  enlightened 
modern  views  have  ac- 
cepted the  pavilion  sys- 
tem as  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. It  not  only  has 
superior  advantages  as 
regards  air  and  sunlight, 
but  in  its  simplest  form 
the  pavilion  is  a  hospi- 
tal   in  itself,  with    most 


^ 


L| 

L^ 


1 


r 


Fig.  3. — Ground  plan  of  the  Woolwich  Hospital. 


of  the  appliances  needed  for  its  separate  administration.  It  can  be 
adapted  for  use  as  a  small  village  hosj)ital,  or  may  be  indefinitely  mul- 
tiplied, as  the  space  at  command  will  allow,  or  the  number  of  patients 
may  demand.  In  many  of  the  larger  hospitals  the  pavilions  are  entirely 
detached.     Ground  plans  are  here  inserted  of  the  Hospital  at  Malta,  the 


GENEEAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION.      743 


Blackburn  (Eng.)  Infirmary,  and  the  Woolwich  (Eng.)  Hospital,  showing 
how  the  same  pavilions  may  be  compactly  united  on  a  limited  extent  of 
ground,  and  yet  retain  the  advantages  of  the  separate  buildings.  "  A 
good  illustration  of  the 
adaptability  of  this  sys- 
tem to  any  site  is  afforded 
by  the  new  hospital  for 
one  hundred  beds,  at 
Swansea  (Eng).  ...  In 
this  case  the  site  is  tri- 
angular, and  the  admin- 
istrative block,  operating 
theatre,  etc.,  are  placed 
at  the/  apex,  which  faces 
the  prevailing  wind, 
while  the  pavilions  run 
down  each  side,  and  both 
sides  of  the  wards  receive 
sunlight  and  air." ' 

"  The  true  principle 
of  hospital  construction, 
as  at  present  understood, 
was  at  first  declared  by  a 
commissioji  of  the  French 
Academy '6f  Sciences  in  1 


Fig.  4. — Ground  plan  of  the  Swansea  Hospital. 


which  made  a  final  report  as  to  the  con- 
ditions which  a  model  hospital  should  fulfil,  specifying  that  wards  should 
be  in  isolated  pavilions,  that  each  ward  should  be  about  24  feet  wide,  from 

14  to  15  feet  high,  and  115 
feet  long,  and  should  contain 
from  34  to  36  beds,  and  that 
the  windows  should  extend 
to  the  ceiling."  ^ 

A  few  examples  of  the 
block  system,  both  of  the 
general  ground  plan  and  of 
the  disposition  of  single 
wards,  are  given.  The  first 
is  a  ground  plan  of  King's 
College  Hospital  in  London 
(Fig.  5);  the  others  are  ward 
plans  in  the  old  Marine  Hos- 
FiG.  5.-King's  College  Hospital.  pj^^^  ^^  Woolwich    (Fig.    6), 

the  Portsmouth  Hospital  (Fig.  7),  and  the  Hopital  de  la  Clinique  in  Paris 
(Fig.   8).     All   of  these   show  marked  errors;  most  of  them  have  wards 

'  Galton  :  Op.  cit. 

2  Billings:  Barracks  and  Hospitals.     Circ.  No.  4,  S.  G.  0.,  Washington,  1870;  and 
Husson:  Etudes  sur  les  Hopitaux,  Paris,  1862. 


l-p 

1 

\ 

-iL, 

i=4 

□   □ 

f 

D  D 

□   Q 

a  D 

Q  D 

=3    . 

' 

Q  Q  n            DD  D 

□  en 

□  en 

□  CZI 

□  □ 

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□  □ 

□  CD 
C3   CZI 

^ 

1 — 

lUL 

LUI 

744        GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF   HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 


opening  into  each  other,  without  suitable  light  or  ventilation,  with  beds 
placed  in  rows  against  dead  walls,  or  with  but  a  single  window  for  many 
beds. 

The  corridor  system  has  the  double  disadvantage  of  interfering  with 
'■         ' — '  ' 


Jl    □  Q  D  n  D  D  DD  I 
II   nPD         D  DP  1 


Ward  plan. 
Fig.  6. — Old  Marine  Hospital  at  Woolwich. 


r 

— -1 

'    n  nn    q 

\ 

DPDP  ^ 

D  DPD 

Ward  plan. 
Fig.  7. — Portsmouth  Hospital. 


cross-ventilation  and  of  connecting  the  various  wards  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  engender  a  common  hospital  air.  A  portion  of  the  St.  Antoine  Hospital 
(Fig.  9)  is  given  to  illustrate  the  system.  Both  the  block  and  the  corridor 
systems  tend  to  complicate  the  difficulties  of  management,  to  favor  the  stag- 

Jl 


Ward  plan. 
Fig.  8. — Hopital  de  la  Clinique  in  Paris. 


nation  of  air,  and  to  generate  pyaemia  and  similar  hospital  pests.  For  the 
treatment  of  simple,  non-infecting  diseases,  the  detached  pavilion  system, 
of  one  or  at  most  two  stories,  is  the  best;  for  the  treatment  of  open  wounds 


f]  D  DDDPn  aDDDD  PaDDD     aDD'DT] 


D  DD  IIdDDDIDDDD 


DDD 


uan      DDD   P 


DDD      U  U  13  f|=F^ 


Ward  plan. 
Fig.  9. — St.  Antoine  Hospital  in  Paris. 


and  the  diseases  of  a  possibly  infectious  character,  the  same  system  is 
decidedly  preferable;  and  for  contagious  diseases,  the  tent,  barrack,  or  hut, 
which  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  pavilion,  is  absolutely  called  for. 


GENEKAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION.         745 

SECTION    III. 
MATERIAL. 

The  plan  which  has  commended  itself  most  favorably  to  medical  men 
of  late  years  in  establishing  a  hospital,  whether  of  large  or  small  dimen- 
sions, has  been  to  build  it  of  detached  wooden  pavilions,  with  an  adminis- 
trative building  of  more  permanent  materials.  Unfortunately,  physicians 
have  rarely  the  privilege  of  building  hospitals;  and,  even  if  they  are  per- 
mitted to  suggest  the  plans,  they  find  them  so  manipulated  by  trustees  or 
architects  that  the  essential  points  are,  in  many  cases,  thoroughly  elimi- 
nated. It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  architects  will  suggest,  or 
committees  of  construction  adopt  a  material  which  gives  little  opportunity 
for  display,  appearance  of  permanency,  or  the  erection  of  an  architectural 
memorial.  The  Surgeon-General  of  the  U.  S.  Marine  Hospital  Service 
says  :  "  The  old,  magnificent  hospitals,  built  as  monuments  for  all  time, 
will  be  abandoned  for  the  simple  pavilion  of  indefinite  existence  ;  and  the 
only  strictly  permanent  parts  of  the  modern  hospital  will  be  the  executive 
building,  kitchen,  laundry,  and  engine-house." ' 

"  I  believe,"  says  Billings,^  "  that  no  hospital  should  be  constructed 
with  a  view  to  its  being  used  more  than  fifteen  years.  If  the  money  re- 
quired to  put  up  such  structures  as  the  New  York  civil  hospitals,  the 
Rhode  Island  Hospital,  or  the  Cincinnati  Hospital,  were  divided  into  two 
equal  parts,  one  half  being  used  to  erect  frame  hospitals  of-  the  same 
capacity  as  the  stone  and  brick  hospitals  actually  built,  and  the  other  half 
being  put  out  at  interest  at  six  per  cent.,  a  complete  new  hospital  could 
be  furnished  every  twelve  years  for  an  indefinite  period."  ^  Mr.  Brook, 
one  of  tlie  surgeons  of  the  Lincoln  County  Hospital  (England)  is  thus 
quoted  by  Erichsen  :  "  Of  late  years  the  interior  of  the  hospital  has,  at 
one  time  or  another,  been  entirely  renewed,  but  still  the  disease  (pyasmia) 
kept  breaking  out  ;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  all  past  authorities  that  it 
lurked  in  the  very  fabric,  and  that  nothing  but  demolition  would  remove 
it."  *  A  French  authority,  in  speaking  of  the  American  ambulance  in 
Paris  in  1870-71,  says  :  "  La  mobilization  des  hopitaux  temporaires  est 


'  Woodworth  :  Annual  Report  of  the  Supervising  Surgeon- General  U.  S.  Marine 
Hospital  Service.     Washington,  1873. 

■^  Billings :  Barracks  and  Hospitals.     Op.  cit. 

^  The  cost  of  the  Marine  Hospital  at  San  Francisco,  on  the  old  plan,  was  $238,871 ; 
the  one  now  in  use  at  the  port  of  Boston  cost  $394,047;  that  at  Chicago,  recently 
finished,  on  the  old  plan,  $422,107  ;  while  upon  the  unfinished  hospital  at  New  Orleans 
$530,000  has  been  expended.  The  cost  of  the  new  barrack  hospital  for  the  Marine 
Hospital  Service,  at  San  Francisco,  including  the  surgeon's  residence  and  all  the  ad- 
ministrative buildings,  is  $58,789. 

*  Erichsen  :  Hospitalism  and  the  Causes  of  Death  after  Operation.     London,  1874. 


746        GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

un  probleme  resolu."  ^  Finally,  Galton  thus  treats  the  subject  in  his 
work  on  the  construction  of  hospitals  :  "  I  would  add  one  more  caution  : 
Do  not  build  for  a  long  futurity.  Buildings  used  for  the  reception  of  the 
sick  become  permeated  with  organic  impurities,  and  it  is  a  real  sanitary 
advantage  that  they  should  be  pulled  down  and  entirely  rebuilt  on  a  fresh 
site  periodically."  * 

Dr.  Billings,  in  his  recommendations  to  the  trustees  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital,  after  expressing  the  opinion  that  his  views,  previously 
quoted,  may  have  been  too  sweeping  in  this  respect,  says  :  "I  do  not 
think  it  necessary  that  all  the  buildings  of  a  hospital  should  be  destroyed 
or  removed  at  certain  regular  intervals,  in  order  to  prevent  infection  ;  and 
there  are  some  things  to  be  taken  into  account  in  favor  of  more  perma- 
nent structures  under  certain  circumstances,  to  which  I  did  not  give  suffi- 
cient consideration."  ^  Dr.  Folsom  also,  in  the  same  work,  says  :  "  I  do 
not  consider  destructible  barracks,  which  are  so  excellent  for  military 
hospitals,  at  all  suitable  for  a  private,  civil  institution.  I  believe  that 
careful  administration  will  make  permanent  structures  equally  healthful 
with  them,  and,  in  a  temperate  climate,  physical  comfort  is  greater  in  a 
building  with  comparatively  thick  walls.  I  should  consider  the  moral 
effect  of  barracks  in  a  civil  hospital,  unless  for  temporary  and  exceptional 
use,  particularly  prejudicial."  * 

It  should  be  noted  that  these  views  have  not  been  definitely  adopted 
by  the  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital  in  Boston,  and 
the  City  Hospital  in  the  same  city,  or  by  the  authorities  who  control  many 
of  the  hospitals  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  where  destructible  barracks 
have  recently  been  built.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that  wooden  buildings 
bring  the  patient  nearer  to  the  condition  of  nature,  that  such  an  arrange- 
ment is  more  satisfactory  on  the  ground  of  expense,  and  that  a  barrack 
hospital  can  be  more  speedily  and  easily  erected.  It  is  no  less  true  that 
any  mismanagement  in  a  permanent  building  is  more  liable  to  visit  dire 
results  on  the  patients  than  in  a  temporary  structure.  It  should  in  fair- 
ness be  said  that  such  wards  increase  the  liability  to  fire,  that  permanent 
buildings  are  more  easily  warmed  in  the  cold  season  and  are  cooler  in 
summer,  and  that,  in  some  cities,  the  erection  of  wooden  buildings  would 
be  prevented  by  statute  or  ordinance. 

In  an  economic  view  this  objection  pertains  to  the  more  lasting  build- 
ings, viz.,  that  architects  are  tempted,  with  permanent  materials  in  their 
hands,  to  devote  too  large  an  expenditure  to  display  and  effect,  making 
the  buildings  expensive  in  indirect  proportion  to  the  use  for  which  they 
are  intended.  A  hospital  should  never  be  an  architectural  monument, 
and  any  excess  of  funds  should  be  devoted  to  extending  its  means  for 
practical  work.     Simplicity,  almost  severe  in  its  character,  should  mark 


'  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  med.  et  de  chit,  pratique,  Paris,  1873. 

^  Galton :  Op.  cit. 

^  Plans  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  New  York,  1875. 

*  Ibidem. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       747 

its  construction.     Ornament  increases  the  original  expense  and  requires 
continued  care  and  work. 

If  the  building-  is  made  of  wood  it  should,  in  temperate  climates,  De 
made  double,  with  the  purpose  of  keeping  out  the  cold  in  winter  and  the 
heat  in  summer,  and  in  order  to  afford  additional  means  for  ventilation. 

Foxmdation.  and  hasement. — The  foundations  of  the  wards,  whether 
built  otherwise  of  destructible  or  permanent  material,  should  be  of  brick 
or  stone,  sufficiently  elevated  to  raise  the  lower  floor  six  or  eight  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  surface  of  the  basement  should  be  on  a  level  with 
the  surrounding  ground;  its  floor  should  be  cemented,  and  the  space  thus 
created  should  be  employed  exclusively  for  purposes  of  heating  and  ven- 
tilation. It  should  in  no  case  be  employed  for  stores  or  for  any  of  the 
offices  t)f  administration.  In  mild  climates  the  sj)ace  should  be  entirely 
open  to  the  air,  but  in  colder  regions  it  may  be  enclosed  by  windows, 
which  should  be  kept  open  as  long  as  the  weather  will  allow,  and  freely 
ventilated  every  day,  even  in  the  coldest  season.  It  would  be  better  that 
the  lower  story  of  the  building  should  be  supported  on  arches,  as  a  security 
against  damp  and  cold.  In  this  case,  in  destructible  buildings,  the  founda- 
tion would  serve  for  a  succession  of  buildings  for  many  years. 

In  order  to  carry  off  as  far  as  possible  the  drippings  from  the  eaves 
and  the  rain  which  is  driven  against  the  sides  of  the  building,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  water  from  reaching  the  foundations,  the  ground  outside  the 
walls  should  be  paved  or  concreted  for  a  space  of  at  least  two  or  three  feet 
in  width, 

Damfp-proof  vmlls. — Little  effort  is  made  in  this  country  to  render 
the  walls  of  buildings  damp-proof.  Pettenkofer  and  other  recent  writers 
give  in  figures  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  the  walls  of  a  building 
at  the  time  of  its  erection,  or  the  amount  which  such  walls  are  likely  to 
absorb  from  a  humid  soil.  This  moisture  may  rise  to  a  height  of  thirty 
feet,  and  must  be  given  off  by  evaporation.  To  obviate  the  chance  of 
such  inconvenience,  recourse  should  be  had  to  some  impervious  material, 
which  should  be  introduced  into  the  walls  about  a  foot  or  more  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  For  this  purpose  a  double  course  of  slate,  a 
course  or  two  of  enamelled  brick,  a  vitrified  stoneware  tile,  perforated 
for  the  admission  of  air,  a  layer  of  sheet-lead,  or  one  of  hot  bitumen  or 
asphalt,  have  all  been  employed  with  success. 

Inside  toalls  and  ceilings. — The  inside  walls  and  ceilings  must  be 
covered  with  material  which  can  in  no  way  harbor  organic  or  infectious 
germs.  Experiments  recently  made  by  M,  Broca  and  others  show  the 
presence  of  micrococcus  and  bacteria,  of  pus-globules,  of  spores  of  epi- 
phytes and  other  organisms,  in  the  air  and  on  and  within  the  material  of 
the  walls  of  wards  that  have  been  long  used.'  A  case  was  reported  to  the 
French  Academy  of  Medicine  in  1862,  in  which  an  analysis  of  the  plaster 
of  a  hospital  wall  gave  46  per  cent,  of  organic  matter."     Plaster,  wood, 

1  Revue  med.  de  I'Bst,  Revue  de  Therap. ,  Paris,  1874. 
-  Galton  :  Op.  cit. 


748        GENERAL    PEINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

even  paint  and  varnish,  absorb  the  organic  impurities  given  off  by  the 
body,  and  serve  as  a  constant  element  of  danger.  As  the  safest  of  these, 
it  is  best  to  rely  on  sound  plaster  placed  directly  on  the  brick  wall,  or  on 
iron  laths  or  wire  netting,  allowed  to  become  well  hardened,  and  then 
covered  with  at  least  three  coats  of  paint,  and  afterward  varnished. 
Such  walls  can  be  frequently  washed.  A  still  better  material  than  plaster 
is  Parian  cement.  It  is,  however,  costly,  and  is  liable  to  crack,  and  thus 
harbor  both  vermin  and  animal  emanations.  Dr.  Luther,  in  a  recent 
article,  suggests  the  employment  of  soluble  glass  in  hospital  construction. 
"In  the  building  and  arrangement  of  institutions,  particularly  those  for 
the  insane,  who  exercise  little  control  over  the  urinary  or  intestinal  dis- 
charges, no  system  of  ventilation  or  arrangement  of  the  apartments  occu- 
pied by  such  patients,  whether  of  wood,  painted  or  oiled,  or  with  floors  of 
slate,  metal,  or  cement,  has  been  sufficient  to  effect  entire  cleanliness.  A 
material  having  an  entire  absence  of  absorbing  surface  would  seem  to 
meet  the  demand  in  such  cases,  and  glass  is  such  a  material.  The  walls, 
floors,  and  ceilings  might  be  covered  with  it.  It  is  not  expensive,  is 
strong  when  sufficiently  thick,  is  impervious  to  water  and  dampness,  and 
can  be  made  of  suitable  color.  Apartments  thus  fitted  up  could  be 
thoroughly  drenched  with  water,  so  as  to  remove  every  particle  of  fetid 
matter."  ' 

The  walls  of  the  water-closets,  lavatories,  sculleries,  kitchen,  and 
laundry  require  equal  care  with  those  of  the  wards.  The  walls  of  the  ad- 
ministrative and  other  portions  of  the  hospital  require  no  special  notice. 

Floors. — The  floors  of  the  wards  and  administrative  departments  must 
be  made  of  narrow  strips  of  close-grained  hard  wood,  with  matched  joints 
blind-nailed.  In  permanent  buildings  they  should  be  laid  with  concrete 
on  iron  beams,  and  be  non-conducting  as  regards  moisture  and  sound.  The 
woods  best  suited  to  the  j)urpose,  in  use  in  this  country,  are  the  hard  pine 
and  ash.  The  floor  may  be  oiled,  or  may  be  treated  with  paraffin  melted 
and  poured  upon  it,  and  then  ironed  in  by  hot  irons.  Paraffin  dissolved  in 
turpentine  may  also  be  applied  as  a  paint  to  the  walls  and  furniture. 

It  is  a  little  surprising  that  a  sanitarian  of  the  present  day  should 
recommend  that  the  floor  of  the  wards  should  be  covered  with  tiles, 
"  which  may  be  covered  with  good  oil-cloth,  or  material  of  the  like  kind, 
xohich  will  not  absorb  matters  and  gases,  and  icill  lessen  the  necessity  of 
vKishmg  the  floors,  and  which  might  be  frequently  removed  and  washed."  ^ 
It  is  true  that  tiles  are  used  as  flooring  in  some  of  the  recently  con- 
structed hospitals,  but  properly  made  wooden  floors  are  certainly  far 
preferable. 

The  floors  of  the  water-closets  and  lavatories  should  be  of  slate,  marble, 
or  tile;  the  partitions  between  the  water-closets,  the  wash-boards,  and  the 
mop-boards,  should  also  be  of  the  same  material,  to  allow  free  sluicing  of 
these  apartments. 

Throughout  the  hospital,  cornices,  projections  and  corners  should  be 


1  Luther :  Art.  in  Philadelphia  Med.  Times,  Nov.  27,  1875. 
*  Jones  :  Plans  for  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       749 

avoided;  the  tops  of  windows  and  doors  should  be  rounded  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  dust,  and  to  facilitate  cleaning;  and  the  angle  formed  by 
the  base-board  and  floor  should  be  rounded  off  in  the  manner  shown  by 
Dr.  Folsom  in  his  suggestions  for  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital.  Thresh- 
olds are  to  be  avoided.  They  are  an  annoyance  to  very  feeble  patients, 
and  they  interfere  with  the  passage  of  cars  for  the  conveyance  of  sick  or 
injured  patients,  or  for  the  transportation  of  food. 


SECTION   IV. 


GENEEAL   AEEAN^GEMEIfT. 

The  arrangement  of  the  hospital  in  gross  is  subsidiary,  in  general  terms, 
to  the  arrangement  in  detail.  The  component  parts  of  the  "  ward  unit," 
which  are  to  be  specially  borne  in  mind  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
institution,  are  the  beds,  the 
air-space  (which  must  be  suffi- 
ciently large  for  the  proper 
treatment  of  each  case),  the 
superficial  area,  the  water- 
closets,  lavatory,  nurse-room,  and  other  necessary  offices.  It  is  the  advan- 
tage of  the  pavilion  system  that  this  unit  may  be  indefinitely  multiplied, 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  11. 


so  that,  with  the  appropriate  administrative  buildings,  the  hospital  may 
be  gradually  enlarged  to  meet  the  needs  of  increasing  population. 

All  hospital  buUdings  should  be  placed  nearly  north  and  south,  so  that 


Fig.  12. 


the  sun  may  gain  access  to  both  sides  on  each  day.     The  several  buildings 
may  be  arranged,  for  economy  of  space,  parallel  to  each  other  (Fig.   10), 


750       GENEEAL   PRINCIPLES    OF   HOSPITAL    CONSTKFCTIOlSr. 

but  never  nearer  than  twice  the  height  of  the  walls,  and  we  think  the 

advice  of  Dr.  Wylie,  to  make  the  dis- 
tance thrice  the  height,  more  satis- 
factory.' The  experience  of  the  war 
of  the  rebellion  points  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  pavilions  en  eche- 
lon, where  space  allows,  as  the  most 
desirable  in  order  to  secure  a  free 
exposure  to  the  wind,  whatever  way 
be  its  direction.  The  diagrams  given 
in  Figures  10,  11,  12  and  13,  and 
the  plan  of  the  Herbert  General 
Hospital  (Fig.  14),  show  desirable 
positions  for  the  separate  pavilions. 

The  extension  of  the  pavilion  in 
a  direct  line  would  theoretically  ac- 


FiG.  13, 


0- 


ME 


J 


CT 


Fig.  14. — Herbert  General  Hospital. 


'  Wylie  :  Hospitals,  their  History,  Organization,  and  Construction,  New  York,  1877. 


GENEEAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.        751 

cumulate  the  foul  air  blown  clowu  the  line  at  the  last  pavilion,  and  entire 
ventilation  would  only  be  secured  with  the  wind  nearly  at  right  angles  to 
the  line.  Among  the  plans  submitted  for  the  construction  of  a  large 
hospital  in  Paris,  after  the  burning  of  the  Hotel-Uieu,  was  one  by  Poyet, 
for  5,000  beds,  in  which  the  wards  were  arranged  in  radii  of  a  circle,     A 


Fig.  15.  — Poyet's  plan  of  hospital,  with  wards  arranged  in  radii  of  a  circle. 

committee  of  the  Academy  reported  favorably  in  regard  to  the  project,  but 
it  was  not  adopted.  Such  an  arrangement,  while  affording  great  facilities 
for  the  administration  of  the  hospital,  is  objectionable,  as  some  of  the  pa- 
vilions must  of  necessity  be  placed  at  a  wrong  inclination  to  the  sun  and 
the  prevailing  winds.     It  should  be  a  general  rule  that  no  angles  or  closed 


Fig.  16. — Royal  Free  Hospital 


Fig.  17. — London  Hospital. 


or  covered  courts  are  admissible  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the  hos- 
pital. All  such  recesses  are  merely  foci  for  foul  air,  and  are  to  be  strictly 
avoided.  To  illustrate  this  point,  ground  plans  of  the  Royal  Free 
Hospital,  the  London  Hospital  and  Guy's  Hospital,  in  England,  and  the 
Necker  in  Paris,  are  given;  all  of  them  show  faulty  arrangement. 

Number  of  stories  or  floors. — The  question  whether  wards  shall  at  any 
time  be  superimposed  on  each  other  is  an  important  one.      The  single 


752        GEJSTERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 


Fig.  18.— Necker  Hospital. 


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Fig.  19.— Guy's  Hospital. 


Fig.  20.— Plan  of  a  hospital  for  children 


GENEKAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION".       753 

story  is  by  far  the  best,  where  space  allows.  The  one-story  hospital  is 
more  easily  managed:  there  are  no  stairways  or  elevators  to  be  constructed, 
water-tanks  and  pumping-engines  are  unnecessary,  and  lighter  foundations 
are  required.  For  the  vises  of  the  general  non-infecting  cases  of  disease, 
two  stories  may  be  employed;  for  open  wounds  and  diseases  of  a  possibly 
or  decidedly  contagious  character,  the  single  story  is  decidedly  preferable. 

Dr.  "Wylie  thus  sums  up  his  views  upon  the  question  under  considera- 
tion: "The  points  in  the  argument  for  one-story  wards  may  be  summed 
u})  thus: 

"  1.  Experience  and  science  agree  in  showing  that  widely  detached 
one-stor}'-  wards  allow  the  most  thorough  ventilation,  and  therefore  the 
smallest  chance  for  the  accumulation  of  infectious  particles. 

"  2.  They  neutralize  the  evils  of  massing  large  numbers  of  cases — or, 
what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  varieties  of  cases,  under  one  roof.  They 
make  classification  of  cases  easy  and  natural. 

"3.  They  require  less  vigilance;  dust  and  foul  air  find  fewer  lurking- 
holes  and  channels;  cleanliness  and  ease  of  supervision,  as  well  as  fresh 
air,  are  more  readily  secured.     Two-story  hospitals  may  be  kept  healthy 


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Pig.  31. — Second  story  of  the  same  hospital  (see  Fig.  20). 
(Drawn  on  a  slightly  larger  scale.) 


for  a  few  years  with  extreme  care  and  intelligence.  Hospitals  of  more 
than  two  stories  ought  never  to  be  contemplated. 

"  4.  The  detached  ward  plan,  which  is  hygienically  the  safest,  is  also 
the  most  economical,  apart  from  the  amount  of  land  required.  A  ward 
hopelessly  poisoned  by  long  occupation,  if  detached,  can  be  torn  down 
without  disturbing  the  general  order;  and  Avhen  additional  accommoda- 
tion is  necessary,  other  wards  may  be  added  one  by  one,  or  a  short  ward 
can  be  extended. 

"  5.  An  immense  advantage  of  one-story  wards  ...  is  the  ease 
with  which  patients  can  be  taken,  bed  and  all,  out  of  doors  in  fine  weather. 
Yoi..  I.— 48 


754        GENEEAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COlSTSTRUCTIOlSr. 


Fig.  23. — Third  story  of  same  hospital 
(see  Fig.  20). 


Even  the  very  feeble  can  be  wrapped  in 
a  blanket  and  rolled  out  on  the  grass  by 
an  incline,  with  no  fatigue  of  'getting 
ready.'"  ^ 

In  the  detached  plan  the  adminis- 
trative department,  including  the  gen- 
eral offices  of  the  establishment  and 
those  of  the  medical  officers,  the  recep- 
tion-rooms, drug-room,  and  other  apart- 
ments which  must  be  often  visited, 
should  be  at  or  near  the  centre,  for  ease 
of  access;  the  kitchen  and  laundry 
should  be  in  a  separate  building,  so  sit- 
uated as  not  to  cause  annoyance  to  the 
occupants  of  the  wards  by  odors  or 
smoke;  the  wards  for  private  patients 
should  be  in  a  retired  jDart  of  the 
grounds;  the  isolating  wards  or  tents 
should  be  at  a  safe  distance,  and  the 
mortuary  or  dead-house  should  be  loca- 
ted at  the  outer  edge  of  the  grounds, 
at  the  rear.  Where  necessity  requires 
the  use  of  a  single  building  for  several 
wards,  the  plans  designed  for  a  children's 
hospital  of  ninety-six  beds  (Figures  20, 
21,  and  22)  may  serve  as  a  good  example 
of  the  proper  disposition  of  the  several 
parts.  In  such  a  building  the  adminis- 
trative department  should  be  in  the  cen- 
tre, with  the  pavilion  wards  extending 
on  each  side.  Where  it  seems  unadvis- 
able  to  place  the  kitchen  and  laundry  in 
a  separate  building,  an  excellent  plan 
would  seem  to  be  to  locate  it  in  the 
highest  story.*^  In  this  way  the  odors 
of  cooking  and  the  more  offensive  and 
injurious  effluvia  from  the  washing  and 
drying  of  clothes  are  avoided,  and  in 
addition  the  fires  may  be  utilized  as  a 
powerful  exhauster  for  the  ventilating 
flues  of  the  wards  below. 

Staircases. — In  hospitals  of  more 
than   one  story  the   staircases  should  be 

'  Wylie  :    Op.  cit. 

^  This  has  been  done,  in  the  recently  con- 
structed buildings  of  the  New  York  Hospi- 
tal. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OP    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.        i  DO 

placed  in  a  well,  cut  off  from  other  parts  of  the  buikUug-  by  stone  or 
brick  walls.  Each  pavilion  should  have  its  own  staircase,  and,  in  each 
building  of  considerable  size,  at  least  two  would  be  called  for.  The  rise 
of  each  stair  should  be  not  more  than  four  inches  and  the  tread  one  foot. 
Frequent  landings  allow  feeble  patients  to  rest,  and  the  system  by  land- 
ings is  easier  to  pass  over  than  a  constantly  winding  flight.  The  best 
material  for  the  stairs  would  seem  to  be  solid  slate.  This  does  not  wear 
away  and  become  uneven  as  sandstone  or  marble,  or  even  granite  is  likely 
to  do,  and  it  does  not  polish  and  become  slippery,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case 
with  iron  staircases.     Fire-escapes  should  also  be  provided. 

Elevators. — Elevators  to  carry  patients  up  and  down  should  be  firmly 
constructed,  provided  with  safety  appliances,  and  enclosed,  like  the  stairs, 
in  fire-proof  wells.  That  they  may  not  be  the  means  of  communicating 
the  ail*  of  one  part  of  the  building  to  another,  the  wells  for  the  staircases 
and  elevators  should  be  separately  and  well  ventilated. 

Bhoot8  for  soiled  clothing . — The  question  of  shoots  for  soiled  linen, 
dust  and  ashes  has  been  proposed,  and  in  like  manner  has  met  with  oppo- 
sition. If  used  they  should  be  made  of  glazed  pottery  or  large  drain- 
pipes. They  should  open  into  the  scullery  or  into  the  hall,  and  should  be 
provided  with  well-fitting  doors.  It  is  essential  that  they  should  be  con- 
tinued to  the  roof,  in  order  that  they  may  receive  perfect  ventilation. 
They  should  be  inspected  daily,  and  frequently  cleansed.  It  would  per- 
haps be  still  better  if  they  could  be  placed  entirely  outside  the  building, 
and  be  accessible  on  each  story  only  by  opening  a  window. 

Corridors. — Closed  corridors  connecting  the  various  buildings  are  un- 
desirable. They  not  only  constitute  a  means  of  obstruction  to  the  air 
passing  between  the  buildings,  but  serve  to  foster  that  opprobrium  to 
many,  if  not  most  of  our  present  hospitals,  the  dissemination  of  a  com- 
mon hospital  air.  As  the  patients  are  not  obliged  to  pass  from  one  pavil- 
ion to  another,  they  will  run  no  risk  of  exposure  by  open  corridors,  and 
the  nurses  and  other  officers  can  submit,  without  serious  detriment,  to 
the  occasional  inconvenience  attendant  on  the  weather. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed  the  reading  of  Galton's  Treatise  on 
Hospital  Construction  before  the  British  Medical  Association,  Dr.  Rumsey, 
of  Cheltenham,  thus  spoke  of  the  disadvantages  of  covered  corridors  : 
"  As  showing  the  defect  of  the  corridor  system,  he  was  informed  by  one 
of  the  professors  that  in  a  case  of  hepatic  abscess,  which  contained  highly 
fetid  pus,  and  had  been  opened  in  a  ward  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  cor- 
ridor, the  first  announcement  that  the  horrible  smell  was  perceived  in  the 
hospital,  was  made,  loudly  enough,  from  a  ward  at  the  other  end  of  the 
corridor,  a  third  of  a  mile  distant,  showing  that  the  putrid  air  had 
been  carried  by  the  corridor  to  that  distance." '  It  should  be  established 
as  a  rule  that  all  corridors  connecting  the  different  parts  of  the  hospital 
should  be  constructed  without  closed  sides,  or,  in  climates  where  the 
winters  are  severe,  if  closed,  they  should  be  very  freely  supplied  with 
windows.     These  should  be  constantly  open  throughout  the  largest  part 

'  Galton:  Op.  cit. 


756        GENERAL    PitlNCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COxYSTRUCTION. 

of  the  year,  by  night  and  by  day,  and  should  only  be  closed  during  storms 
or  in  the  very  coldest  weather.  Where  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  have 
closed  corridors  they  should  be  separated  from  the  wards  at  each  end  by 
light,  double-swing  doors,  covered  with  enamelled  cloth  or  similar  material, 
which,  being  constantly  closed,  will  prevent  draughts  and  the  passage  of 
hospital  air.  The  corridors  on  either  story  may  serve  as  exercise  grounds 
for  patients  when  the  ground  is  wet  or  very  cold,  as  well  as  a  means  of 
communication. 

balconies. — If  the  buildings  are  made  of  permanent  materials,  and  of 
more  than  one  story  in  height,  well-supported  balconies  may  be  placed  on 
the  sunny  side,  to  give  patients  the  advantage  of  out-door  air  on  a  level 
with  their  wards.  Awnings  should  be  used  to  keep  off  the  sun  when  too 
powerful.  The  balconies  should  be  well  guarded,  to  prevent  delirious 
patients  from  throwing  themselves  off. 


SECTION   V. 


ARRANGEMENT   IN   DETAIL. 


Hie  xoard  and  its  adjuncts. — We  now  come  to  the  detailed  arrange- 
ment of  the  ward  and  its  adjuncts.  The  ward  unit,  which  in  itself  con- 
stitutes a  hospital,  will  be  described,  and  the  principles  may  be  worked 
into  hospitals  of  any  character,  whether  of  single  or  many  pavilions,  sep- 
arate or  joined  together,  in  one  or  more  stories.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  the  nearer  the  plan  is  made  to  conform  to  the 
detached,  one-story  pavilion  system,  the  better  will  be  the  result,  and  that 
in  no  case  is  the  block  or  the  corridor  system  to  be  adopted. 

A  plan  of  one  of  the  wards  of  the  Hopital  Lariboissiere,  in  Paris,  is 
given  for  reference.     (Fig.  23.) 

Size  of  ward. — The  wards  in  the  Lariboissiere  Hospital,  which  accom- 
modate 32  patients  each,  are  of  the  following  dimensions:  length,  111.6 
feet;  breadth,  30  feet;  height,  17  feet;  breadth  of  windows,  4.8  feet; 
breadth  of  wall-space  between  windows,  9.2  feet;  height  of  windows,  13 
feet;  superficial  space  per  bed,  104.6  feet.  Simon ^  gives  thirty  feet  as 
the  desired  width,  and  Miss  Nightingale'''  twenty-five  or  twenty-six. 
Parkes  ^  and  Uytterhoeven  *  give  not  more  than  twenty  feet.  In  the 
Herbert  Hospital  the  width  of  the  ward  is  twenty-six  feet,  in  the  new 
St.  Thomas's  Hospital  twenty-eight,  and  in  the  new  Hotel-Dieu  twenty- 


'  Simon  :  Reports  on  Public  Health,  London,  1863. 

2  Nightingale  :  Notes  on  Hospitals,  London,  1863. 

^  Parkes :  Practical  Hygiene,  London,  1869. 

^  Uytterhoeven  :  Notice  sur  I'Hopital  St.  Jean  a  Bruxelles,  1853. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    JIOSI^IJAL    (  ONSTRUCTION. 


757 


nine  feet.  A  greater  Avidth  than  tlurty  feet  has  been  found  to  interfere 
with  a  due  system  of  ventilation,  and  a  width  of  less  than  twenty-four 
feet  gives  insufficient  space  for  two  rows 
of  beds.  The  width  of  the  ward  may 
best  be  put  at  twenty-four  or  twenty-five 
feet.  The  beds  may  be  set  one  foot  from 
the  wall,  which  makes  it  easy  to  ap- 
proach them  from  all  sides,  and  conduces 
both  to  cleanliness  and  to  efficient  venti- 
lation. If  the  beds  are  six  and  a  half 
feet  in  length,  this  will  give  a  clear  pas- 
sage between  them  of  nine  or  ten  feet.   , 

Superficial  and  cubic  space  per  pa- 
tient.—\t  may  be  given  as  a  general  rule 
that  a  medical  ward  for  twenty  patients 
should  be,  at  the  smallest,  of  the  follow- 
ing dimensions  :  length,  80  feet;  width, 
35  feet;  and  height  from  16  to  20  feet. 
Each  patient  would  then  have  about  100 
superficial  and  1,600  cubic  feet  of  space. 
For  surgical  wards  the  number  of  pa- 
tients in  the  ward  should  be  smaller. 
Sixteen  patients  in  the  same  space  would 
have  each  2,000  cubic  feet,  and  where 
such  a  room  is  used  as  an  isolating  or 
foul  ward,  not  more  than  ten  patients 
should  be  accommodated,  which  would 
give  to  each  3,000  cubic  feet. 

The  subject  of  superficial  and  cubic 
space  to  be  allotted  each  patient  has 
been  freely  discussed  in  works  on  hospi- 
tal construction.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  superficial 
France: 


V 

Fig.  23.  — Lariboissibre  Hospital. 

area  in  certain  new  hospitals  in    England  and 


Naval  Hospital 98  feet. 

Herbert 99    " 

Royal  Victoria  (Netley)  103    " 


Guy's 138  feet. 

New  Hotel-Dieu,  104  to  110    " 
New  St.  Thomas's 112     " 


In  English  hospitals  the  cubic  space  varies  from  600  to  2,000  feet;  in 
London  from  2,000  to  2,500  is  considered  advisable;  and  in  Paris  1,700 
has  been  adopted  as  the  standard.' 

Number  of  patients  in  a  vmrd. — The  number  of  patients  in  a  ward 
and  the  cubic  and  superficial  space  to  be  allotted  to  each  are,  to  a  certain 
extent,  convertible  terms.  Miss  Nightingale  says:  "Ahead  nurse  can 
efficiently  supervise,  a  night  nurse  can  carefully  watch,  thirty-two  patients 


'  Martin  :  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  Loudon,  1 802. 


758         GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

in  one  ward,  whereas,  with  thirty-two  beds  in  four  wards,  this  is  impos- 
sible." '  M.  Trelat  would  reduce  the  standard  to  a  lower  number — from 
fifteen  to  twenty — and  his  opinion  was  endorsed  by  the  Surgical  Society 
of  Paris."  "  In  wards  of  nine  sick,  managed  like  those  at  Netley,  the  cost 
of  efficient  nursing  would  be  nearly  twice  the  cost  of  efficient  nursing  in 
wards  for  thirty-two  beds  on  the  Lariboissiere  plan."^  Hennen  says:  "  1 
should,  for  the  majority  of  purposes,  prefer  wards  capable  of  accommodating 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  beds."  *  Pozzi  fixes  the  maximum  at  forty.^  On  the 
score  of  expense.  Miss  Nightingale  shows  that,  if  the  annual  cost  of  nursing 
be  capitalized,  and  if  a  hospital  for  a  given  number  of  sick  be  divided  into 
wards  of  nine  patients  each,  the  cost  of  nursing  in  perpetuity  would  be 
£428  per  bed;  whereas,  if  the  hospital  were  divided  into  wards  of  twenty- 
five  beds  each,  the  cost  would  be  £231  per  bed;  and  with  wards  of  thirty- 
two  beds  each,  the  cost  would  be  £220  per  bed.*  To  recapitulate:  from 
twenty  to  thirty-two  beds  in  a  ward  seems  to  be  the  most  desirable  limit 
for  ease  and  economy  of  administration  and  for  facility  of  ventilation. 
Each  bed  should  have  not  less  than  one  hundred  feet  of  superficial  space, 
and  from  fifteen  hundred  to  twenty-five  hundred  feet  of  cubic  space. 

Falloio  'wards. — Some  of  the  faults  of  hospitals  already  constructed,  such 
as  those  arising  from  insufficient  space,  poor  means  of  ventilation,  all  those 
errors  incident  to  the  block  and  corridor  systems,  may,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, be  overcome  by  following  the  plan  in  vogue  in  many  hospitals,  of 
allowing  alternate  weeks  of  use  and  disuse.  The  custom  of  allowing  the 
wards  thus  to  lie  fallow  for  definite  periods  necessitates  larger  accommo- 
dations, but  it  is  largely  compensated  for  by  increased  health  in  the  hos- 
pital. Were  the  wards  merely  used,  as  are  the  bed-rooms  of  private 
dwellings,  as  night-rooms,  we  might  say  that  the  airing  they  receive  each 
morning  would  suffice;  but  as  the}'^  are  necessarily  both  day  and  night 
abodes  for  the  sick,  there  is  no  other  way  in  which  a  thorough  airing  can 
be  accomplished. 

^Windows. — The  windows  of  the  pavilion  ward  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  allow  one  to  every  two  beds.  The  beds  between  the  windows  should 
be  not  less  than  three  feet  distant  from  each  other,  and  the  distance 
from  the  end  of  the  ward  not  less  than  four  feet  and  six  inches.  The 
windows  should  extend  from  two  feet  from  the  floor  to  within  a  foot  of 
the  ceiling;  they  should  oj^en  easily  at  top  and  bottom,  should  have  sills 
of  slate  or  marble,  and  should  be  suitably  arranged  for  purposes  of  ven- 
tilation, as  will  be  described  on  a  later  page.  At  least  one  window  in 
each  ward  should  open  like  a  door,  to  give  access  to  the  balcony.  One 
superficial  foot  of  window  to  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  cubic  feet  of  space  will 
afford  a  light  and  cheerful  room  in  most  climates. 

*  Nightingale  :  Appendix  to  Report  on  Cubic  Space,  London,  18G7. 

-  Trelat:   Les  Hopitaux,  etc.,  Paris,  1866. 

^  Report  of  Committee  on  Barracks  and  Hospitals,  London,  1861. 

^  Hennen  :  Op.  cit. 

"Pozzi :  Polizia  degli  Spedali,  Livorno,  1839. 

•^  Nightingale  :  Notes  on  Hospitals. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.        759 


Square  wards  vs.  long. — In   contradistinction   to    the    long  pavilion 
wards,  those  more  nearly  square  in  form  have  been  adopted  at  the  Massa- 


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Fig.  34. — Folsom's  plan, 
chusetts  General  and  other  hospitals,  apparently  with  good  results.      Dr. 
Folsom   recommends  that  such   wards   should    be   56  by  43  feet,  these 


760      geio:kal  principles  of  hospital  construction. 


dimensions  being  calculated  for  23  patients.  A  central  chimney  and 
ventilating  stack  occupies  the  middle  of  the  ward,  is  provided  with 
open  fireplaces  and  registers,  and  affords  abundant  means  for  ventilation. 
He  says:  "The  advantages  of  a  nearly  square  room  with  a  central  stack 
are:  the  privacy  of  each  bed,  as  compared  with  its  situation  in  a  long  hall 


2 


E 


V=^ 


without  obstruction  to  the  view;  the  absence  of  draughts,  the  fireplaces 
and  warm-air  supply  being  nearly  equally  distant  from  all  parts  of  the 
ward,  and  the  chimney  stack,  by  its  volume  and  position,  interrupting  and 
mixing  accidental  air-currents;  and  the  ease  of  administration,  the  beds 
being  nearly  equidistant  from  the  supplementary  rooms  of  the  ward."  ' 
The  great  objections  to  the  plan  proposed  by  Dr.   Folsom  seem  to  be 


'  Plans  for  Jolins  Hopkins  Hospital. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       761 


the  too  close  proximity  of  the  water-closets  to  the  wards;  that  the  sun- 
light does  not  so  completely  reach  all  parts  of  the  ward  in  the  square 
form  as  in  the  pavilion  proper;  and  that 
the  entire  ward  cannot  be  so  fully  under 
the  supervision  of  the  nurse.  The  sun- 
room  or  glazed  porch  is,  however,  a  very 
desirable  feature,  and  can  be  more  advan- 
tageously attached  to  the  square  than  to  the 
long  ward. 

Ward  adjuncts. — The  adjuncts  of  the 
ward  are  the  water-closets  and  urinal,  the 
lavatory,  nurse-room,  scullery,  dining-room, 
clothes  and  medicine  closets,  and  sun-room. 
The  wat'er-closets  should  be  in  a  room  at 


Fig.  26.— Galton's  plan  for  the 
disposition  of  the  water-closets. 


room  at  the  distal  end  of  the  ward, 
and  this  room  should  be  separated  from  it  by  ventilated  lobbies,  and 
sliould  be  itself  well  ventilated.  The  disposition  of  the  closets  given  by 
Miss  Nightingale  '  is  a  very  good  one,  but  perhaps  that  given  by  Galton^ 


Fig.  27. — Plan  of  separate  ventilation  for  water-closets. 

is  better,  as  the  diagonal  position  of  the  connecting  lobby  is  more 
adapted  to  catch  the  currents  of  air  passing  along  the  side  or  end  of  the 
building,  and  so  secure  more  efficient  ventilation.     The  walls  should  be 


Nightingale :  Notes. 


^  Galton :  Op.  cit. 


762        GEKERAL   PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 


set  with  solid  slabs  of  glass,  slate,  or  marble,  to  a  height  of  at  least  seven 
feet  from  the  floor,  and  partitions  of  slate  or  marble  should  separate  the 


Fig.  28. — Jermiiiors'  all-earthen  closet. 


Fig.  29. — Sink  for  slops. 


closets  and  urinals.     Each  closet  should  be  provided  with  doors  of  ash, 
having  self-closing  hinges,    and  with   a  wooden  seat   on   hinges,  and    it 

should  have  no  other  casing.     The 
entire    plumbing     and 


accessory 
framework  of  the  closet  should  be 
left  exposed,  for  the  sake  of  clean- 
liness and  ease  of  repair.  The 
floors  should  be  of  slabs  of  slate 
or  marble,  to  allow  the  free  use  of 
water  by  a  hose.  A  simple  means 
of  separate  ventilation  for  the 
water-closet  is  shown  in  Figure  37. 
At  least  a  hundred  patterns  of 
water-closets  have  been  brought 
before  the  public.  One  of  the  sim- 
plest and  that  requiring  the  least 
care  is  known  as  the  Jennings  all- 
earthen  closet,  and  this  has  been 
adopted  in  many  of  the  hospitals 
of  the  day.    Provision  should  not 


Fig.  30. — Spray  urinal. 


only  be  made  for  ventilating  the  seat  of  the  closet,  but  a  ventilating  tube 
should  also  extend  from  the  trap  (T)  to  a  shaft  above.  The  vent  (P)  is 
provided  in  the  Jennings  closet  for  this  purpose.      One  water-closet  should 


GENEKAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       763 

be  provided  for  every  ten  patients.  A  sink  should  be  provided  in  tlie 
same  apartment  for  the  disposal  of  slops  and  the  contents  of  chamber- 
vessels  (Fig.  29).  It  should  be  supplied  with  a  large  tap  for  water.  An 
excellent  form  of  urinal  is  one  in  which  a  thin  spray  or  sheet  of  water  is 
thrown  out  from  a  jet  to  tlie  sides  of  the  basin,  forming  a  complete  veil 
through  which  the  urine  is  projected  into  the  vessel  (Fig.  30).  This  plan 
has  recently  been  patented,  and  has  been  used  in  some  of  the  public  urinals. 
The  question  may  arise  whether  independent  water-closets  or  privies, 
outside  the  building,  may  not  be  serviceable  for  those  patients  who  are 
able  to  be  in  the  open  air.  If  it  be  thought  desirable  to  have  such  privies, 
they  should  be  placed  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  wards  and  screened 
from  the  public  view.  The  question  of  external  water-closets  must,  of 
course,  depend  on  the  ability  of  patients  to  leave  their  beds,  and  still 
more,  to  ascend  and  descend  stairs.  The  following  census  of  the  patients 
at  Bellevue  Hospital,  New  York,  Avith  reference  to  their  ability  to  traverse 
a  flight  of  stairs,  Avas  recently  taken: 

Number  able  to  traverse  a  flight  of  stairs 342 

"  "     Avalk  only  about  the  ward 101 

"         unable  to  leaA'e  their  beds 99 

Total 442 

These  figures  cannot,  however,  be  safely  taken  as  a  criterion  to  deter- 
mine the  advisability  of  removing  the  Avater-closets  from  the  Avards.  The 
exposure  to  cold,  the  difficulty  of  deciding  who  could  or  who  could  not  go 
into  the  open  air,  and  other  considerations,  Avould  lead  one  to  dissent  from 
Dr.  Smith's  views  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  from  his  suggestion  of  "  the 
small  room  on  the  ward  floor,  with  dry-earth  closets,  a  urinal,  and  a  lava- 
tory," ^  with  which  easy  mention  he  dismisses  the  subject  of  Avater-closets. 

Lavatory. — The  lavatory  and  bath-room  may,  in  like  manner,  be 
situated  at  the  distal  end  of  the  AA-ard.  This  room  should  be  furnished 
Avith  set  basins,  for  hot  and  cold  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  for  every 
eight  patients,  and  be  Avell  Avarmed  and  ventilated.  A  suitable  plan  is 
that  given  by  Miss  Nightingale  in  Fig.  25.  The  floor  should  be  impervious 
to  water,  and  all  plumbing  should  be  exposed.  Fixed  bath-tubs,  in  sepa- 
rate rooms,  adjoining  the  lavatory,  should  be  allotted  in  the  proportion  of 
at  least  one  to  every  twenty  patients.  A  movable  tub,  mounted  on 
wheels,  must  be  supplied,  for  the  use  of  patients  Avho  are  unable  to  leave 
the  wards. 

The  remaining  service-rooms  of  the  Avard  may,  in  the  long  wards,  be 
at  the  proximal  extremity,  or  that  nearest  the  general  administrative  de- 
partment. 

Nurse-room. — The  nurse-room  should  be  light,  cheerful,  and  well-aired. 
As  it  is  not  only  the  office  of  the  head  nurse  of  the  ward  for  the  trans- 
action of  the  regular  ward  business,  but  her  living  and  sleeping-room 


Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Plans. 


764        GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COXSTRUCTION. 

after  her  work  is  over,  it  slioulcl  be  on  tlie  sunny  side  of  the  ward  and  be 
comfortably  arranged.  It  should  have  a  door  opening  into  the  hall,  and 
a  window,  for  the  supervision  of  the  ward,  opening  into  it.  The  under- 
nurses  and  night-nurses  should  have  rooms  in  other  parts  of  the  hospital. 

Scullery. — The  scullery  or  work-room  should  be  near  the  room  of  the 
nurse  and  under  her  eye;  it  should  be  supplied  with  a  small  range  or  a 
gas-stove  for  the  cooking  of  special  diets  and  delicacies;  an  enameled  sink 
with  hot  and  cold  water;  closets  for  the  crockery  of  the  ward  dining-room, 
and  for  brooms,  brushes,  and  similar  utensils  to  be  used  in  cleaning.  It 
should  be  carefully  ventilated.  The  under-nurses  might  take  tlieir  meals 
there. 

Dining-room. — A  small  dining-room,  annexed  to  each  ward,  is  very 
desirable  for  such  patients  as  are  able  to  be  out  of  bed,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  removed,  during  meal-times,  from  sights  and  sounds  which  influ- 
ence the  appetite  of  a  sick  person. 

Mtidicine,  linen,  and  elothes  closets. — Closets  for  the  medicines,  linen, 
and  utensils  in  actual  use  in  the  ward  should  ojDen  from  the  hall.  In  ad- 
dition a  large,  separately  ventilated  closet  should  be  provided,  with  at 
least  one  window,  and  ranges  of  shelves  or  pigeon-holes,  about  eighteen 
inches  high  and  two  feet  deep,  to  hold  the  clothing  not  needed  by  the 
patients  in  the  wards.  If  made  of  wire  netting,  with  coarse  meshes,  the 
shelves  will  be  more  satisfactorily  ventilated  and  more  easily  kept  clean. 

Sun-bath. — All  hospitals,  of  whatever  form  of  construction,  should 
have  rooms  where  a  sun-bath  can  be  enjoyed  at  seasons  when  exposure  to 
the  outside  air  would  be  jDrejudicial  to  delicate  persons.  They  should  be 
immediately  contiguous  to  the  wards,  have  glazed  windows  on  three  sides, 
and  be  furnished  with  comfortable  chairs  and  lounges. 

Convalescent  xoards. — If  the  patients  remain  in  the  hospital  until 
convalescence  is  thoroughly  established,  it  would  be  well  to  have  separate 
wards  provided  for  their  convenience.  Such  patients  will  more  quickly 
reach  a  condition  of  perfect  health,  in  the  intermediate  stage  between 
hospital  and  home,  if  a  change  of  scene  be  allowed  them,  and  if  they  are 
removed  from  the  presence  of  their  more  seriously  sick  companions. 
Such  accommodations  should  be  arranged  with  a  due  observance  of  the 
needs  of  sunlight  and  ventilation;  they  should  have  separate  dining-  and 
sitting-rooms,  and  be  surrounded  with  grounds  for  exercise  and  amuse- 
ment. 

Convalescent  branches. — Some  of  our  hospitals  are  already  pro\"ided 
with  convalescent  departments  in  the  country,  or  are  supplemented  by 
other  institutions,  at  a  distance,  to  which  patients  can  be  removed  when 
convalescent.  The  Convalescent  Home  of  the  Ormond  Street  Hospital  in 
London,  the  Seashore  Home  for  Children,  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  and 
the  Convalescent  Home  of  The  Children's  Hospital,  in  Boston,  are  ejtam- 
ples  of  this  wise  provision. 

Private  loards. — A  certain  number  of  private  wards  are  desirable  in 
every  hospital  for  patients  of  the  higher  classes,  who,  from  insufficient 
home  accommodations  or  other  reasons,  may  seek  the  hospital.      Certain 


OEXEKAL    rUlNClPLES    01'    HOSiM'lAL    CON'STRITCTION'.        765 

advantages,  sucli  as  retirement,  separate  attendance,  etc.,  which  are  gen- 
erally enjoyed  by  persons  of  refinement  and  culture,  will  largely  conduce 
to  their  recovery  and  welfare.  Private  wards  should  be  of  a  size  to 
accommodate  one,  or  at  most,  two  beds,  and  a  certain  number  of  them 
.should  have  connecting-doors  for  the  convenience  of  friends  or  private 
nurses;  separate  water-closets  and  bath-rooms  and  open  fireplaces  should 
be  provided  for  each  room. 

IsolatuKj  ivanls. — In  all  hospitals  there  should  be  set  apart  for  con- 
tagious cases  certain  rooms,  capable  of  the  best  ventilation,  and  with 
abundant  light,  which  can  be  separated  from  all  surroundings.  Notwith- 
standing Miss  Nightingale's  statement  that, ."  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word,  there  is  no  proof  such  as  would  be  admitted  in  any  scientific  in- 
quiry, that  there  is  any  such  thing  as  contagion,"  and,  in  speaking  of  in- 
fectious diseases,  that  "  in  reality  there  ought  to  be  no  disease  so  con- 
sidered; and,  with  proper  sanitary  precautions,  diseases  reported  to  be 
most  infectious  may  be  treated  in  wards  among  other  sick  without 
danger,"  '  public  opinion  would  demand  that  no  risk  should  be  run  in  such 
cases.  Patients  suffering  from  contagious  or  infectious  diseases,  or  foul 
wounds,  delirious  patients,  and  those  otherwise  disagreeable  to  the  senses 
of  sight,  hearing,  or  smell,  must  be  treated  apart.  Ovariotomy  cases  must 
be  occasionally  operated  on  in .  general  hospitals,  but  their  treatment 
should  be  regulated  with  great  care.  Isolating  wards  should  be  carefuUy 
separated  from  other  parts  of  the  hospital;  in  large  hospitals  they  should 
be  located  in  distant  parts  of  the  grounds,  and  in  the  smaller  ones,  in  the 
upper  story,  where  they  should  be  cut  off  by  double  doors,  with  separate 
entrances,  if  possible,  and  separate  and  abundant  ventilation.  Such  a 
wai'd  should  be  built  with  separate  rooms  to  accommodate  one,  or  at  most, 
two  in  each  room.  The  administration  of  these  wards  necessitates  sepa- 
rate nurses  and  attendants,  and  medical  officers  should  visit  them  last  in 
their  daily  rounds.  The  special  isolated  hut,  so  fully  described  by  Dr. 
Wylie,  of  New  York,  in  his  work  on  Hospitals,  meets  the  case  excel- 
lently.^ 

One  or  two  of  the  rooms  of  the  isolating  ward  might  be  made  close 
rooms  or  cells,  for  the  accommodation  of  cases  of  delirium  tremens,  or  for 
patients  who  have  become  suddenly  insane. 

Tents. — The  more  nearly  patients  are  brought  to  the  condition  of 
being  treated  in  the  open  air,  the  more  quickly  and  surely  will  they  re- 
cover. The  wooden  barrack  and  the  hut  ai-e  good,  but  for  many  cases  the 
tent  is  better.  As  adjuncts,  at  least,  to  the  hospital,  we  should  look  to 
the  tents  in  our  hospital  yards,  in  the  warmer  season,  as  the  most  suit- 
able places  in  which  to  treat  the  gravest  wounds  and  many  of  the  severer 
forms  of  disease.  "  Ever  since  1864  the  Surgical  Clinic  of  the  Bethanien 
Hospital  in  Berlin  has  been  removed  through  the  summer  to  tents  in  the 
garden  of  the  establishment.  La  Charite,  in  Berlin,  following  the  example 
of  the  Russian  hospitals,  constructed  a  summer  pavilion.      In  18GG,  Stro- 


'  Nightingale  :  Notes  on  Hospitals.  -  "Wylie  :  Op.  cit. 


766        GE:JfEEAL    PEINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COISTSTRUCTION. 

meyer  treated  the  wounded  of  Lang-ensalza  in  tents,  and  at  this  day  the 
tent  and  hospital  barracks  are  used  during  the  summer  at  Berlin,  Vienna, 
Leipzig,  Dresden,  Frankfort,  etc." ' 

The  tent  offers  to  the  smaller  towns  a  ready  means  for  the  care  of 
small-pox,  typhus  fever,  and  similar  contagious  diseases,  and  whether  cot- 
tage hospitals  be  provided  or  not,  the  addition  of  a  tent  or  two  will,  at 
some  time  or  other,  be  found  useful.  "  It  must  readily  be  seen  how  easy 
and  simple  a  thing  it  is  to  provide  good  hospital  accommodations  in  any 
emergency — no  matter  how  sudden  and  unexpected — that  the  prevalence 
of  epidemic  and  infectious  diseases  may  occasion."  - 

Dr.  Billings  recommends  that,  for  a  hospital  of  400  patients,  fifteen 
hospital  tents  of  the  U.  S.  A.  jDattern  be  kept  constantly  on  hand,  and 
made  methodical  use  of  as  isolated  wards.^ 

Administrative  department. — The  general  administrative  department 
of  the  hospital,  if  of  considerable  size,  will  comprise  the  office  of  the  insti- 
tution, reception-  and  waiting-rooms,  apartments  for  the  visiting  medical 
staff  and  house  officers,  rooms  for  the  matron  and  other  employes,  for  the 
storage  and  dispensing  of  medicines,  linen,  and  stores,  a  chapel  and 
library,  all  of  which  might  be  in  one  building,  which  should  be  centrally 
located  on  the  front  line  of  the  hospital.  The  construction  of  this  build- 
ing requires  no  special  descrijotion. 

The  resident  physician  or  executive  officer  should  be  provided  with  a 
cottage  on  the  grounds,  for  himself  and  family.  The  plan  of  furnishing 
him  with  quarters  within  the  hospital  buildings  is  undesirable. 

Accident  and  operating  rooms. — The  accident  and  operating  rooms 
should  be  in  a  separate  building,  centrally  situated,  and  easy  of  access, 
and  but  one  story  in  height.  The  operating  amphitheatre  should  be  pro- 
vided with  seats  for  the  accommodation  of  physicians  and  students  who 
desire  to  witness  the  operations;  it  should  be  fully  lighted  by  large  win- 
dows opening  toward  the  north;  full  provision  should  be  made  for  ven- 
tilation, and  gaslights  for  use  at  night  should  be  placed  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  operating-table,  in  order  to  avoid  accidents  from  the 
ether  catching  fire.  Instrument-  and  apparatus-rooms  should  adjoin  the 
two  rooms.  A  room  for  the  administration  of  angesthetics,  a  small  ward 
for  patients  who  are  waiting  for  or  recovering  from  operations,  and  con- 
sulting-rooms for  the  medical  officers,  are  also  required. 

Kitchen  and  Umndnj. — In  large  hospitals  the  kitchen  and  laundry, 
with  pantry,  store-rooms,  refrigerators,  etc.,  should  be  placed  in  a  centra] 
position,  but  in  a  building  which  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the 
wards,  either  by  corridors  or  in  any  other  manner.  In  smaller  hospitals, 
where  the  entire  establishment  is  under  one  roof,  it  is  decidedly  preferable 
that  they  should  be  situated  in  the  upper  story,  with  suitable  and  well- 
ventilated  lifts  from  the  lowest  story,  for  carrying  up  coal  and  stores,  and 


'  Le  Fort :  La  chirurgie  militaire,  Paris,  1873. 

'■^  Gowles :   Treatment  of  the  Sick  in  Tents  and  Temporary  Hospitals,  Boston,  1874. 

^  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Plans. 


GENEEAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.        767 

for  the  conveyance  of  food  and  linen  to  the  wards.  All  these  lifts  should 
be  carried  above  the  roof,  where  they  should  end  in  ventilators.  The 
kitchen  and  laundry  should  never  be  in  the  basement.  These  apartments 
should  be  separated  from  other  parts  of  the  building  by  double  doors  and 
ventilated  lobbies,  and  they  should  also  receive  abundant  ventilation  by 
direct  communication  with  the  open  air.  Coal  and  the  heaviest  stores, 
and  the  boilers,  may  be  in  that  portion  of  the  basement  which  is  situated' 
beneath  the  administrative  department;  but,  as  previously  stated,  that 
part  of  the  basement  below  the  wards  should  be  reserved  exclusively  for 
ventilating-  and  heating  purposes. 

A  room  for  the  purifying  and  disinfecting  of  mattresses  and  linen 
may  be  situated  near  the  laundry,  with  racks  for  support,  and  means  for 
filling  the  room  with  steam  and  disinfecting  gases. 

A.ut02)sy-  and  dead-room. — The  autopsy-room  and  mortuary  should  be 
at  some  distant  part  of  the  establishment,  where  they  can  be  easily  reached 
by  friends  from  the  outside,  and  from  which  bodies  can  be  conveyed  with- 
out being  seen  by  patients  in  the  wards.  The  floors  and  mop-boards  of 
this  building  should  be  of  slate,  and  the  walls  painted.  The  autopsy-table 
should  be  ventilated  by  a  separate  apparatus.  The  excellent  pattern  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  H.  J.  Bigelow,  and  figured  in  the  book  published  by  the 
trustees  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  in 
this  direction.  A  limited  number  of  seats  should  be  provided  for  students 
who  desire  to  witness  post-mortem  examinations.  Hot  and  cold  water 
should  be  supplied. 

The  mortuary  or  dead-room  should  adjoin  the  autopsy-room,  as  should 
rooms  for  the  use  of  the  pathologist  and  for  the  pathological  cabinet. 

Out-patient  department. —  Rooms  for  the  treatment  of  out-patients, 
with  small  rooms  adjoining  for  attending  physicians  and  surgeons,  are 
usually  required  in  large  hospitals. 

The  necessity  for  ambulances  in  connection  with  every  large  hospital 
is  well  recognized.  If  ambulances  are  used,  provision  must  be  made  for 
a  stable,  with  apartments  adjoining  for  medical  officer  and  driver,  and  tele- 
graphic communication. 


SECTION  VI. 

MEANS    OF    HEATING. 


The  subject  of  heating  and  that  of  ventilation  are  largely  dependent 
on  each  other.  A  satisfactory  system  of  ventilation  implies  the  extraction 
of  a  large  amount  of  warm  air,  and  necessitates  the  heating  of  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  air  to  take  its  place.  Cheap  heating  implies  poor  ven- 
tilation. The  managers  of  a  hospital  must  therefore  be  content,  if  they 
desire  an  efficient  method  of  ventilation — in  itself  the  great  safeguard  of 
the  patients — to  supply  large  means  of  heating. 


768 


GENERAL    PBINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    OOJ^TSTKUOTIOIS-. 


In  most  cities  and  towns  in  the  temperate  regions  the  thermometer 
ranges  through  the  year  from  zero  to  one  hundred  degrees  of  the  Fahren- 
heit thermometer.  In  the  latitude  of  Boston  artificial  heat  must  be  sup- 
plied, to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  for  six  or  seven  months  in  the  year,  and 
at  all  seasons  occasional  cool  mornings  and  evenings  call  for  moderate  fires. 

Heat  may  be  furnished  either 
by  hot-air  furnaces,  by  steam- 
er hot-vrater  pipes  and  radia- 
tors, or  by  open  fireplaces  or 
ventilating  stoves.  Furnaces 
are  less  easy  to  manage  in  large 
institutions;  the  currents  of  hot 
air,  if  conducted  for  consider- 
able distances,  are  uncertain 
and  are  easily  affected  by  vary- 
ing winds  and  changes  in  the 
temperature.  Heat  from  hot- 
water  pipes  is  mild  and  agree- 
LO0RIN&  able,  but  is  not  so  promjDt  in 
its  action  as  heat  derived  from 
steam-pipes;  the  hot-water 
pipe  system,  furthermore,  is  ill 

TQP0FB3X  r  r       ^  ' 

adapted  to  cnmates  where  sud- 
den changes  occur  in  the  tem- 
perature. Heat  derived  from 
steam-pipes  is  more  generally 
used.  This  may  be  derived 
from  coils  of  pipes  which  are 
BOTTOMOFBOK  placcd  iuchambcrs  in  the  base- 
ment, and  from  which  the  hot 
air  is  conducted  as  from  hot- 
air  furnaces,  and  distributed  to 
the  wards.  The  same  intrac- 
tability is  apparent  here  as 
with  heat  derived  from  fur- 
naces. The  best  method  seems 
to  be  that  of  placing  coils 
or  radiators  immediately  under 
the  rooms  to  be  heated,  with 
Fig.  Sl.-Folsom's  radiator.  openings  communicating  with 

the  outside  air,  from  which  fresh  air  may  pass  over  the  coils  and  be 
then  conveyed  directly  into  the  wards  or  rooms.  By  this  division  of  the 
coils  the  heat  is  more  generally  distributed,  it  can  be  more  easily  kept 
under  control,  and  the  air  is  more  economically  warmed. 

Dr.  Folsom,  in  the  "  Plans  for  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,"  thus  de- 
scribes his  method  of  regulating  the  temperature  of  the  air  to  be  admitted 
into  the  wards: 


GENERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       769 

"  The  radiators  are  hung'  from  the  floor-timbers  by  iron  rods,  and  are 
enclosed  in  a  wooden  box  lined  "vvith  tiinied  sheet-iron,  with  a  door  at  the 
side  for  the  removal  of  dust. 

"  The  air  is  admitted  through  the  top  half  of  the  cellar  window,  which 
is  hung  on  hinges  at  the  top,  and  opens  outward,  and  the  amount  of  air 
admitted  is  regulated  by  a  crank  in  the  room  above,  which  connects  by  a 
rod,  with  a  quarter  circle  attached  to  the  window-sash.  The  movement 
of  the  crank  opens  and  closes  the  window;  but  opening  to  the  full  extent, 
represented  by  dotted  lines  in  the  plate,  would  be  desirable  at  all  times, 
unless  during  a  very  high  wind. 

"The  direction  of  the  air  thus  admitted  is  determined  by  a  valve  made 
of  a  strip  of  board  suspended  by  hinges  from  below  the  front  of  the  rad- 
iators, the  position  of  which  is  regulated  by  a  rod  connected  with  a  second 
crank  in  the  room  above.  The  stability  of  the  crank  in  the  position  given 
it  by  the  hand  of  the  attendant  is  insured  by  a  set-screw,  with  a  bit  of 
rubber  or  leather  beneath  the  tip. 

"  When  the  valve  is  in  the  horizontal  position,  all  the  air  is  directed 
to  the  radiators,  and  is  fully  heated  by  rising  through  the  stack,  after 
which  it  passes  up  through  the  space  in  the  wall,  beneath  the  window,  to 
the  vertical  register  just  under  the  window-seat.  When  the  valve  is 
placed  in  the  vertical  position,  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  plate,  all 
the  air  is  directed  upward  away  from  the  radiators,  but  is  tempered  by 
mingling  somewhat  with  the  air  circulating  in  the  space  over  the  radiators, 
and  then  reaches  the  room  by  the  register  above.  When  the  valve  is 
placed  in  an  intermediate  position,  the  air-current  is  divided,  part  of  it 
only  is  heated  by  passing  through  the  radiators,  and  this  then  mingles 
with  the  ascending  cold  portion  before  it  reaches  the  register  and  enters 
the  room. 

"  It  is  apparent  that  the  temperature  of  the  room  can  thus  be  regulated 
to  suit  varying  conditions,  without  interfering  with  the  fresh  air  supply, 
and  without  modifying  the  access  of  steam  to  the  radiators.  If  the  room 
gets  too  warm,  the  nurse,  instead  of  closing  the  register,  and  so  shutting 
off  the  oxygen,  simply  turns  the  crank  a  little  upward.  If  the  thermom- 
eter, which  hangs  near  the  door,  falls  below  the  standard  directed  by  the 
attending  officer,  the  crank  is  turned  downward.  If  a  sudden  general 
atmospheric  change  has  taken  place,  and  the  temperature  still  falls,  the 
siqyply  of  air  may  need  to  be  temporarily  diminished,  till  the  engineer,  who 
watches  the  thermometer  out  of  doors  as  well  as  his  gauges,  has  time  to 
i-estore  the  suddenly  fallen  steam-pressure. 

"  The  proper  use  of  the  contrivances  described  requires  intelligence 
and  faithfulness  on  the  part  of  the  attendant,  but  no  more  than  would  be 
required  to  properly  regulate  temperature  in  any  other  way." 

In  addition  to  the  means  of  heating  already  mentioned,  open  fireplaces 
should  be  used  in  every  ward,  less  for  the  purpose  of  heating  than  as  an 
aid  to  ventilation,  and  for  the  moral  effect  on  the  patients.  The  fire- 
places may  be  at  the  side  of  the  long  wards,  and  midway  of  their  length, 
or  in  the  centre.  In  the  latter  case  the  products  of  combustion  must  be 
Vor..  1.-40 


770        GENEEAL   PEINCIPLES    OF   HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTIOJSr. 

conducted  under  the  floor  of  the  wards,  and  thence  into  side  flues  in  the 
walls.  In  the  square  wards  such  means  of  heating  are  necessarily- 
thrown  into  the  centre  of  the  wards,  with  the  smoke-stack  in  the  centre 
shaft. 

The  smoke-flues  from  all  local  fireplaces,  and  from  all  heating,  cook- 
ing, or  laundry  fires,  should  be  made  of  iron  piping,  or  of  earthenware, 
and  be  enclosed  in  ventilating  flues  ;  no  opportunity  should  be  lost  of  se- 
curing so  powerful  an  aid  of  ventilation  as  is  furnished  by  this  method. 


SECTION   VIII. 


VEI^TILATIOI^^. 


Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  settle  scientifically  the  amount  of 
air  needed  for  satisfactory  respiration.  Experimenters  have  started  from 
various  standpoints,  have  adopted  various  methods,  and,  very  naturally, 
have  arrived  at  widely  diiferent  results.  The  atmosphere  outside  of 
houses  provides  an  unlimited  extent  of  respirable  air,  and  constant  means 
of  purification  and  movement.  The  erection  of  buildings  continually  in- 
terferes with  natural  conditions,  by  enclosing  the  air  in  confined  spaces, 
saturating  it  with  impurities,  and  rendering  it  stagnant.  In  the  ventila- 
tion of  hospitals  the  primary  object  should  be  to  overcome  this  stagna- 
tion "  with  a  continuous  current  which  shall  always  be  bearing  away,  as 
rapidly  as  evolved,  every  volatile  taint  which  arises  from  the  sick."  '  An 
'adult  man  inspires  and  expires  about  thirty  cubic  inches  of  air  at  every 
respiration,  and  breathes  about  twenty  times  in  a  minute.  With  figures 
nearly  akin  to  these,  and  making  due  allowance  for  the  excretion  of 
carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor,  and  for  the  exhalations  of  the  skin, 
Parkes  concludes  that  the  amount  of  air  necessary  per  hour  for  a  man  in 
health  must  be  about  2,082  cubic'  feet."  Pettenkofer,  by  a  similar  ex- 
periment, has  fixed  the  amount  at  2,120  cubic  feet.  ^  Grassi  would  make 
it  2,118  feet,  and  the  experiments  of  Vierordt  and  Valentin  reach  similar 
results.  Parkes  says  :  "  From  a  number  of  experiments  in  which  the 
outflow  of  air  was  measured  and  the  carbonic  acid  simultaneously  de- 
termined, I  have  found  at  least  2,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  must  be  given 
to  keep  the  carbonic  acid  at  .5  or  .6  per  1,000  volumes,  and  to  entirely 
remove  the  fetid  smell  of  organic  matter.  When  1,200  or  1,400  feet  only 
were  given,  the  carbonic  acid  amounted  to  .7,  .8,  or  .9  per  1,000  volumes. 
My  friend.  Dr.  Sankey,  from  careful  experiments  with  a  fan,  found  that 
when,  in   a   ward   in   the  London   Fever  Hospital  used  as  a  chapel,  800 

1  Bristowe  and  Holmes  :  Op.  cit. 

^  Parkes  :  Op.  cit. 

^  Pettenkofer  :  Ueber  den  Luftwechsel,  Miinchen,  1858. 


GENEBAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSl'KUCTION.       771 

cubic  feet  per  head  per  hour  were  supplied,  the  veiitiUitioii  was  insuffi- 
cient." 

The  committee  on  improving  barracks  and  hospitals,  after  careful  and 
long-continued  investigations,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  1,200  feet 
should  be  supplied  to  each  man  in  barracks  per  hour,  giving  ]\im  at  the 
same  time  600  cubic  feet  of  air-space.*  Dr.  Billings  says  :  "  It  appears 
to  me  that  2,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  per  man  may  be  accepted  as  a  proper 
allowance  for  soldiers  in  barracks."  ^  The  allowance  required  by  the 
Metropolitan  Board  of  Health  of  New  York  is  1,000  feet  for  each  person 
inhabiting  tenement-houses.''  The  medical  regulations  of  the  British 
army  require  the  following  cubic  space  for  each  man,  proper  means  being- 
taken  that  the  air  should  be  changed  at  stated  times  : 

I  Tn  permanent  barracks 000  cubic  feet. 

"  wooden  huts -400     "  " 

"  hospital  wards  at  home 1,200     "  " 

"  in  the  tropics 1,500     " 

"  wooden  hospitals  at  home 000      "  "' 

At  present  the  demands  for  ventilation  in  France,  per  hour,  per  per- 
son, are  : 

In  hospitals  for  ordinary  cases 2,120-2,470  cubic  feet. 

"  "    wounded 3,530 

"  "    epidemics 5,300 

"  prisons 1,466 

"  workshops,  ordinary 2,120  "         " 

''  "  unhealthy 3,530 

''  barracks,  day ...1,060  "  "        • 

night.... ;.  ..  1,410 

"  theatres.  . .  .^ \..  1,410-1,765  '   " 

Dr.  Wylie  says,  in  his  work  on  hospital  construction  :  "  About  1,800 
cubic  feet  of  air-space,  with  a  surface  area  of  124  square  feet,  has  been 
adopted  as  the  space  required.  We  would  have  the  space  vary  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  class  of  disease  to  be  treated  in  the  bed."  " 

Ncttural  and  artificial  ventilation. — Ventilation  is  effected  by  two 
methods,  somewhat  indefinitely  described  as  natural  and  artificial,  the 
former  being  governed  simply  by  the  forces  continually  existing  in  nature, 
the  latter  by  the  forces  set  in  action  by  man.  Reid  speaks  of  the  natural 
method  of  ventilation  as  "  a  process  by  which  the  movements  are  induced 
or  sustained  in  the  air  in  the  same  manner  as  wind  is  produced  in  the  ex- 

'  Parkes  :  Op.  cit. 

-  Report  of  Committee,  op.  cit. 

^  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Plans. 

•*  Code  of  Health  Ordinance,  etc.,  New  York,  1866. 

'  Pettenkofer :  Loc.  cit. 

•^  Wylie :  Op.  cit. 


vv^ 


GENERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COWSTKUCTION. 


ternal  atmosphere,  these  movements  being  increased,  when  necessary,  by 
the  action  of  heat,  and  by  the  erection  of  a  shaft  or  chimney,  that  the  heat 
may  acquire  additional  force."  '  The  indefiniteness  of  the  subject  is  evi- 
denced by  the  sentence  quoted,  as  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  dis- 
tinctly encroaches  on  the  methods  more  commonly  knovs^n  as  artificial. 
A  more  decided  division  would  be  into  methods  by  perflation  (or  the 
strictly  natural  methods),  by  aspiration  or  extraction,  and  by  propulsion 
or  injection,  the  last  two  being  more  commonly  known'  as  the  vacuum  and 
plenum  methods  of  ventilation. 

The  method  by  perflation  includes  windows,  fireplaces,  and  direct 
openings  through  the  walls  or  the  roof,  including  the  so-called  ridge  ven- 
tilation. It  has  been  previously  stated  that  satisfactory  ventilation  de- 
pends to  a  certain  extent  on  the  dimensions  of  the  room,  and  that  a  greater 
width  than  thirty  feet  is  a  hinderance  to  the  passage  of  the  air.  An  ex- 
ceedingly high  room  is  equally  unsatisfactory,  and,  in  one  unduly  length- 
ened, the  air  is  likely  to  be  pure  at  one  end  and  foul  at  the  other.  It  has 
also  been  found  that  a  room  with  an  arched  or  vaulted  ceiling  is  more 
easily  ventilated  than  one  where  it  is  flat. 

Ventilation  by  windows. — The  simplest  mode  of  securing  natural  ven- 
tilation is  by  means  of  windows.     In  most  seasons  of  the  year  these  can 


7/ 


\\\\\\\ 


I ^i 


Fig.  32.  Fig.  Srj. 

Ventilation  by  means  of  windows. 

be  opened  for  at  least  part  of  the  day,  and  if  raised  at  the  bottom  ope 
inch  and  lowered  at  the  top  an  equal  amount,  excellent  ventilation  can  be 
secured  with  little  danger  of  draught.  The  perforated  glasses  secure  a 
certain  amount  of  air.  The  method  suggested  by  Dr.  Cotting,  of  raising 
the  lower  sash  about  three  inches,  and  inserting  a  board  the  width  of  the 
Avindow,  secures  a  considerable  ventilating  space  between  the  two  sashes 
at  their  point  of  junction.     The  adaptation  of  boards  at  the  top  and  bot- 


'  Eeid :  Illustrations  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Ventilation,  London,  1844. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OE    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION.        773 

torn  of  the  window,  as  suggested  by  the  essayist  of  the  Massachusetts 
Medical  Society,  by  which  a  current  of  air  in  and  out  at  the  window  is 


Pig.  34. — Polsom's  transom  window  (open). 


Pig.  35. — Polsom's  transom  window  (shut). 


created,  is  also  an  excellent  idea,  which  may  be  applied  in  practice  at 
very  little  expense.  It  is  best  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  cuts  (Figs. 
32  and  33).  Various  methods  have  been  adopted  in  hospitals  by  which 
the  upper  portion  of  the  sash,  or  a  supplementary  sash  of  about  a  foot  in 
width,  can  be  let  down  to  an  angle  of  45°,  and  controlled  by  cords  passing 


774        GENERAL    PEINCIPLES    OF   HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION. 

down  to  a  suitable   distance  from  the  floor.     In  this  way  the  current  of 
air  is  thrown  wp  toward  the  ceiling,  and  does  not  incommode  the  inmates 


Pig.  3o. 


Husson's  windows. 


Fig.  37. 


of  the  room.     This  is  best  shown  in  Folsom's  transom  window  (Figs.  34 
and  35),  and  in  Figs.  36  and  37,  copied  from  Husson. 


Fig.  38. — Plan  of  ventilator  for  room. 


Fig.  39. — The  Sherrinarham  ventilator. 


y 

^^ 

°+°-!-°-f°-^''-f°-f°+°+° 

000000  000 

) 

^ 

....A 

gooooooS- 

Fig.  40. — Jennings'  air-bricks. 


Ventilation  by  openings  through  the  loalls. — The  method  of  ventilat- 
ing by  means  of  the  windows  may  be  supplemented  by  various  means  of 


GENERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COI^^STKUCTION".        775 

direct  communication  with  the  external  air.  In  the  English  report  on 
barracks  and  hospitals,  it  is  proposed  that  openings  be  made  through  the 
■walls  of  the  buildings,  to  communicate  on  the  one  hand  with  the  ex- 
ternal air  or  with  air-spaces  within  the  walls,  and  on  the  other  with  the 
wards,  behind  a  perforated  cornice.'  (See  Fig,  38.)  The  Sherringham 
ventilator  (Fig-,  39)  supplies  a  ready  method  in  a  similar  manner,  Jen- 
nings' air-bricks  are  shown  in  Fig,  40.  Arnott's  chimney- valve  (Fig. 
41)  furnishes  openings  into  an  air-shaft  within  the  wall.  It  is  protected 
by  a  flap  of  silk  or  gauze  and  a  perforated  sheet  of  zinc  or  a  wire  netting. 

The  system  of  ridge  ventilation  has  been  largely  and  successfully 
used  in  buildings  of  one  story,  the  superstructure  being  freely  open  to  the 
external  air.^  The  louvre  or  opening  at  the  top  should  be  provided  with 
shutters  on  either  side,  to  be  closed  on  the  windward  side. 

A  very  simple  plan,  devised  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Hamilton,  Surgeon  U,  S. 
Marine  Hospital  Service,  for  the  ventilation  of  a  water-closet  at  the 
Marine  Hospital  at  the  port  of  Boston,  has  been  found  to  work  so  well 


•/ 


^//yyy^////yy/'/y//'/y'yyyA 


i 


^Jy/  'yy///.^//Ayyx/,y>yy 


Fig.  41. — Arnott's  chimnev-valve. 


Fig.  43. — Hamilton's  method  of  ventilating  a  closed 
room. 


that  mention  is  made  of  it.  The  wooden  shaft  AB,  open  at  each  end,  is 
placed  in  an  outer  passage  through  which  the  air  flows  freely.  "With  the 
wind  from  the  direction  A  the  air  passes  into  the  shaft  and  is  discharged 
into  the  closed  room  at  C.  It  is  forced  out  at  D,  and,  by  the  method  of 
perflation,  passes  out  at  B.  The  action  of  the  air,  in  the  passage-way 
outside  the  shaft,  also  increases  the  outward  current  at  B  by  the  method 
of  aspiration.  With  the  wind  in  the  direction  BA,  the  current  is  re- 
versed. 

Openings  for  ventilation  should  be  made  both  at  the  top  and  at  the 
bottom  of  the  room.  It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that,  because  carbonic  acid 
is  heavy,  the  air  rendered  foul  by  respiration  and  combustion  tends  to 
descend  to  the  floor.  If  carbonic  acid  were  pure  it  would,  as  the  simplest 
chemical  experiment  shows,  be  heavier  than  air ;  but,  when  diluted  and 


'  Report  of  Committee  on  Barracks  and  Hospitals. 

-  Hammond  :  A  Treatise  on  Hygiene,  Philadelphia,  1863. 


77t>        aEifEKAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTIOJN'. 

heated,  it  mixes  with  the  air  and  is  only  to  be  separated  by  the  operation 
of  chemistry  or  vegetable  forces.  In  general,  if  the  air  to  be  admitted 
cannot  be  warmed,  it  should  be  admitted  nine  or  ten  feet  from  the  floor 
and  be  directed  upward;  if  warmed,  at  the  bottom.  Outlets,  if  heated  or 
aspirated,  can  be  at  any  point;  if  not  heated,  they  should  be  at  the  top. 
It  is  only  by  a  division  of  the  ventilating  means  into  small  ducts  that 
draughts  can  be  avoided. 

Draughts.— '•'•  The  rate  at  which  the  movement  becomes  perceptible  is 
much  influenced  by  the  temperature  of  the  air;  if  this  is  about  70°,  a  very 
considerable  velocity  is  not  perceived.  But,  taking  the  temperature  of 
55°  or  60°  F.,  a  rate  of  1^  feet  per  second  (=1  mile  per  hour  nearly)  is 
not  perceived;  a  rate  of  2  and  2^  feet  per  second  (1.4  and  1.7  miles  per 
hour)  is  imperceptible  to  some  persons;  3  feet  per  second  (2  miles  per 
hour  nearly)  is  perceptible  to  most;  a  rate  of  o\  feet  is  perceived  by  all 
persons;  any  greater  speed  than  this  will  give  the  sensation  of  draught, 
especially  if  the  entering  air  be  of  a  different  temperature  or  moist."  ^ 

'Ventilation  by  aspiration. — Next  in  importance  to  the  method  which 
secures  ventilation  by  means  of  oj)enings  which  communicate  directly 
with  the  external  air,  is  the  method  of  extraction.  The  fireplace  and  the 
open  stove  first  suggest  themselves.  The  injunction  bears  repetition  that 
all  flues  in  hospital  buildings  should  serve  the  double  purpose  of  carrying 
off  the  smoke,  etc.,  and  aiding  the  ventilation.  All  smoke-stacks  should 
be  inclosed  in  ventilating  shafts,  having  direct  communication  with  the 


'J'\ 


?''>''^^'^^^ 


Fig.  43.— Watson's  plan  of  ventilation.  Fi(J.  44. — Mackinwell's  plan  of  ventilation. 

wards.  Steam -pipes  passing  to  upper  stories  may  serve  the  same  purpose, 
or,  in  place  of  either,  a  suitably  arranged  fire,  or  one  or  more  gaslights  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  shaft,  will  furnish  ascensional  power.  The  gaslight 
may  servo  the  additional  purpose  of  lighting  an  upper  hall  or  room.  In 
large  hospitals  a  powerful  exhaust-power  is  derived  from  a  tall  chimney,  to 
which  ventilating  pipes  are  conducted  from  the  various  parts  of  the  in- 
stitution. Fig.  43  shows  the  plan  for  ventilation  suggested  by  Watson, 
and  Fig.  44  that  by  Mackinwell.     A  plan  is  given  by  Reid,  by  which  the 

'  Parkes  ;  Op.  cit. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.       777 

exhaust  ventilators  may  be  adapted  to  ornamental  pillars  or  concealed 
within  the  walls.'  The  system  of  ventilators  may  be  aided  by  the  use  of 
foul-air  closets  for  each  bed  or  for  alternate  beds,  to  be  connected  with 
the  ventilating  shafts;  such 
accommodations  may  be  used 
for  spit-cups  and  chamber- 
vessels,  which  in  this  way  are 
practically  removed  from  the 
ward  and  yet  at  the  same  time 
remain  within  reach. 

Still  another  method  is  that 
of  utilizing-  the  gas-burners  of 
the  ward  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  air  supplied  for  com- 
bustion passes  into  the  gas- 
fixture,  and  can  then  only  es- 
cape by  conduits  directly  into 
the  chimney  or  into  ventilat- 
ing shafts.  Figs.  45,  46,  and 
■it  show  different  plans  of  ac- 
complishing this. 

In  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  in 
New  York,  a  large  chapel  was 
constructed  in  the  centre  of 
the  building,  into  which  the 
"wards  on  the  two  stories  open 
directly  by  doors.  The  pri- 
mary object  of  the  chapel  was 
to  allow  the  patients,  confined 
to  their  beds,  to  listen  to 
the  morning  and  evening  re- 
ligious services  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  It  was  found,  however,  that 
this  room  acted  as  a  vast  ventilating  flue,  by  which  the  air  was  drawn 
from  the  wards.  This  plan  could  only  be  made  practically  useful  by 
keeping  the  windows  of  such  central  hall  constantly  open. 

Galton  recommends  that  one  square  inch  of  outlet  be  allowed  for  every 
fifty  or  sixty  cubic  feet  of  space;  these  proportions,  however,  should  vary 
somewhat  according  to  the  extent  of  floor,  and  also  to  some  extent  accord- 
ing to  the  height  of  the  room.'  The  barrack  commissioners  of  1861  order 
on  an  average  eleven  square  inches  of  outlet  for  each  man,  and  the  area 
of  the  inlets  is  made  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  outlets;  and,  including 
the  chimneys  (for  which  they  allow  six  inches  to  a  man),  the  total  of 
openings  per  head  is  about  twenty-eight  square  inches  per  head.  Parkes 
would  make  each  individual  inlet  opening  not  larger  than  from  forty- 
eight  to  sixty  square  inches,  or  enough  for  two  or  three  men,   and  the 


Fig.  45. — Gas  ventilator. 


'  Reid :  Op.  cit. 


Galton :  Op.  cit. 


778        GENERAL    PEINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION. 

outlet  not  more  than  one  square  foot,  or  enough  for  six  men.     Distribu- 
tion is  more  certain  with  these  small  openings/ 

Ventilation  hy  propulsion. — The  method  of  ventilation  by  extraction 
is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  natural  one,  as  the  method  by  propulsion  may 
more  properly  be  called  the  artificial  method.  Practically  the  plans  which 
depend  solely  on  artificial  means  have  failed.  At  the  Lariboissiere  Hos- 
pital, which  cost  £100,000,  a  very  beautiful  and  ingenious  system  of  arti- 
ficial ventilation  is  in  use;  but  the  wards  are  not  sweet  or  healthy.  At 
the  York  County  (England)  Hospital,  soon  after  it  was  built,  the  chim- 
neys were  closed  and  a  similar  artificial  system  was  adopted;  but  it  was 
found  to  be  ineffectual,  and  a  return  to  more  natural  means  was  found  to 
be  necessary.  At  Guy's,  Bristol,  West  Kent  and  Maidstone  hospitals, 
and  at  the  Liverpool  Royal  and  Edinburgh  infirmaries,  artificial  ventila- 
tion has  been  tried  and  abandoned.     The  extract  from  the  views  of  Miss 


/ 


% 


Fig.  46. — Gas-ventilator. 


Fig.  47. — Gas- ventilator. 


Nightingale,  expressed  in  1862  to  the  French  Academy,  on  the  sanitary 
state  of  the  Lariboissiere,  epitomizes  the  faults  of  artificial  and  the  advan- 
tages of  natural  ventilation.  "  The  principle  by  which  these  gentlemfen, 
MM.  Gueneau  de  Mussy,  Louis,  Rayer,  and  Cloquet,  were  guided,  was  that 
of  ventilation  in  as  simple  and  perfect  a  manner  as  possible.  This  natu- 
ral ventilation  is  now  replaced  by  a  very  ingenious  and  expensive  arti- 
ficial ventilation.  .  .  .  Why  not  have  courage,  and  introduce  fireplaces, 
and  air  wards  from  without  at  the  natural  temperature  ?  .  .  .  .  Regu- 
lated heat  and  regulated  admission  of  fresh  air,  with  shafts  for  removing 
foul  air,  would  cure  the  Lariboissiere;  nothing  else  will  ....  The  want 
of  ventilation  in  the  Lariboissiere  is  the  worst  I  ever  met  with  ....  Ven- 
tilation with  warm   air  is   a  mistake  ....     While   we   are  striving  to 


'  Parkes  :  Op.  cit. 


GENERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION.       779 


U 


r 


introduce  and  force  upon  England  the  pavilion  construction  for  hospitals, 
Avhich  is  derived  from  France,  the  French  are  forcing-  it  into  contempt 
by  their  abominable  artificial  ventilation."  ^ 

As  the  essence  of  the  method  by  extraction  is  the  exhaustion  of  the 
air   of   a   room  which   is   supplied  by   air    -e-^  ^-^ 

rushing    in    through  other  inlets,  so   the  ^'^^  |  I  /^ 

system  of  propulsion  is  obtained  by  re- 
pletion with  air  which  is  left  to  escape  as 
best  it  may.  The  propulsive  power  used 
at  Lariboissiere,  at  Beaujon,  and  the 
Hopital  Necker,  is  directed  from  a  central 
shaft,  and  the  air  is  distributed  at  various 
points  where  it  is  needed.  The  fan-blower 
has  been  adopted  in  many  institutions, 
but  the  system  is  an  expensive  one,  and  ^i«-  48.— Egyptian  mode  of  venfcUation. 
has  not  been  considered  entirely  successful.  The  fan  is  valuable  for  those 
cases,  as  in  theatres  and  crowded  assembly  halls,  where  a  large  amount 
of  air  has  to  be  suddenly  and  temporarily  supplied.  If  the  machinery 
breaks  down,  the  ventilation  stops. 

Dr.  Van  Hecke  suggested  supplying  the  air  by  the  Archimedean 
screw;'  Dr.  Arnott  by  an  air-pump  and  gasometer,  with  air-tubes  ex- 
tending to  the  point  of  exit.^ 

Parkes  states  that,  in  Egypt,  the  wind  is  allowed  to  blow  in  at  the  top 
of  the  building  through  large   funnels  (see   Fig.  -iS).     This  method  has 


Fig.  49.— Reid'.s  ventilatins;  cowl. 


Fig.  50. — Dififerent  forms  of  cowls. 


been  in  use  from  time  immemorial,  and  may  be  carried  into  effect  by  means 
of  wind-sails  or  cowls  at  the  top  of  descending  flues  (see  Figs.  49  and  50). 
Combined  methods  of  ventilation. — It  has  been  found  most  desirable 
to  combine  various  means  of  ventilation  in  the  same  building  for  the  ad- 
mission of  pure  air  and  the  elimination  of  foul.  It  should  be  clearly 
understood  that  the  air  must  be  pure,  that  it  must  be  Avarmed  if  too  cold, 


'  Shrimpton  :  The  Crimean  War.     The  British  Army  and  Miss  Nightingale,  Paris, 
1864. 

'^  Report  of  Committee  :  Op.  cit. 

2  Arnott:  Art.  "On  the  establishment  of  hospitals,"  London  Med.  Gazette,  1840. 


780        GENERAL   PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

and  that  it  must  be  well  distributed  through  the  room,  so  as  to  be  imper- 
ceptible, and  so  that  all  parts  shall  be  well  ventilated.  The  strictly 
natural  means  must  never  be  wanting-,  and  the  various  modified  means 
should  simply  supplement  them. 

The  objection  may  be  raised  that,  with  so  many  methods  of  ventila- 
tion in  operation  in  the  same  building  or  apartment,  the  different  systems 
will  be  very  likely  to  militate  against  each  other.  However  this  may  be, 
it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  no  one  system  is  perfect  or  will  work  well 
under  all  conditions  of  the  atmosphere. 


SECTION  VIII. 

WATER-SUPPLY. 


The  water-supply  is,  in  most  cities,  obtained  from  municipal  com- 
panies, and  can  be  furnished  in  practically  unlimited  amounts.  Parkes 
states  that  the  amount  of  water  taken  by  a  healthy  man  is,  on  an  aver- 
age, from  ^  a  fluid  ounce  to  -^^  or  y^^-  of  an  ounce  for  each  pound  avoirdu- 
pois of  body  weight.'  A  man  weighing  1-iO  pounds  will  therefore  take 
from  70  to  90  fluid  ounces  daily,  and  in  ordinary  diet  about  20  to  30 
ounces  of  this  are  taken  in  the  solid  food.  This  amount,  however,  will  be 
considerably  increased  if  the  persons  are  engaged  in  employments  requir- 
ing active  exertion.  The  smallest  amount  for  personal  use,  cleansing  of 
clothes,  and  for  the  share  of  house-washing,  is  about  4  gallons  per  head  daily. 
The  supply  required  will  be  largely  increased  if  Avater-closets  and  baths 
be  used.  In  1862,  London  received  about  50  gallons  per  head  daily;  in  1857, 
the  average  supply  to  fourteen  English  towns  of  second-rate  magnitude 
was  24  gallons.  In  1878  fifteen  American  cities  received  an  average  of 
nearly  66  gallons  per  head  daity.  For  hospitals,  from  40  to  50  gallons 
daily  is  the  least  that  should  be  used  jDer  bed. 

Where  other  sources  than  an  aqueduct  must  be  depended  on,  careful 
attention  is  to  be  given  to  the  character  of  the  water,  and  especially  to 
liability  to  contamination  from  water-closets  or  privies,  cesspools,  drain- 
age from  marshes  or  unhealthy  localities. 

Where  it  becomes  necessary  to  store  water  in  tanks,  they  should  be 
made  of  slate,  iron,  or,  if  in  the  ground,  of  brick.  Lead  and  zinc  should 
never  be  used.  The  tanks  should  be  covered  in  all  cases,  to  prevent  the 
absorption  of  impure  air  and  to  lessen  evaporation.  To  meet  the  same 
end,  they  should  be  deep,  rather  than  extended,  and  they  should  be  so 
constructed  that  they  can  be  frequently  and  readily  inspected  and 
cleansed. 

The  pipes  for  the  distribution  of  water  should  be  lined  or  so  far  pro- 
tected as  to  prevent  the  immediate  contact  of  the  water  with  lead. 

'  Parkes  :  Op.  cit. 


GENERAL    I'UINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COlNTriTRUOTlON.        781 

In  most  large  institutions  water  is  supplied  through  meters,  a  plan 
which  is  excellent  in  itself,  if  not  watched  so  carefully  as  to  prevent  a  due 
use  of  the  water  to  meet  the  requirements  of  health. 

The  time  will  perhaps  come  when  seaport  cities  Avill  depend  for  their 
supjjly  of  water,  for  extinguishing  fires  and  for  similar  purposes,  on  the 
ocean  or  harbor,  so  that,  by  a  method  resembling  that  known  as  the 
Holley  system,  salt  water  may  be  forced  in  unlimited  supply  through  the 
principal  avenues  of  the  city.  Under  such  circumstances  the  main  might 
be  tapped  at  a  point  near  the  hospital,  and  a  sujjj^ly  of  salt  water  be 
secured  for  cases  where  its  use  would  be  beneficial. 


SECTION   IX. 


DRAINAGK 


No  drain  should  pass  under  any  part  of  a  hospital,  or,  indeed,  under 
any  inhabited  building,  but  should  be  conducted  directly  away  from  the 
walls  into   a    common  sewer. 


Drains  should  be  trapped  at 
the  various  points  where 
water  enters  them — as,  for 
example,  at  basins,  bath-tubs, 
sinks,  and  water-closets  as 
well  as  at  some  point  outside 
of  the  building,  before  the 
large  service-drains  enter  the 
common  sewer.  No  better 
trap  for  basins,  sinks,  and 
urinals  can  be  suggested  than 
that  of  Col.  Waring,  a  cut  of 
which  is  given  (Fig.  51).  An 
undoubted  source  of  danger 
in  the  ordinary  trap  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  water-seal 
being  exposed  to  sewer-gas 
wider  2^^'cssure  from  below, 
absorbs  sewer-gas,  which  it 
gives  off  at  the  natural  den- 
sity of  the  atmosphere  above. 
Ammonia  has  been  found 
to  produce  its  chemical  effect 
at  the  house  end  of  a  trap 
within  fifteen  minutes  after 
being  introduced  at  the  sewer  end. 
water-seal,  but  also  a  metal  valve. 


Fig.  51. — Waring' s  trap. 
Col.  Waring's  trap  has  not  only  the 
which  is  claimed  to  be  water-,  steam- 


782        GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

and  gas-tight,  and  which  allows  the  passage  of  water  downward,  but  is  a 
perfect  protection  against  any  return  current  coming  from  the  opposite 
direction. 

English  architects — and  it  may  well  be  conceded  that  the  English  are 
far  in  advance  of  us  in  sanitary  architecture — recommend  that  drain-pipes 
discharge  their  contents  outside  the  building,  through  an  open  pipe  on 
a  grating,  and  then  through  a  flush  trap  into  the  sewer;  but,  if  properly 
trapped  and  ventilated,  a  continuous  drain  seems  preferable,  and  in  cold 
climates  the  pouring  out  of  the  sewage  on  the  open  grate  would  be  im- 
practicable. 

The  smaller  drain-pipes  within  the  building  may  be  of  lead-pipe,  of 
a  size  commensurate  with  the  work  to  be  accomplished;  soil-pipes  should 
always  be  of  iron.  The  main  drain-pipes,  and  especially  the  soil-pipes, 
must  in  all  cases  be  carried  above  the  roof,  as  a  means  of  ventilation  and 
to  relieve  pressure  on  the  general  drainage  service.  They  should  never 
be  conducted  within  the  ordinary  ventilating  shafts. 

Drain-pipes  and  soil-pipes  passing  down  through  the  building  from 
upper  stories  should  be  enclosed  in  independent  shafts,  so  arranged  also 
that  the  pipes  can  be  reached  throughout  their  length  for  inspection  and 
repair.  In  fact,  in  all  institutions,  all  plumbing  and  pipes  for  the  convey- 
ance of  water,  either  pure  or  foul,  should  be  exposed.  Drain-pipes  and 
water-pipes  should  not  be  laid  against  outer  walls  or  in  any  position  ex- 
posed to  frost. 


GENERAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.        783 

SECTION  X. 

LIGHTING. 

The  wards  of  a  hospital  need  not  be  supplied  largely  with  means  of 
lighting  for  use  at  night;  but  the  necessary  fixtures  should  be  of  the  ven- 
tilating pattern,  the  gaslights  being  made  to  do  the  double  duty  of  illumi- 
nation and  ventilation.     The  patterns  of  gaslights  furnished  by  Messrs. 


Fig.  52. — Ventilating  gas-fixture. 

Storms  &  Son,  Southwark  Bridge  Road,  London,  and  by  other  English 
manufacturers,  seem  to  meet  every  requirement.  Simpler  devices,  which 
combine  the  same  ideas,  may  be  adopted  (Figs.  45,  46,  and  47).  The 
lights  for  the  service-rooms  and  the  administrative  department  may  be 
the  same  as  commonly  used  in  dwellings. 


SECTION  XL 

COTTAGE   HOSPITALS. 


No  treatise  on  hospital  construction  at  this  day  can  be  complete  with- 
out reference  to  cottage  or  village  hospitals.  Though  comparatively  un- 
known in  this  country,  they  are  taking  a  prominent  place  in  the  economy 
of  Englisli  country  life. 


784 


GENEEAL    PEINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COJS^STRUCTION. 


Dr.  George  Derby,  in  his  report  to  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health  for  1874,  says:  "There  are  many  reasons  for  believing-  that,  at  the 
present  time,  small  and  well-arranged  hospitals  in  at  least  twenty  of  our 
busy  towns  would  be  the  means  of  saving  life,  and  of  preventing  useless 
suffering  to  both  the  sick  and  the  well."  * 

The  system  of  village  hospitals,  if  rightly  understood,  would  be  gladly 


r 


w     C/- 


LAUNDRY 

AND 

SCULLERY 
I0-<I2 


r 


KITCHEN 


OFFICE 
12  ^14 


STORES 


/ 


THREE   MEN 
20  X.14- 


\ 


J 


poRc:-; 

7-t/O. 


)J 


Fig.  53. — Cottage  hospital. — ^Plan  of  ground  floor. 

welcomed  by  medical  men  practising  in  their  neighborhood,  as  furnishing 
a  ready  means  for  the  treatment  of  various  classes  of  patients;  for  instance, 
those  who  cannot  be  properly  cared  for  in  their  homes,  and  cases  of  acci- 
dent requiring  immediate  treatment  or  operation  and  subsequent  skilled 
attendance  and  nursing.  Such  hospitals  should  be  open  for  practice  to 
all  the  reputable  physicians  of  the  town,  although  the  immediate  care  of 


'  Report  of  State  (Mass.)  Board  of  Health  for  1873,  Boston,  1874. 


GENERAL    PKIKCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTEUCTION. 


785 


the  institution  should  be  undei"  the  control  of  one  judicious  medical 
officer. 

It  should  not  be  considered  that  the  establishment  of  a  village  hospital 
necessitates  gratuitous  attendance  on  its  patients.  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  the  tax-payers  of  the  town  provide  a  building,  in  which  their 
own  people,  under  circumstances  which  may  happen  to  any  one  of  them, 
can  be  more  satisfactorily  attended  than  in  their  own  homes,  while  the 
professional  fees  of  the  physicians  might  remain  the  same. 

The  country  practitioner,  with  such  means  at  hand  and  aided  by  one 


NURSE 
10  xI4 


LINEN 
7^14 


6-7 


BATH 


AUTOPSY 
10  %  14- 

\ 


-  WARD  - 

THREE  WOMEM   AND 

ONE  CHILD 
20  x:  14-    . 


^      U 


PIAZZA 


Fig.  54. — Cottage  hospital. — Plan  of  second  floor. 


or  two  trained  nurses,  would  have  the  advantages  now  enjoyed  only  by 
metropolitan  physicians,  and  would  be  enabled  to  keep  his  patient  under 
his  eye,  within  easy  distance  of  his  own  home.  The  patient  too  would 
have  the  familiar  faces  of  friends  and  neighbors  about  him,  and  could 
breathe  his  own  pure  country  air.  "  The  opportunity  of  giving  this  fre- 
quent attention  is  lost  when  the  patient  lives  at  a  distance  from  a  medical 
man,  whose  daily  work  is  too  often  tepresented  by  forty  or  fifty  miles  of 
travelling  a  day." ' 

The    hospital    organized   by  Mr.    Napper,  in  Cranleigh,   England,  in 
1859,  and  that  by  Mr.  Davis  about  the  same  time,  were  the  pioneers  of 

'  Swete  :  Handy-Book  of  Cottage  Hospitals,  London,  1870. 
Vol.  I.— 50 


786        GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

at  least  sixty  (1870)  scattered  throughout  the  British  Islands.  Simplicity 
and  inexpensiveness  should  be  the  first  considerations  in  the  arrangement 
of  cottage  hospitals.  It  is  not  intended  in  the  smaller  institutions  of  this 
class  to  imitate  in  any  way  the  form  or  the  details  of  a  general  hospital, 
with  its  wards,  nurse-rooms,  etc,  A  plain  country-house,  of  moderate 
size,  possessing  the  advantages  of  healthy  situation,  with  a  southern  ex- 
posure, plenty  of  sunlight,  good  drainage,  and  a  reasonable  amount  of 
ventilation,  will  answer  all  the  purposes  of  such  a  village  hospital.  One 
or  two  beds  to  one  thousand  of  the  population,  or  a  larger  proportion  in 
manufacturing  districts,  should  be  provided.     Five  or  six  beds  would  be 


t..^     \U^ 


n      c 


^TTt 


o     □   n    □ 


Fig.  55. — Plan  of  larger  cottage  hospital. 

ample  for  many  of  our  country  towns.  In  addition  there  should  be  a 
good  kitchen,  a  sitting-room,  office  or  living-room,  and  a  covered  veranda 
on  the  sunny  side.  The  height  of  ceiling,  the  water-supply,  the  means  of 
ventilation  and  heating,  the  bath-room,  water-closet,  and  other  details,  a 
mortuary-room,  where  a  coroner's  inquest  may  be  held  or  a  post-mortem 
examination  made,  a  plot  of  ground  where  convalescents  may  enjoy  a  sun- 
bath  and  fresh  air — all  these  are  subjects  which  would  call  for  attention  in 
the  establishment  of  a  village  hospital.  Common  sense  views  are  equally 
necessary  in  small  as  in  large  hospitals,  whether  in  town  or  country,  A 
simple  plan  for  a  village  hospital  is  given  in  Figs,  53  and  54,  If  it  is 
found  necessary  to  provide  for  a  larger  number  than  six  or  eight,  the  best 
plan  would  be  to  construct  one  or  more  pavilions,  in  addition  to  the  hos- 
pital proper,  which  would  then  serve  as  the  administrative  department 
and  for  the  accommodation  of  attendants. 

A  plan  for  a  larger  cottage  hospital  is  given  in  Fig.  55 ;  it  is  a  modi- 
fication  of  one  figured   in   Swete's   Handy-Book  of   Cottage   Hospitals, 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTRUCTION.        787 

in  which  A  might  represent  hall  and  passages,  B  matron's  room,  C  re- 
ception and  manager's  room,  D  wards  for  six  patients  each,  E  balconies, 
F  kitchen  and  annexes,  G  daj'-room  and  dining-room,  H  water-closet,  I 
special  ward,  adjoining  K  operating-room,  J  surgical  apparatus,  L  area, 
M  mortuary,  N  bath-room.  Additional  rooms  for  private  patients  and  at- 
tendants may  be  provided  over  B,  C,  G,  F,  etc. 


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GE^^EKAL    PKINCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    COJ^STRUCTIOjS".         789 

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Manning  :  Lunatic  Asylum  Construction  and  Organization.    Med.-Chir.  Rev.,  1870. 

Beekman  :  Centenary  Address,  New  York  Hospital.     New  York,  1871. 

Nightingale  :  Notes  on  Lying-in  Institutions.     London,  1871. 

Creteur  :  Hygiene  on  the  Battle-field.     Paris,  1871. 

Virchow:  Lazarette  und  Barracken.     Berlin,  1871. 

Massey  :  Notes  on  Hospital  and  Barrack  Construction  and  Ventilation.  London, 
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Green  way:  Art.  ••  Improved  Hospital  Construction."  N.Y.Med.  Jour.,  January, 
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X.  Y.  Z.  :  Essay  on  an  Effective  and  Ready  Method  of  Ventilating  Sick-rooms. 
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Demoget :  ^fitude  sur  la  construction  des  ambulances  temporaires.    Paris,  1871. 

A  Comparative  Essay  on  the  Relative  Merits  of  the  Principal  Hospitals  in  Paris 
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Eassie  :  Healthy  Houses,  etc.     New  York,  1872. 

Simpson  :  Hospitalism.     New  York,  1872. 

Steinberg:  Die  Kriegslazareth  und  Barracken  in  Berlin.     Berlin,  1873. 

Longstaff  :  Hospital  Hygiene  and  Observations  on  Nursing.      London,  1873. 

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Evans  :  History  of  the  American  Ambulance.     London,  1873. 

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Esse  :  Das  Augusta  Hospital.    Berlin,  1873. 

Pettenkof er :  Air  in  Relation  to  Clothing,  Dwellings,  and  Soil.     London,  1873. 

Cowles :   Treatment  of  the  Sick  in  Tents  and  Temporary  Hospitals.    Boston,  1874. 

Jenkins  :  Tent  Hospitals.     Cambridge,  1874. 

Prince  :  Hospital  at  Sydney.     1874. 

Brichsen  :  Hospitalism.     London,  1874. 


792       GENERAL    PRUNTCIPLES    OF    HOSPITAL    CONSTKUCTION. 

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Otis  :  Plan  for  Transporting  Wounded  Soldiers.     Washington,  1875. 

Buchanan  :  English  Hospitals  in  their  Sanitary  Aspect.     London,  1875. 

New  Pavilion  Ward  of  the  Presbyterian  Hospital  of  Philadelphia.  Philadelphia, 
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Bardett :  The  Cottage  Hospital.     London,  1877. 


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